MINEROLGY AND GEOCHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF

CHARNOKITE IN IKERE-EKITI, SOUTHWESTHERN NIGERIA

BOLARINWA VICTOR OLUWAFERANMI

2009004085

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY, FACULTY OF

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B. Sc.) DEGREE IN GEOLOGY.

MARCH, 2025

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 CERTIFICATION

I certify that this project work was carried out by BOLARINWA Victor Oluwaferanmi
(Matriculation number: 2009004085) under my supervision in the Department of Geology,
Faculty of Science, Ekiti State University, Nigeria.

….…………………………. …………………
Dr. O. O. Akinola Date

Supervisor

….………………………… …………………
Dr. A. O. Aturamu Date
Head of Department

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 DEDICATION
I dedicate this project to God Almighty for His boundless mercy towards my life and

education, and to my parents, Late Mr. and Mrs. Bolarinwa.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I want to express my gratitude to Almighty God, the giver of life, for guiding me successfully

through this project.

I extend my heartfelt thanks to my supervisor, Dr. O.O. Akinola, for his unwavering

assistance, guidance, and invaluable insights that have greatly aided me. Your perseverance,

knowledge, and support have been essential, and I am truly grateful for the opportunity to

learn under your mentorship.

My gratitude also goes to the Head of Department, Dr. A.O. Aturamu and my other esteemed

lecturers, Prof. O.L. Ademilua, Prof. R.A. Obasi, Prof. O.F. Adebayo, Prof. S.A. Akinyemi,

Prof. A.O. Talabi, O.A. OlaOlorun, Dr. L.O. Afolagboye, Dr. (Mrs.) Y.C. Ajisafe, Dr. O.F.

Ojo, Mr. H.Y. Madukwe, Dr. A.S. Adeoye, Mr. Y.A. Abdu-Raheem, Mr. M.A. Adeniran, and

Mr. C.A. Ajayi for their counsels, guidance and knowledge. I also thank the Laboratory

Technicians and other non-teaching staff of the Department of Geology.

I also wish to thank my late parents, Mr. and Mrs. Bolarinwa, for their love and support in my

life and educational journey. Special appreciation also goes to my siblings for the support all

through this [Link] Almighty God continue to bless you. Amen.

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 ABSTRACT

Charnockitic rocks are significant petrological units within the Precambrian basement
complex of Nigeria, characterized by diverse mineralogical compositions and debated
origins. This study focuses on the geological and geochemical characterization of
charnockitic rocks in Ikere-Ekiti, southwestern Nigeria. Through systematic field mapping,
petrographic, and geochemical analyses, the study aims to determine the lithological units,
mineral compositions, and geodynamic setting of the region. Field observations revealed that
Ikere-Ekiti is underlain by crystalline rocks, predominantly charnockite, migmatite-gneiss,
and granite. These rocks exhibit varying degrees of deformation, structural features, and
mineralogical compositions indicative of metamorphic and magmatic influences. The
petrographic study identified key minerals, including quartz, feldspar, biotite, and
plagioclase, supporting an igneous origin with some metamorphic overprints. Geochemical
analysis of the charnockite samples showed high silica (SiO₂) content, ranging between
67.98% and 71.32%, confirming their felsic nature. Other major oxides, such as Al₂O₃,
Fe₂O₃, and K₂O, were present in significant proportions, while MgO, P₂O₅, and TiO₂ were
minimal. The trace element composition, including high levels of Ba, Rb, and Sr, suggests a
crustal-derived magma source with significant fractionation. The geochemical signatures
indicate that the charnockitic rocks belong to the calc-alkaline suite, commonly associated
with subduction-related magmatism. This study enhances the understanding of the
petrogenesis and geodynamic evolution of charnockites in Ikere-Ekiti, contributing to
ongoing discussions on their origin. The findings provide insights into their industrial
applications in construction and dimension stone production, supporting economic
development in Ekiti State. Further research on isotopic dating and fluid inclusion studies is
recommended to refine the genetic models of these rocks.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS PAGES

TITLE PAGE i
CERTIFICATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES x
CHAPTER ONE 1

1.1 Background of Study 1

1.2 Aim and Objectives 4

1.3 Location of Study Area 4

1.4 Relief and Topography 4

1.5 Climate of the Study Area 5

1.6 Previous Study 5

CHAPTER TWO 8

2.1 Regional Geology 8

2.2 Basement Complex of Nigeria 8

2.2.1 Migmatite – Gneiss Complex 11

2.2.2 Schist Belt 12

2.2.3 Older Granite 13

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 2.2.4 Undeformed Acid and Basic Dykes 15

2.3 Local Geology 17

CHAPTER THREE 21

3.1 Field Work 21

3.1.1 Field Materials 22

3.1.2 Laboratory Materials 23

3.2 Petrological Analysis Procedure 23

3.3 Mineralogical identification using thin section 25

3.4 Analytical Procedure 25

CHAPTER FOUR 27

4.1 Field work and Sampling 27

4.2 Structural Analysis 28

4.2.1 Fractures and Joints 28

4.2.2. Xenolith 29

4.2.3. Veins and Dykes 30

4.2.4. Quartz Veins 30

4.3 Minerology: Thin Section 31

4.3.1 Interpretation of Thin Sections 32

4.3.2 Photo Micrograph of showing Mineralogical Component of Charnockitic rock 34

4.4. Geochemical Analysis 37

4.4.1 Major Element 37

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 4.4.2 Rare Earth Elements 38

CHAPTER FIVE 41

5.1. Conclusion 41

REFERENCES 42

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1: Modal Analysis of the Rock Samples 32

Table 4.2: Major elements compositions of Charnockites around Ikere Ekiti 38

Table 4.3: Trace elements concentrations in (ppm) of Charnockites around Ikere Ekiti 40

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Simplified geological map of Nigeria (Obaje, 2009) 10

Figure 2.2: Geological Map of the Study Area (Akinola and Ademilua, 2023).

