Midterm Discussion #1: ➢ Instructed learning

➢ Collaborative learning
BEHAVIORISM AND OTHER
Principles
RELEVANT THEORIES
- Cognitive development is limited to a certain
range at any given age.
- Full cognitive development requires social
DOMAINS OF LEARNING interaction.
Cognitive Domain- involves the recall or recognition Zone of Proximal Development
of knowledge and the development of intellectual
abilities and skills, ideas and concepts or problem- - is used to explain a child's potential for
solving skills cognitive development and ability when they
are guided through a task, rather than asked
Affective Domain- concerns with the attitudes, beliefs, to do it in isolation
emotions, feelings, and values.
SCAFFOLDING
Psychomotor Domain- involves coordination aspects
associated with movement and integration of cognitive - refers to the temporary support provided by a
and affective learning consequences with bodily more knowledgeable person (like a teacher or
performances and well-being a more skilled peer) to help a learner master a
new skill or concept within their "Zone of
TRANSFER LEARNING Proximal Development" (ZPD), a space where
- applying knowledge/skill previously learned in learning is possible with guidance.
one situation to a new or different situation. CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY OF LEARNING
• Lateral transfer- occurs when the
(PK)
individual is able to perform a new
task that requires previously learned - suggests that what individuals learn is the
skills. result of the meaning (constructs/assumed
• Vertical transfer- occurs when the relationships).
individual is able to learn more - “Sense makers”
complex or advanced skills. - Learning regulation, abstraction

Influences/different factors to become different to each BEHAVIORISTIC LEARNING THEORIES

other:
• Learning consists of new stimulus-response
• environment/home connections acquired through practice and
• biological aspect strengthened through association with external
• Teacher rewards
• Personal attributes
• Professional attributes 1. Classical Conditioning (S-R) (Ivan Pavlov John
Watson)
Badge of Profession – sense of service (teacher)

Effective – doing the right thing Classroom application:

a) Providing a positive classroom
Efficiency – time, effort, motivation, method environment
b) Helping students experience success
SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
- dynamic interaction between a person and the
surrounding social and cultural
forces.
- Vygotsky theorized that
human development is not
something that is fixed and
eternal. It will change as a result
of historical development.

Cultural Influences:

➢ Imitative learning
 c) Presenting lessons/tasks slowly, • Law of Intensity- states that if the stimulus
gradually keeping students happy and (experience) is real, the more likely there
relaxed. is to be a change in behavior (learning).
2. Operant Conditioning (R & P) (B.F. Skinner) • Law of Recency-Things most recently
learned are best remembered, while the
things learned some times ago are
remembered with more difficulty

DISCOVERY LEARNING THEORY (Independent

Learning) (Jerome Bruner)

- Posits that learning is most meaningful to

learners when they have the opportunity to
discover on their own the relationships among
concepts or actively search for a solution to a
problem.

Involves the processes of:

1. Acquisition (obtaining new information to

replace/refine previously learned information)
2. Transformation (manipulating information to fit
the new situation)
3. Evaluation (determining whether newly
learned information has been manipulated
appropriately)

CUMULATIVE LEARNING (Robert Gagne)

Classroom application:
- Posits that learning occurs as the individual
a) Providing more opportunities for practice develops higher level skills that build
b) Reinforcing (praise, give material incentives, successively on previously learned lower
etc.) desirable behavior skills.
c) Providing more rewards than punishment
May come in the form of:

