Chapter 2.1 & 2.1.
3 — Study Notes
Kinetic Particle Model of Matter | Gases and the Absolute Scale of Temperature
8th Grade Study Notes
1. The Particle Model of Matter
All matter is made up of tiny particles (atoms, molecules, ions and electrons) that are in constant
motion. These particles exert strong electric forces on each other — forces that are both attractive
(holding particles together) and repulsive (resisting compression).
The particle model explains why solids, liquids and gases behave differently.
2. Particle Structure of Solids, Liquids and Gases
State Arrangement of Movement of Properties
Particles Particles
SOLIDS Very close together Vibrate about fixed Definite shape and
in a regular, positions — cannot volume; resists
repeating pattern move around compression;
(crystal lattice) expands very little
when heated
LIQUIDS Slightly further apart Slide over each other Definite volume but
than solids; no rapidly in all no fixed shape; takes
regular pattern directions; some can the shape of its
(some local order) escape as vapour container; slightly
compressible
GASES Very far apart — Move rapidly and No definite shape or
about 10x further randomly in all volume; fills any
than in a solid or directions at high container; easily
liquid speed (~500 m/s for compressed;
air at 0°C) expands most when
heated
How to Remember the Differences
• Solids: particles held rigidly in place by strong forces — like people standing shoulder to
shoulder
• Liquids: particles can slide past each other but stay close — like people in a crowd pushing
through
• Gases: particles fly around freely — like people running around in a large open space
3. Changes of State
When a material gains or loses energy, its particles change how they move — and the material can
change state.
Change Process Name Energy Change
Solid → Liquid Melting Heat supplied
Liquid → Gas Evaporation / Boiling Heat supplied
Gas → Liquid Condensation Heat removed
Liquid → Solid Solidification (Freezing) Heat removed
Evaporation: Energetic particles escape from the surface of a liquid at any temperature. This is why
puddles dry up even when it is not boiling.
Boiling: Happens at a specific temperature throughout the entire liquid — bubbles form inside the
liquid.
Condensation: Steam (water vapour) touching a cold surface loses energy and returns to liquid.
Example: water droplets on a cold window.
4. Temperature and Kinetic Energy
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance.
Key Idea
Higher temperature → particles move faster → higher average kinetic energy
Lower temperature → particles move slower → lower average kinetic energy
In a solid, particles vibrate more strongly as temperature rises.
In a gas, particles move faster and collide with surfaces more often.
Absolute Zero
If we cool a substance down further and further, the particles slow down. Eventually, a temperature is
reached where all particle motion ceases completely — this is called absolute zero.
Absolute zero = −273°C (particles have zero kinetic energy — the lowest temperature theoretically
possible)
5. The Kelvin (Absolute) Temperature Scale
Scientists use the Kelvin scale because it starts at absolute zero, making calculations with gases much
simpler.
Celsius ↔ Kelvin Conversion
Formula: T (in Kelvin) = 273 + θ (in Celsius)
Rearranged: θ (in Celsius) = T − 273
Examples:
0°C = 273 + 0 = 273 K
15°C = 273 + 15 = 288 K
100°C = 273 + 100 = 373 K
27°C = 273 + 27 = 300 K
60 K → 60 − 273 = −213°C
Both Kelvin and Celsius degrees are the same size — only the starting point differs. The Kelvin scale
starts at −273°C (absolute zero = 0 K).
Note: On volume-temperature and pressure-temperature graphs for gases, the lines are straight and, if
extended backwards, all meet at −273°C (0 K). This is evidence for absolute zero.
6. Pressure of a Gas
What Causes Gas Pressure?
Gas particles are in constant, rapid, random motion. They continuously collide with the walls of their
container. Each collision exerts a tiny force on the wall. The total effect of billions of these collisions
every second creates a pressure on the surfaces of the container.
Atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 100,000 N/m² = 10⁵ Pa (or 100 kPa). This is the weight of
the air above us pressing down.
Key Rule: Gas Pressure
Pressure = Force per unit area exerted by particle collisions on the container walls.