20

Figure 4.1: Fractures and veins around study area 29

Figure 4.2: Xenolith on a porphyritic granite in the Study area

30

Figure 4.3: Photomicrograph of charnockites from Ikere-Ekiti area in (A) plane and (B) cross
polarized light showing the component minerals.
34
Figure 4.4: Photomicrograph of charnockites from Ikere-Ekiti area in (A) plane and (B) cross
polarized light showing the component minerals.
34

Figure 4.5: Photomicrograph of charnockites from Ikere-Ekiti area in (A) plane and (B) cross
polarized light showing the component minerals.
35

Figure 4.6: Photomicrograph of charnockites from Ikere-Ekiti area in (A) plane and (B) cross
polarized light showing the component minerals
36

Figure 4.7: Photomicrograph of charnockites from Ikere-Ekiti area in (A) plane and (B)
cross polarized light showing the component minerals.
36

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Charnockitic rocks are broadly defined as granitoids in terms of Quartz-Alkali feldspar

Plagioclase (QAP) ternary space but contain orthopyroxene (or fayalite + quartz) and,

typically, perthite, mesoperthite or antiperthite (Le Maitre, 2002). Although not included in

the formal definition, charnockitic rocks are typically characterized by meso- to melanocratic

colour indices, being commonly described as having a dark green, greasy lustre and in

contrast to the leuco appearance normally expected of granitoids. Charnockitic rocks

generally have diverse origins, spanning within range of metamorphic and igneous

derivations (Kilpatrick and Ellis, 1992), which implies that igneous or metamorphic fabric

can be exhibited. In Nigeria, charnockitic rocks constitute one of the major petrologic units of

the Precambrian basement complex (Olarewaju, 2006). The rock suite has been of interest to

the earth scientists partly because of aesthetic value particularly when polished and partly

because of the controversy surrounding the origin.

(Oyawoye 1962, 1964), presented a model of metasomatic origin, (Olarewaju, 1988),

presented the fractional crystallization model while (Rahaman, 1988) presented the tectonic

model and (Dada et al., 1989) presented an igneous origin model. Charnockite is applied to

any orthopyroxene bearing granite composed mainly of quartz, perthite, or anti-perthite and

orthopyroxene (usually hypersthene as an end member of the charnockite (Deer et al., 1997).

The charnockite suite or series is a group of igneous rocks variably metamorphosed and of

wide distribution and of great importance especially when categorizing them on the basis of

their origin. The charnockitic series include rocks of many different types, some being acidic,

rich in quartz and microcline, others being basic full of pyroxene and olivine (fayalite and

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forsterite) while there are also intermediate varieties corresponding mineralogically to

norites.

The term charnockite is consequently not the name of a rock, but of the assemblages of rock

types (Rahaman, 2001). The charnockitic rocks in all the basement complex areas of Nigeria

have been recorded from the northern, eastern, western and southern parts of the country

(Cooray, 1999). These rocks occur generally as low lying outcrops with smooth rounded

boulders and few hills all forming oval to sub-circular and elongated bodies. The charnockitic

rocks are important and cover about 70% of the total area of Ado-Ekiti (Mc Curry 1999).

According to Boluwade et al., (2013), Ikere - Ekiti is one of the important basement complex

in Nigeria that is characterized by crystalline rocks among which charnockites are the

dominant. Charnockites are generally dark greenish in colour and contain plagioclase,

antiperthite, biotite, hypersthene (Rahaman, 2001) and the different rocks units indicates that

the coarse grained variety is youngest. The coarse grained charnockite cover the central

portion of Ikere - Ekiti.

Various geological studies on charnockitic rocks of Ikere – Ekiti and environs had been

accessed by various geologists, who suggested different origin for these rocks. According to

Oyawoye, (1962), charnockitic has a metamorphic origin. However, Donald, 1992) suggested

an igneous origin while Olarewaju, (2006) suggested metamorphic origin through

petrographic analysis of these charnockitic rocks. Further study of their geochemical

properties will reveal more information about their origin and as it affects the fabric. Ikere -

Ekiti is blessed with abundant minerals and industrial rocks of Precambrian origin which

includes Charnockites” Different studies have been carried out on these rocks that is one of

the most abundant industrial rocks in Ikere Ekiti and there is still the need for further study of

their formations and origin since their exploitation in particular would help boost Ekiti State

internally generated revenue.

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Geochemical study would be carried out to determine the percentage concentration of

metallic oxides in the charnockitic rocks collected from some locations in Ikere – Ekiti. The

percentage occurrences of metallic oxides in each sample would be used to plot geochemical

diagrams to help describe the origin of the rocks. Such petrogenetical approach could also

help to assess the rocks” applicability in polishing, building and dimension stoning. The

genesis of charnockitic rocks was widely debated during the 80’s and 90’s with numerous

models revolving around the modes of genesis between magmatic and metamorphic varieties

and the distinction of these (Bohlender et al., 1992) and particularly in the role of CO 2 in the

fluid phase (Newton et al., 1980).