1. Stimulus-response learning
3. Connectionism Learning Theory (Associative 2. Motor-verbal chain learning
LT) (Edward Lee Thorndike) 3. Concept learning
- suggests that learning is a result of 4. Rule learning
connections, or bonds, forming between 5. Problem-solving
stimuli (events or situations) and responses
(behaviors or reactions). MEANINGFUL RECEPTION LEARNING
THEORY/SUBSUMPTION THEORY (David P.
Connectionist Laws or Principle of Learning: Ausubel)
• Law of Effect- if situation or response is - Posits that learning take place when the newly
accompanied by a satisfying state (e.g., acquired information finds some connection
rewards), the strength of that connection is with what is already known; or, simply relating
increased. new knowledge to old knowledge already in
• Law of Exercise- the more a stimuli- the memory.
response connection is practiced, the
stronger it becomes. May be meaningful through three strategies:
• Law of Readiness- learning can take place 1. Rehearsals
only when the individual is biologically and 2. Elaboration
psychologically ready to form connections 3. Organization
• Law of Primacy-states that the state of 4. Comprehension monitoring
being first, often creates a strong, almost
unshakeable impression
INSIGHT LEARNING (Wolfgang Kohler) a) Modeling desirable behaviors, making
sure that students are paying attention
- suggests that learning could occur by “sudden while doing so.
comprehension” as opposed to gradual b) Making sure that students are physically
understanding; this could occur without capable of doing the modeled behavior
reinforcement. and why they should demonstrate this
behavior.
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS (Abraham H. Maslow)
c) Exposing students to a variety of
- Presented the idea that human actions are exemplary models.
directed toward goal attainment. d) Giving immediate feedback and
reinforcement.

COGNITIVE BEHAVIORISM (Edward Tolman)

- emphasizes the role of both internal mental
processes (cognition) and external
environmental factors in shaping behavior,
focusing on how thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors are interconnected.

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT (Alfred Adler and
Rudolf Dreikurs)
1. Physiological- air, food, water, sleep and - identified four mistaken goals that children
other factors towards homeostasis, etc. often pursue through misbehavior
2. Safety- includes security of environment,
employment, resources, health, property, etc. 4 Mistaken Goals of Misbehavior
3. Belongingness- includes love, friendship,
1. Attention seeking - misbehave to gain
intimacy, family, etc.
attention.
4. Esteem- includes confidence, self-esteem,
2. Power Seeking - exert control or dominance
achievement, respect, etc.
3. Revenge Seeking – hurt others or get back at
5. Self-actualization- morality, creativity,
those they feel have wronged them.
problem solving, etc
4. Withdrawal/ Inadequacy- feel incapable or
6. Transcendence-a state beyond self-
unworthy, potentially avoiding expectations or
actualization, where individuals are motivated
tasks.
by values and experiences that extend beyond
the personal self, including experiences with CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
nature, spirituality, and service to others
- The strategies that teachers employ in order to
NEOBEHAVIORISM create and maintain an orderly and positive
learning environment.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Teacher’s Power bases (French and Raven,
Main Proponent: Albert Bandura 1960)

- Social learning may be acquired through 1. Legitimate power-teacher's position of

observation, imitation, or a combination of authority
both. 2. Referent power-teacher's ability to inspire
respect and admiration from students
4 cognitive processes: 3. Coercive power-teacher's ability to punish or
1. Attention (focusing on behavior to be learned) withhold privileges
2. Retention (remembering) 4. Reward power-using positive reinforcement
3. Reproduction (acting out) 5. Expert power-teacher's knowledge and
4. Motivation (reinforcing learning through direct, expertise in their subject matter
vicarious, self-produced ways).

Classroom application
 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT CONTROLS Taxonomy- a hierarchical model that describes
classification and sequencing procedures
High Low
Involvement Involvement 1956 -The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: the
High Control Authoritative Authoritarian Classification of Educational Goals Handbook 1:
Low Control Permissive Indifferent Cognitive Domain was published