More collisions per second OR harder collisions → HIGHER pressure.
Fewer collisions per second OR softer collisions → LOWER pressure.
Effect of Temperature on Pressure (constant volume)
If a gas is heated and its volume is kept constant:
• Particles gain kinetic energy and move faster
• They collide with the container walls more frequently
• Each collision transfers more momentum (hits harder)
• Therefore pressure INCREASES
Effect of Temperature on Volume (constant pressure)
If a gas is heated and the pressure is kept constant (e.g. in a flexible container):
• Particles move faster and collide more often
• To keep pressure the same, the container must expand so collisions become less frequent
• Therefore volume INCREASES
7. Boyle's Law — Pressure and Volume (constant temperature)
If the temperature of a fixed mass of gas is kept constant, then pressure and volume are inversely
proportional:
Boyle's Law
p ∝ 1/V or pV = constant
If p is doubled → V is halved
If p is halved → V is doubled
Formula for calculations: p₁V₁ = p₂V₂
Why Does This Happen? (Particle Explanation)
If the volume of a container is halved (at constant temperature):
• The same number of particles are now squeezed into half the space
• There are twice as many particles per cm³
• Collisions with the walls happen twice as often
• Therefore the pressure doubles
Worked Example
A gas has a volume of 40 cm³ at a pressure of 1 × 10⁵ Pa. Find its volume when the pressure is 2 × 10⁵
Pa (temperature constant).
Solution
Using p₁V₁ = p₂V₂
V₂ = p₁ × V₁ ÷ p₂
V₂ = (1 × 10⁵ Pa × 40 cm³) ÷ (2 × 10⁵ Pa)
V₂ = 20 cm³
Practice Questions:
• A gas has a volume of 9 cm³ at pressure 1 × 10⁵ Pa. Find its volume when the pressure is 3 ×
10⁵ Pa.
• A gas has a volume of 40 cm³ at pressure 2 × 10⁵ Pa. Find its pressure when the volume is 20
cm³.
8. Graphs of Gas Behaviour
Graph Shape Condition
p vs V (Boyle's Law) Curved (hyperbola) — Constant temperature
pressure falls as volume
increases
p vs 1/V Straight line through the Constant temperature
origin — confirms Boyle's
Law
p vs T (Kelvin) Straight line through origin — Constant volume
pressure rises with
temperature
V vs T (Kelvin) Straight line through origin — Constant pressure
volume rises with
temperature
All temperature graphs extrapolate back to 0 K (−273°C) at the x-axis — evidence for absolute zero.
9. Summary — Key Points to Remember
Chapter Summary
Solids: particles close together in a regular pattern, vibrate about fixed positions.
Liquids: particles close but disordered, slide past each other, take shape of container.
Gases: particles far apart, move rapidly and randomly, fill any container.
Temperature measures the average kinetic energy of particles.
Absolute zero (0 K = −273°C) is the temperature at which all particle motion ceases.
Convert Celsius to Kelvin: T = 273 + θ
Gas pressure is caused by particles colliding with container walls.
Heating a gas (constant volume) increases pressure.
Heating a gas (constant pressure) increases volume.
Boyle's Law: pV = constant (at constant temperature).
Halving the volume of a gas doubles its pressure (constant temperature).
Test Yourself
Try to answer these without looking at your notes:
• Describe the arrangement and movement of particles in a solid, liquid and gas.
• What is the difference between evaporation and boiling?
• What is absolute zero? Give its value in both °C and K.
• Convert 25°C to Kelvin. Convert 350 K to °C.
• Explain why gas pressure increases when the gas is heated at constant volume.
• State Boyle's Law in words and as a formula.
• A gas at 3 × 10⁵ Pa has a volume of 6 cm³. What is its volume when the pressure is 1 × 10⁵ Pa?
(Temperature constant.)
• Why does a can collapse when air is removed from inside it?
• Name the process when: (a) a liquid turns to a gas, (b) a gas turns to a liquid, (c) a liquid turns
to a solid.