Charnockite occurs in many parts of Southwestern Nigeria. Jones and Hockey (2000)

following Hubbard (1998) highlighted areas of its occurrence. Notable areas are Oke –

Patara, Ara, Osuntedo and Wasimi. Others are Ikole – Ekiti, Ado – Ekiti, Otun, Egosi,

OsiIdanre and Akure. Charnockites occur along the margins of older granite Charnockites are

rock, with mineralogical characteristics indicating that they have crystallized under high

temperature and medium to high pressure conditions. Vans Beeman et al (1999) described

charnockites as rocks whose chemical composition falls within the range of plutonic rock

(acidic, basic and ultramafic) whose texture resembles those of corresponding plutonic rocks,

but with hypersthene as the charnockitic mafic phase (with or without some of clinopyroxene

hornblendes or almandine).

Most charnockite bodies in the basement complex of Ikere – Ekiti occurs as low – lying

outcrop in form of smooth rounded bounder and elongated bodies. The charnockitic rocks

appear to have three mode of occurrence in the area under views. The first mode of

occurrence is within what seems to be the “core” of one granite rock as exemplified by the

Ikere – Ado – Ekiti body and a few smaller bodies.

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 1.2 Aim and Objectives

The aim of the research is to investigate the lithologic units in the study area. To achieve this,

the specific objective of the research are to:

i. carry out field geological mapping of the study area.

ii. determine the mineralogical composition of the rock.

iii. investigate the geochemical features of the charnockite rocks and

iv. decipher the origin of charnockite in Ikere-Ekiti and showcase the geodynamic setting of

the area.

1.3 Location of Study Area

Ikere-Ekiti is situated in the southern part of Ekiti-State, southwestern Nigeria between

latitudes 7° 29′ and 7° 31′N and longitudes 5° 12′ and 5° 14′E covering a total area of 346.5

km2 . It is a town endowed with magnificent hills, including Orole and Olosunta. The town is

the gateway to Ekiti State, located between Ado-Ekiti (the capital of Ekiti State) and Akure

(the capital of Ondo State). The town is situated in the humid tropical region and rugged

basement terrain that is generally 250 m above sea level. The mean annual rainfall is 1500

mm while the annual temperature ranged from 23 - 28°C with mean annual relative humidity

of 75%.

1.4 Relief and Topography

The mapped area is characterized by both high and lowland relief which is generally

classified as rolling topography characterized by hills, valleys and gently undulating plains

with occasional hills. The area has a rugged topography; some hills are high while others are

low lying. According to Talabi and Tijani (2011), Ado-Ekiti has a relief that is relatively low

with isolated inselbergs and hills that are dome-shaped. Rahaman, (1981) suggested that the

area is characterized by rugged topography arising from the gently rolling hills and ridges

4
which rise conspicuously above the general pediment. The topography is undulating with

several high and low elevations. In general, the local topographic inequality can be accounted

for primarily by the differential weathering induced by geological factors such as lithological

differences, the general structural attitude and varying degrees jointing.

1.5 Climate of the Study Area

The studied area enjoys tropical climate with two distinct seasons. These are the rainy season

(April–October) and the dry season (November–March). Temperature ranges between 21°C

and 28 °C with high humidity. The south westerly wind and the northeast trade winds blow in

the rainy and dry (Harmattan) seasons respectively. Tropical forest exists in the south, while

savannah occupies the northern peripheries. (Christ for all Nation, 2019). The dry weather is

brought by the tropical continental (CT) airmass, blowing in from the Sahara desert between

the months of November and March and the wet season comes either the tropical maritime

(MT) air mass originating from the Atlantic Ocean between the months of April and October.

The total rainfall in the area is 450 mm giving a mean monthly rainfall of 121 [Link] is a

sharp fall in rainfall at a period between July and August (August Break). Temperature in the

region is high throughout the year with a means monthly temperature of 27 o C and a range of

37o C between the month of highest temperature (February) and the month of lowest

(August).

1.6 Previous Study

Various geological studies on granite rocks of Ikere – Ekiti and environs had been accessed

by various geologists, who suggested different origin for these rocks. Oyawoye (1962),

described charnockite as a metamorphic origin, Donald (1992) suggested an igneous origin

and Olarewaju (2006) also suggested metamorphic origin through petrographic analysis of

5
these charnockitic rocks. Further study of their geochemical properties will reveal more

information about their origin and as it affects the fabric.

Boluwade (2018) investigated the Geochemical Assessment Of Charnockitic Rocks In A

Localised Area Of Ado Ekiti, Nigeria Five Charnockitic rock samples were collected from

Idemo, Balota community, Ado-Ikere Road, Igirigiri Road and Ado-Ijan Road in Ado Ekiti.