Benjamin Bloom- developed the most prominent

JACOB KOUNIN’S PATTERNS TO AVOID methods for categorizing differences in thinking skills
DURING TIMES OF TRANSITION
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Original)
1. Flip-flops- The teacher terminates one
activity, begins another then return to the - a model that described the different levels of
original activity. learning outcomes that target what skills and
2. Over dwelling- The teacher spends more time competencies the teachers aim to develop in
than is necessary to correct an infraction of the learners
classroom rules. - includes six levels of cognition ranging from
3. Fragmentation- The teacher breaks directions recall or knowledge to evaluation of knowledge
into choppy steps instead of one fluid unit. - progress from simple to more complex levels
4. Thrusts- Teacher interrupts classroom of thinking.
momentum with random, unrelated comments.
Knowledge
5. Dangling- The teacher begins a thought, then
leaves it hanging without completion - acts, stating memorized rules, principles or
definitions
MODELS OF CLASSROOM DISCIPLINES AND - includes memorizing, recognizing or recalling
ITS APPLICATION factual information
- Use: list, identify, name, recite and define
1. Withitness - teacher’s awareness of what is
going on in his/her classroom. Comprehension
2. Ripple Effect - teacher corrects the behavior
of one student and the others will follow. - understanding concepts, rules and principles
- organizing, describing and interpreting
3. Overlapping- The teacher can handle 2 or
concepts
more tasks at 1 one (multitasking).
- Use: describe, interpret, explain, illustrate,
4. Momentum- The teacher needs to be in
summarize, restate and defend
charge of the force & flow of the lesson.
5. Smoothness- Time of task is at an ultimate Application
high with minimal distractions to slowing down
- Using the concepts and principles in real life
the lesson.
situation
6. Routines- Classroom procedures are done
- Use: apply, classify, demonstrate, discover,
habitually with less supervision. predict, show, solve and compare
7. Consequences- An appropriate outcome for
an inappropriate act but a consequence Analysis
should make sense, be a logical ending or
- requires higher level thinking skills such as
effect of behaving inappropriately
finding underlying structures, separating the
whole into its components, identifying motives
and recognizing hidden meanings
Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of - Use: analyze, ascertain, diagram, differentiate,
Educational Objective discriminate, examine, determine, classify,
investigate, construct and contrast

Synthesis

- Students put together elements of what had

been learned in a new way
- Expected to create an original product based
on the knowledge acquired, combine the ideas
presented into a new whole or relate several
ideas into a consistent concept.
- Use: combine, compile, create, design,
develop, expand, integrate, extend, originate,
synthesize and formulate
 Evaluation Creating

- Highest level of cognition - Can the student create a new product or point
- students can now assess or judge, based on a of view?
set of standards, on what they learned - Use: construct, create, develop, formulate, and
- expected to make thoughtful value decisions write.
with reference to knowledge, resolve
differences and controversies and develop Differences between the Old and the Revised
personal opinions, judgments and decisions Taxonomies
- Use: assess, critique, judge, appraise,
1. The levels/categories of thinking in the old
contrast, evaluate, weigh and recommend
taxonomy were nouns, while in the revised
Revised Taxonomy taxonomy they are verbs.
2. While the revised taxonomy remains to be in
Lorin Anderson (a former student of Bloom), David hierarchical levels of increasing complexity, it
Krathwohl and a group of cognitive psychologists, is intended to be more flexible, allowing the
updated the taxonomy. categories to overlap.
3. The knowledge level was changed to
remember
4. The comprehension level was changed to
understand.
5. Synthesis was changed to create and was
placed at the highest level.
6. The cognitive domain now includes two
dimensions: the cognitive dimension and the
knowledge dimension. The knowledge
dimension of the revised taxonomy was based
on the subcategories of knowledge in the old
taxonomy (factual, conceptual, procedural,
metacognitive).
Remembering
Two Dimensions of the Revised Taxonomy
- Can the student recall or remember the
information? 1. Cognitive Dimension
- Use: define, duplicate, list, memorize, recall, - includes the hierarchical or ordered levels of
repeat, reproduce, state thinking. It represents a continuum of
increasing cognitive complexity– from
Understanding remember to create.
- Can the student explain ideas or concepts? - remember, understand, apply, analyze,
evaluate and create
- Use: classify, describe, discuss, explain,
identify, locate, recognize, report, select,
translate, and paraphrase

Applying

- Can the student use the information in a new

way?
- Use: choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ,
illustrate, interpret, operate, schedule, sketch,
solve, use, and write

Analyzing
• Knowledge Dimension
- Can the student distinguish between the
different parts? - includes four knowledge categories: factual,
conceptual, procedural and metacognitive
- Use: appraise, compare, contrast, criticize,
differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, - The knowledge ranges from concrete(factual)
examine, experiment, question, and test. to abstract (metacognitive).

Evaluating

- Can the student justify a stand or decision?

- Use: appraise, argue, defend, judge, select,
support, value, and evaluate
 Uses of the Revised Taxonomy

- It provides educators with a common set of

terms and levels about learning outcomes that
help in planning across subject matter and
grade levels.
- It helps in the drafting of learning standards
across levels.
- It serves as a guide in evaluating the school’s
curriculum objectives, activities and
assessments
- It guides the teacher in formulating learning
outcomes that tap higher order thinking skills
Formulating a Learning Objective

- consider what level of thinking (cognitive) Theories of Intelligence

should be achieved and what type of
knowledge should be taught. Two Kinds of Intelligence
- The level of thinking is always represented by 1. Crystallized Intelligence
the verb, while the knowledge dimension is - learning from past experiences and learning.
always represented by the noun. - Situations that require crystallized intelligence
include reading comprehension and
vocabulary exams.
- This type of intelligence is based upon facts
and rooted in experiences.
- This type of intelligence becomes stronger as
we age and accumulate new knowledge and
understanding.
2. Fluid Intelligence
- The ability to think and reason abstractly and
solve problems.
- This ability is considered independent of
learning, experience, and education.

Examples: solving puzzles and coming up with

problem solving strategies.

- Both types of intelligence increase throughout

childhood and adolescence.
- Fluid intelligence peaks in adolescence and
begins to decline progressively beginning
around age 30 or 40.

Theories of Intelligence
Charles Spearman (1863-1945)

GENERAL INTELLIGNCE

- Theorized that a general intelligence factor (g)

underlies other, more specific aspects of
intelligence
- Based this on how he noticed people who did
well on one test tended to do similarly well on
others.

Louis L. Thurstone

- Intelligence is a cluster of abilities.

- Believed that there were different “primary
mental abilities” each independent from the
other.
Examples: Verbal Comprehension, numerical ability, Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of
reasoning & perceptual speed
Intelligence
- The g factor was just an overall average score
of these independent abilities. Robert Sternberg (1949)
- Looked for a pattern of mental abilities like
- Author of a Triarchic theory of multiple
Wechsler
intelligences consisting of 3 mental abilities
Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences - Disagrees with Gardner in calling these
intelligences. Instead believes these are
Howard Gardner (1943) talents or abilities. Said Intelligence is a
general quality
- Author of a contemporary theory of multiple
- Stresses both the universal aspects of
intelligences consisting of eight separate kinds intelligent behavior and the importance of
of intelligence adapting to a certain social and cultural
climate.
Multiple Intelligences – several independent mental
- Also called Successful Intelligence
abilities that allow a person to solve problems, create
products that are valued within one’s culture.

- Intelligence defined within the context of 1. Analytic intelligence—mental processes

culture used in learning how to solve problems
2. Creative intelligence—ability to deal with
novel situations by drawing on existing skills
and knowledge
3. Practical intelligence—ability to adapt to the
environment (street smarts)

Emotional Intelligence

- The ability to perceive, express, understand,

and regulate emotions
- People high in emotional intelligence are more
in touch with their feelings and the feelings of
others.

IQ Tests do a good job measuring:

- Abstract thinking
- Problem solving
- Capacity to acquire knowledge

IQ Tests however do not measure:

– Creativity
– Achievement motivation
– Goal-oriented behavior
– Ability to adapt to one’s environment
The Wechsler Scales - by organizing concepts and ideas, children
place them into schemas. He believed that
Verbal Subtests children are in control of the knowledge that
- Information they are provided and move forward in
- Vocabulary construct their own learning by taking part in
- Arithmetic social activities & exploration.
- Similarities
The learner is advanced through three mechanisms
- Comprehension
- Digit Span • Assimilation - fitting a new experience into an
Performance Subtests existing mental structure (schema)
• Accommodation - revising an existing
- Picture Completion schema because of new experience.
- Picture Arrangement • Equilibrium - seeking cognitive stability
- Block Design through assimilation and accommodation
- Object Assembly
- Digit Symbol LEV VYGOTSKY

Verbal Subtests - Created social cognition learning which

asserts that culture is the prime determinant of
- Information: culturally acquired info a child’s social development.
- Vocabulary: general verbal intell. - He proposed the zone of proximal
- Arithmetic: numerical reasoning development, collaborative learning,
- Similarities: abstract reasoning scaffolding, and anchored instruction
- Comprehension: social norms (technology-based learning where students
- Digit Span: short term memory build on what they already know).