The samples were geochemically analysed using atomic absorption spectrophotometer

(Unicam 969 model) with a precision of + 0.5. AFM diagram of Na₂O+ K₂O; MgO, and

Fe₂O₃ and plotting of K₂O + Na₂O versus SiO₂ were done . Results of analyses show that

the Charnockitic rocks fall within the shoshonitic series of magmatic rocks along the

subduction zones. They also belong to the Calc-alkaline rock suite. These rocks can be

correlated with ryholite, dacite, andesite and basalt rocks types in New Zealand

Ogunleye et al

mineralogy and geochemical characteristics. They are silicic (63 wt. %

., (2020) studied the Petrography and geochemistry of Neoproterozoic charnockite–granite a

6
Misra et al., (2022) studied the Petrology and geochemistry of Charnockite patches and host

Leptynites from Digapahandi area, EGB: Evidence for incipient growth of Charnockites. The

mineral chemistry studies revealed that mineral phases common in both rocks are chemically

identical. Based on whole rocks geochemistry it is evident that both charnockite patches and

host leptynites are iso-chemical. The adamellite composition, per-aluminous nature with

positive Europium anomaly of host leptynite and charnockite patches suggests their co-

genetic relation. Higher values of (La/Yb)N and (Gd/Lu)N of leptynites indicate the highly

fractionated HREE pattern of leptynites. High concentrations of HREE in charnockite patches

are due to the influence of fluid phase in granulite facies metamorphism. The charnockite

patches are characterized by higher K₂O content, higher HREE concentration, and less

abundance of biotite indicating the in-situ growth of patchy charnockites.

Abdu-Raheem et al., (2018) in his work titled Geology, Geochemistry and Petrogenesis of

Precambrian Rocks of Part of Sheet 244 of Ado-Ekiti, Southwestern Nigeria, reported that

petrographic study reveals the dominance of quartz, biotite, plagioclase and microcline in the

thin sections for the different rock types. The geochemical analyses of the rocks show in

percentage average SiO₂ compositionof 67.63 in charnockites, 67.09 in granites and 67.99 in

gneisses. Alumina varied from 13.77% in the charnockites, and the lowest in the gneisses

with 12.91%.

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 CHAPTER TWO

GEOLOGICAL SETTING

2.1 Regional Geology

Nigeria lies approximately between latitudes 4 oN and 15oN and Longitudes 3oE and 140E,

within the Pan African mobile belt in between the West African and Congo cratons. The

Geology of Nigeria is dominated by crystalline and sedimentary rocks both occurring

approximately in equal proportions (Woakes et al., 1987). The crystalline rock are made up

of Precambrian basement complex and the Phanerozoic rocks which occur in the eastern

region of the country and in the north central part of Nigeria. The Precambrian basement

rocks in Nigeria consist of the migmatite gneissic-quartzite complex dated Archean to Early

Proterozoic (2700 - 2000 Ma). Other units include the NE-SW trending schist belts mostly

developed in the western half of the country and the granitoid plutons of the older granite

suite dated Late Proterozoic to Early Phanerozoic (750 - 450 Ma).

The area covered by the south-western Nigeria basement complex lies between latitudes 7 oN

and 10oN and longitudes 3oE and 6oE right in the equatorial rain forest region of Africa. The

main lithologies include the amphibolites, migmatite gneisses, granites and pegmatites. Other

important rock units are the schists, made up of biotite schist, quartzite schist talk-tremolite

schist, and the muscovite schists. The crystalline rocks intruded into these schistose rocks.

8
For the purpose of this chapter, discussion is limited to the crystalline basement rocks of

south-western Nigeria.

2.2 Basement Complex of Nigeria

The Basement Complex refers to group of rocks underlain by crystalline rocks. They are of

Precambrian to lower Palaeozoic age in Nigeria (Figure 2.1). Isotopic age determination

shows that at least four major orogenic cycles of deformation, metamorphism and

remobilization occurred during the tectonic event corresponding to the Liberian (2700 Ma),

Eburnean (2000 Ma), Kibarean (1,100 Ma), and Pan African cycles (600 Ma).The first three

cycles were characterized by intense isoclinal folding and deformation accompanied by

regional metamorphism with extensive migmatization. The deformations occur by a regional

metamorphism, migmatisation, extensive granitization and gneissification which resulted into

syntectonic granite and homogenous granodiorite with their associated contact

metamorphism accompanying the end stages of this last deformation. The end of the Orogeny

cycle was marked by fracturing and faulting (Gandu, et al., 1986; Olayinka, 1992).

The rocks of the Basement Complex of Nigeria can be conventionally divided into four

major petrological units, which are, Migmatite – Gneiss Complex (MGC), Schist Belt

(Metasedimentary and Metavolcanic rocks), Older Granites (Pan African Granitoids), and

Undeformed Acid and Basic Dykes

9
 (Ikere -Ekiti)

Figure 2.1: Simplified geological map of Nigeria (Obaje, 2009)

10
2.2.1 Migmatite – Gneiss Complex

This complex occupies a significant area in the Nigeria Basement which resulted from

complex association of folding, granitization, deformed shearing and migmatization process

which has heterogeneous assemblage comprising migmatite, orthogneisses, paragneisses and

series of metamorphosed rocks. Rahaman (1988) characterized three petrological units

representing about 50% of the surface area of the Nigerian Basement. The petrological units

are: grey foliated biotite-hornblende quartzo-feldspathic gneiss of tonalitic to granodioritic

composition Rahaman (1981) alternating the mafic to ultramafic component which defines

the bands on the outcrops. Petrographic evidence shows that the Pan African modification led

to recrystallization of many constituent minerals of the migmatite - gneiss complex by partial

melting with majority of the rock types displaying medium to upper amphibolite facies. The

migmatite - gneiss complex has ages ranging from Pan African to Eburnean which is the

oldest commonest rock types in the Nigerian basement comprises two main types of gneisses,

the biotite gneiss and banded gneiss. The banded gneiss shows alternating dark and light

bands and also exhibits folding of their mineral bands.

The biotite gneiss is a fine grained rock with foliation plane caused by parallel arrangement

of light and dark minerals. These rocks record three major geological events; Liberian (2,700

± 200 Ma) which involved beginning of crust forming process example the Ibadan banded

gneiss. This was followed by Eburnean (2,000 ± 200 Ma) marked by the Ibadan granite

gneiss with the imprint of the Pan African event which not only structurally overprinted and

reset many geochronological clocks in the older rocks, but also gave rise to migmatite-gneiss,

granite gneisses and other similar lithological units. Lithologically, similar rocks in other part

of Nigeria including the western, northern, and eastern parts are covered by migmatite- gneiss

complex which include Ibadan, Ilorin, Ile- Ife, Akure, Okenne, Egbe, Ajaokuta, Ikare, Abuja,

11
Keffi, Akwanga, Kano, Kaduna, Bauchi, Funtua, Oban massif and Obudu areas in the eastern

Nigeria.

2.2.2 Schist Belt

The N-S trending schist belt comprises low grade metasediment which are considered to be

upper Proterozoic age. These belts are known to be early Proterozoic super crustal rocks that

have been folded into gneissic complex (phyllite, schists, pelites, semi pelites, quartzite,

marble, banded iron formation, ultramafite, minor felsic to intermediate metavolcanics,

greywacke and amphibolites). The lithological variation of the schist belts compose of coarse

to fine grained clastic, pelitic schists, phyllite, banded iron formation, carbonate rocks and

mafic metavolcanic (amphibolites) with some fragment material from small back arc basin.

The schist belts are mostly developed in the western part of Nigeria including the following

groups, the Iseyin Oyan river Schist Belt, Ilesha Schist Belt Kusheriki Schist Group,

Karaukarau Schist Belt, the Kazaure Schist Belt, Maru Schist Belt, Anka Schist Belt, Zuru

Schist Belt, Zungeru Schist Belt, Kushaka Schist Belt, Iwo Schist Belt, and Igara Schist Belt

though smaller occurrences are found mostly in the eastern part which has extensively been

studied in the Rahaman (2006). Grant (1974) for example recommend that there were strict

basin of deposition with different ages of sediments base on structural and lithological

association whereas Oyawoye (1972) and McCurry (1976) consider the Schist Belts as relict

of a single supercrustal cover. Olade and Elueze (1979) consider the schist belts to be fault

guarded rift like structures. However, Ajibade (1980) differ from this conclusion and show

that both series contained identical deformational histories. The geochronology of the schist

belts remain challenging although the ages of the intrusive cross cutting Older Granite

provides a lower limit of ca 750 Ma, Rb/Sr age of 1,040 ± Ma for Maru belt phyllite which

has been accepted by Ogezi (1977) metamorphic age.

12
The schist belts are best developed in the western part of Nigeria and belts are confined to a

NNE trending zone of about 400km wide. The area to the west of this zone is made up of

gneisses that constitute the Dahomey Basin. Similarly on the east of the basin, no schist belts

are recognized for a distance of 600km except Cameroun where a number of Schist belts are

considered to be upper Proterozoic. Detailed mapping and study of the Schist belts were

carried out in the following localities; Iseyin, Iwo Oyan, Maru, Zungeru, Anka, Kushaka,

Zuru, Kazaure, Kusheriki and Ilesha where they are known to be associated with gold

mineralization as shown by Ajibade (1980) who first mapped a structural discontinuity.

2.2.3 Older Granite

The term “Older Granite” was introducd by Falconer (1911) to denote deep seated, often

disconcordant or semi concordant granite of the Basement Complex. They

range widely in ages and composition and represent a long lasting magmatic cycle associated

with the Pan African Orogeny. The early appearance of these rocks is basic-intermediate

intrusions which are represented by small irregular bodies of pyroxene, quartz diorite, and

gabbro in the northwestern part of Nigeria which now form part of the basic-acid complex.

Granitization on an extensive scale strongly identifies the earlier rocks and the extensive

migmatite gneiss which culminated in the intrusion of various Syn to late tectonic granite,

granitoids and syenite. The rocks of this group range in composition from tonalite, diorite,

granodiorite, granite, syenite and charnockite.

They are generally high level intrusions which belong to two generations, the first preceeding

the emplacement of older granite and second emplaced in the last stage of Older Granite

Orogeny (Rahaman, 1981). The Older Granite group is known for its lack of associated

mineralization. The contact features between the members indicate the coexistence of

magma. Compositionally, the rocks contain significant amount of alkalis and slight normative

13
corundum (Dada, 2006) suggests that the term “Pan African Granitoids” be used for the

Older Granite not only on the merit of age that was not available at the time but based on

several important petrologic groups formed at the same time. The Granitoids which outcrop

with the schist belt in south and northwestern Nigeria include biotite – muscovite - granite,

biotite granite, charnockite, syenite, serpentinites and anorthosites. Rahaman (1988) disagree

with the earlier classification of Older Granite group on the basis of their texture,

mineralogical composition and the relative timing of their emplacement. He classified them

based on textural characteristics as follows; magmatic granite, granite gneiss, early pegmatite,

fine grained granite, porphyritic granite, slightly deformed pegmatite, quartz vein and aplite.