Performance Subtests associated with the social constructivist theory

- Picture Completion: visual concentration and 1. Making meaning - the community places a
nonverbal general information central role, and the people around the student
- Picture Arrangement: ability to plan, interpret greatly affect the way he or she sees the
and anticipate in social context world.
- Block Design: perceptual organization, 2. Tools for cognitive development - the type
spatial visualization and abstract concentration and quality of these tools (culture, language,
- Object Assembly: visual motor organ., important adults to the student) determine the
synthesis pattern and rate of development.
- Digit Symbol: visual memory
Vygotsky believed that learning needs to be engaging.
Vygotsky believed that learning takes place as children
are interacting with each other and exploring their
CONSTRUCTIVISM: KNOWLEDGE environment. He believed that learning is simultaneous
to social interaction and exploration. In other words, he
CONSTRUCTION/ CONCEPT
did not feel as though one was more important than
LEARNING the other.

CONSTRUCTIVISM JOHN DEWEY

- It is a theory on how humans generate - A part of the progressive education movement
knowledge and meaning from an interaction which focused on educating the whole entire
between their experiences and their ideas. body of a child, socially, mentally, and
- Based on observation and scientific study physically.
about how people learn. - Dewey was known as a pragmatist, who only
- It says that people construct their own believed the truth of theories if the theory
understanding and knowledge of the world, actually worked.
through experiencing things and reflecting on
those experiences.
TWO VIEWS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM
KEY INFLUENTIAL FIGURES IN CONSTRUCTIVISM
1. INDIVIDUAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
JEAN PIAGET - Also called cognitive constructivism
- Indirect instruction
- Piaget believed that children learn through - Largely based on Piaget’s Theory
organization and schemas. He believed that - Child-centered and discovery learning
 2. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM Make Concept-learning Effective
- Based on Vygotsky’s theory
- Conditions of knowledge is shared by two or - Provide a clear definition of the concept
more people - Make the defining features very concrete and
- Social and interaction context prominent
- Give a variety of positive instances Give
CONSTRUCTIVISM IS A LEARNING THEORY negative instances
- Give a “best example” or prototype
- Learning is an active process in which the - Provide opportunity for learners to identify
learner uses sensory input and constructs positive and negative instances
meaning out of it. - Ask learners to think of their own example of
- People learn to learn as they learn. the concept
- The crucial action of constructing meaning is - Point out how concepts can be related to each
mental. other
- Learning involves language
- Learning is a social activity. Schema - is an organized body of knowledge about
- Learning is contextual. something. It is like a file of information you hold in
- One needs knowledge to learn. your mind about something. Like a schema of what a
- It takes time to learn. teacher is.
- Motivation is a key component in learning
Script - is a schema that includes a series of
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM predictable events of a specific activity.
- Learner constructs understanding
- New learning depends on current
understanding
- Learning is facilitated by social interaction
- Meaningful learning occurs within authentic
learning tasks

ORGANIZING KNOWLEDGE

- A concept is a way of grouping or categorizing

objects or events in our mind. It includes a
group of tasks such as model, discuss,
illustrate, explain, assist, etc.

Examples of Concepts:

• Concrete concepts - have aspects or

dimensions that are easily seen, heard, or
touched.
• Semi concrete concepts - have some
combination of concrete and non-concrete
characteristics.

Concepts as Feature Lists

A. Defining Feature - is a characteristic present

in ALL instances
B. Correlation Feature - is one that is present in
many positive instances but not essential for
concept membership
C. Concepts as Prototypes – Prototype is an
idea or visual image of a typical example. It is
usually formed based on the positive instances
that learners encounter most often.
D. Concepts as Exemplars - Represents a
variety of examples. It allows learners to know
that an example under a concept may have
variability.