In northern Nigeria, the large quantity of Pan African granite appears to augment eastwards.

They occur west of Zaria as isolated intrusion. McCurry (1976) divided the granite into two

main groups according to their field relationships. The first “syntectonic” group include

elongated batholiths which are partly concordant and foliated. The second discordant bodies

are rich in mafic xenoliths a lower proportion of potassium feldspar. The later is considered

to be the products of the extensive mobilisation and reactivation of the older basement rock

during the Pan African Orogeny. The Older Granite occurs intricately associated with the

migmatite- gneiss complex and schist belts into which they intruded. However, Older Granite

is particularly found around Ado- Ekiti, Abuja, Wusasa (Zaria), Akwanga, Bauchi and Obudu

areas. In Bauchi area, these rocks occur as dark, greenish grey granite with considerable

amount of olivine (fayalite) and pyroxene occurring with quartz, feldspars and micas. Based

on their composition, the Older Granite in the area is termed Bauchite and Oyawoyite (after

Professor Oyawoye who first mapped them) in southwestern Nigeria. For uniformity of

terminology, both the Bauchite and Oyawoyites constitute the charnockite of the Basement

Complex. According to (Dada, 1998), charnockite was first described within the Nigeria

basement at Toro by Falconer (1911) as a “quartz diorite porphyrite”. It was assume to

14
present a certain resemblance with the basic member of the charnockitic series of the Ivory-

Coast.

Wright (1985) described it as an annular complex of hypersthenes diorite at the centre of

three circular, concentric granites and considered older than the granite from contact

relations. Rahaman (1981) consider granite and charnockite as either simultaneous or the

latter emplaced shortly after the former. The basement in Toro area consists of gneiss into

which the charnockite complex intruded (Dada, et al., 1989). This charnockite could be

described as a fine to medium grained, greenish black, equigranular and massive, sometimes

porphyritic. The granite consists from the periphery (in contact with the migmatite gneiss)

towards the centre (in contact with the hypersthene diorite) of a fine to medium grained

biotite muscovite granite, equigranular biotite- hornblende granite and porphyritic biotite

hornblende granite. Other localities where charnockite occurs include Idanre, Akure, Ado-

Ekiti, Ikare (Ekiti), Bauchi and Obudu plateau.

2.2.4 Undeformed Acid and Basic Dykes

The undeformed acid and basic dykes cross cutting migmatite gneiss complex, schist belt

and Older Granite are late to post- tectonic Pan African. The dykes include:

(a) Felsic dykes such as muscovite, tourmaline and beryl bearing pegmatite, micro-granite,

aplite and syenite dyke which are associated with Pan African granitoids.

(b) Basic dyke such as dolerite and the less common basaltic, lamprophyric dykes which are

regarded as the youngest (Ca 500 Ma) unit in Nigeria basement (Dada, 2006).

The Palaeozoic and Precambrian rocks in Nigeria can be divided into four major groups.

The Basement Complex (sensu stricto) comprises rocks older than the late Proterozoic

metasediment which include metasediments of high grade metamorphism such as

15
parageneiss, basic and calcareous schist, marble and quartzite as well as orthogenesis. The

whole Basement Complex has been through at least two tectonic cycles and consequent

metamorphism, migmatization and granitization has extensively modified the original rock so

they generally occur as relict rafts and xenoliths in migmatite and granite. The metasediments

recognised within the Basement Complex are believed to be relicts to an old supracrustal

cover of Birrimian age which are termed older metasediments in order to distinguish them

from late Proterozoic supracrustal sediment known as younger metasediments.

This younger metasediment trending in the N- S belts are extensively developed in the

northwest and they are not recorded east of longitude 8° but believed they represent remnant

of a once more wide supracrustal cover. They were steeply folded during the Pan African

Orogeny along the Basement Complex so as to occur in synchnorial keels in a sea of granitic

material, resembling the greenstone migmatite association of cratonic regions. They were

steeply folded during the Pan African Orogeny along the Basement Complex so as to occur in

synchnorial keels in a sea of granitic material resembling the greenstone migmatite

association of cratonic regions (McCurry, 1976). The volcanic rocks are the youngest rocks

recognized in both north – west and north - east Nigeria. They belong to post Older Granite

episodes of high level magmatic activity, preliminary age determinations suggest that these

rocks were intruded during uplift and fracturing in the final stages of the Pan African

Orogeny. For this reason, they are included in a description of the basement rocks and not

with the other volcanic rocks of Nigeria.

16
2.3 Local Geology

Ikere-Ekiti and its environs lie within the southwestern sector of the reactivated basement

complex of Nigeria. The study area comprises dominantly of metamorphic and igneous rocks.

Ikere-Ekiti is underlain by migmatite-gneiss, schistose rocks and granitoids. Migmatite-

gneiss unit which is of Archaean-Paleoproterozoic age account for its dominant parts. The

unit is basal to all other lithologies and forms the country rock. The schistose rocks are pelitic

assemblages of low metamorphic grades. The schist is restricted to north-western part of

Ekiti. The granitoids are members of the Older Granites suites in Nigeria and represent deep-

sited bodies formed during Neoproterozoic (Pan-African) magmatism. The major lithologic

units in Ikere Ekiti include medium-grained Granites (MGR), coarse-grained charnockites

(CCH) and mostly covered by lateritic top soils. The rocks mapped in the study area are

presumed to have experienced several episodes of deformation which left its imprints on

these rocks.

The rock is a hard non-foliated rock which originally has a hard resistance to weather but

appears to be highly weathered with the presence of pronounced joints, laterites embedded in

the outcrops and also present on the outcrop.

Charnockites occur as lowlying and undulating outcrops in the studied area of Ikere Ekiti.

They vary in texture from medium to coarse grained and display greenish to bluish colours.

The coarse grained variety is dominant and the rock is generally unfoliated. The charnockites

in Ikere Ekiti are generally dense with intrusions such as quartz veins and quartzofelspathic

veins common on the outcrop. This gneissic nature could be related to the regional effect of

the Pan African orogeny as explained by Rahaman (1976, 1988). They are dark green in

colour and become lighter towards the surface of the outcrop. Mineralogically, they are

composed of feldspar, biotite, quartz. Other assemblages such as hypersthene-zircon

assemblages were also observed from the petrographic study of the charnockite samples.

17
Charnockites also abound in the study area. The geological map of the area produced by

Olarewaju, (2006) revealed that the charnockites occupy more than 70% of the land mass of

Ikere-Ekiti. The prominent outcrops are found around Ikere-Ise road, comprehensive high

school, Afao, Temidire Ikere- Ekiti. The three main textural types of charnockites

distinguished on the field conforms with Olarewaju, (2006) classification and are coarse

grained porphyritic charnockite, fine-medium grained charnockite and fine grained

charnockite. Most charnockite bodies in the basement complex of Ikere-Ekiti occur as low–

lying outcrops in form of smooth elongated rounded boulders.

The granite in Ikere Ekiti is gneissic in nature and it contains structures such as quartz veins,

joints, solution holes, fractures. Xenoliths which are partially digested country rock resulting

from partial assimilation of the engulfing rocks were observed on the outcrop. Solution holes

caused by differential weathering of less resistant minerals are also common. Due to its dense

nature, this rock type could serve as an impervious layer in some confined aquifers. The type

of granites mapped here are Pan African in age.

The current study reveals Ikere-Ekiti and its environs is underlain by Migmatite-gneiss,

quartzite/quartz-schist, granite, charnockite, and pegmatite (Figure 2.2). Migmatite is the

most widespread unit forming low-lying masses of typically fine-grained texture. Migmatite

being the country rock is distinct for its obvious fold structures which vary in geometry and

complexity. In few localities, the migmatite grades into biotite-hornblende gneiss and banded

gneiss. Four textural types of granite are recognized, they are: the fine-grained granite (OGf),

which is of restricted occurrence and confined to northwestern corner of the study area. The

medium grained granite (OGe) occurs in southwest, south and northeast of Ikere-Ekiti town.

The porphyritic granite (OGp) is the most-wide spread among the granite types and occurs

east and west of Ikere-Ekiti town. The undifferentiated Older Granite (OGu) that is granitized

18
with porphyroblastic gneiss and migmatite occur towards northwest of Ikere-Ekiti and east of

Ado-Ekiti (Olarewaju, 1988). Charnockite occupies the central domain forming pediment

upon which most part of Ikerre-Ado-Ekiti expressway runs and extends beyond 20 km along

north-south direction. The charnockite has been reduced in most places to low-lying masses

by prolonged chattering and exfoliation. It sometimes forms isolated rounded bodies within

the porphyritic granite and migmatite. Quartzite/quartz schist is characteristically fractured

NE-SW trending lithology mainly restricted to Ado-Ekiti town. The Undifferentiated coarse-

grained granite and porphyritic granite form the main parent rocks to the laterite in the study

area.

19
Figure 2.2: Geological Map of the Study Area (Akinola and Ademilua, 2023).

20
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Field Work

The field work started with a reconnaissance survey of the area especially the access roads,

drainage channels, types of settlements and also taking note of the minor and major outcrops.

We collected rock samples from outcrops at different locations in the study area. The rock

sample collected were described megascopically in the field and then prepared for thin

sections in the laboratory. Each rock sample was studied under the microscope was first cut

into a thin section with the rock cutting machine and mounted on glass slide.

During the course of this research, the method adopted to generate the necessary geological

and structural data is based on the geological field mapping operations. This can be divided

into 2 steps. The method involves:

1. In-situ observation and studying of outcrops and their dispositions, detailed study of the

structural features in the rocks such as folds, joints, dyke, foliation, etc.

2. In-situ acquisition of field data, during geologic field mapping. This entails proper

observation, identifications and systematic description of the rocks, the mineral present as

seen by the naked eye on the field and the various structures. This also includes in-situ

collection of structural data. Noting the disposition, shapes, styles, magnitudes, symmetry,

trends, axis, plunge, orientation, folds and other structural elements.

The minerals present in the rock were noted in other to compare them fully when the

petrography is done, the folds were studied and sketched in the field notebook, this were

completed by taking the photographs of structures encountered during the fieldwork with the

interpretation of the geostructural history of the study area.

21
3.1.1 Field Materials

There were various field materials used during the course of this research work. These

materials are listed as follows;

1. Sledge Hammer: This instrument was used in breaking down samples for analysis.

2. Digital Camera: Photographs of structures on the outcrops such as folds, joints, dykes, and

quartz-veins encountered during the course of this research work were taking by the use of a

digital camera

3. Global Positioning System (GPS): This is used in determining the accurate geographical

location and positions of the outcrops and also in getting the elevation of the outcrops above

the sea level which is a short form gives the highest of the outcrops.

4. Paper Tape: This was used to label samples also to tape down tracing paper on board.

5. Field Notebook: This was used for recording all geological data and observations during

fieldwork.

6. Sample Bag: The collection of rock samples, sample bags was used in other to protect

them from contamination.

7. Compass-clinometer: The compass was used in navigating and taking bearing and strike of

outcrops orientation on the field while the clinometer was used in measuring dips where the

foliations are still visible and plunges of folds.

8. Coloured Pencil: This was used for marking foliation planes when strikes and dips are to

be taken and for labelling of rock samples collected from different locations.

22
9. Tracing Paper: this was mounted on the topographical map to trace out salient geological

features such as drainage patterns, position of outcrops that will assist in the production of the

geological map.

10. Drawing Board: it is the board on which the topographical map and the tracing paper are

mounted.

11. Ruler/Protractor: These were used for measuring length of structures like dykes quartz-

veins and plotting strike and dips on the tracing paper.

3.1.2 Laboratory Materials

Laboratory equipment used includes:

1. Petrological Microscope: It is used for the identification of minerals in the thin sections.

2. Diamond Impregnated Cutting Machine: It is used for cutting the rock samples

perpendicular to the orientation or alignment of a mineral.

3. Abrasive Powder: This is used for lapping of the samples in order to have a proper surface.

4. Glass Slides: it is used for mounting the sample on the petrographic microscope

5. Laboratory Thermostat: It is used for proper dried off of the slide and washed

3.2 Petrological Analysis Procedure

Petrographic analysis includes the reporting of colour, grain size, structure, and other

macroscopic features observed either in hand specimen or in outcrops and, most importantly,

the microscopic examination of thin sections of rock using petrographic microscopes.

Petrographic study involves detailed descriptions or rocks with respect to its minerals content

and its textural relationships within the rock. The petrographic analysis of a given rocks

23
sample aid in the classification of the particular rock sample, identifying its mineralogy,

textures and their grain sizes.

The thin sections studied allow us to have an idea of the mineralogical composition and

textures. Petrography also helps us to ascertain the types of minerals that dominate some of

the sample collected the textures, grain sizes and the relationship between different mineral

grains also clearly under the petrographic microscope.

The thin section analysis was carried out using a petrographic microscope at the Petrographic

microscope at the Petrological laboratory, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. It is

essential in order to optimize production of good quality aggregates. The rock samples were

cut perpendicular to the orientation or alignment of a mineral by the diamond impregnated

cutting machine. The smooth cutting side was subjected to lapping with helps of abrasive

powder in order to have a proper surface. The smooth surface was later mounted on a glass

slides with the help of epoch (resin) or araldite which was left for about 12 to 24 hours for a

proper solidification after which the samples slide were grind with the impregnated diamond

wheel machine and glass plate to the level of having 0.03mm (30u) of a sample on a slide,

which makes the viewing visible and place on a laboratory thermostat for a proper dried off

and later cover it with the cover slide (cover slip) with the help of araidite in order to protect

the sample slide from any other impurities.

Rock slides were studied under a microscope to determine the properties of minerals making

up the rocks. Once we know the properties of minerals, we can use a few simple tests to

identify them. Usually, it is not necessary to analyze a mineral chemically to discover its

identity. Some properties are diagnostic features for some minerals. However, this approach

may not be realistic when the minerals are aggregated to form rock. Additional studies like

microscopic examination can shed more light on the identity of the mineral. This is the

24
approach we adopted in this study. In general, physical and optical properties most often used

to identify minerals are crystal form, habit, cleavage, hardness, luster, color, streak, specific

gravity (density), plaeochroism, extinction (angle), birefringence, interference colour and

twinning. Optical observations were realized in both plane polarized light and cross nicol.

3.3 Mineralogical identification using thin section

After the thin section preparation, rock samples were then studied using the Petrographic

Microscope (Carl/Zeiss/JENA Model), with respect to Plane Polarized light (PPL) and Cross

Polarized light (XPL). The main objective was to properly identify the rock types and

ascertain their mineralogical composition. The modal composition was determined to know

the individual mineral constituents by finding the percentage of each mineral observed on the

microscope, moving the position of the slide at a different count, calculating the number of

individual minerals at each count and the percentage of each mineral present from the total

number of the minerals.

3.4 Analytical Procedure

The geochemical analysis was carried out to determine major, trace and REEs composition of

the granites. Major element analysis was determined on Philips PW 1404/10 X-ray

spectrometer by fusing the samples with lithium tetraborate and the product is cast into glass

discs. Due to low concentration of trace component of rock and a need for greater sensitivity,

ICP-MS was adopted for trace elements analysis. Major elements were analyzed on a fused

glass disk using a 2.4kW Rhodium tube. The trace element concentrations were determined

by inductively coupled plasma- mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Major and trace element

abundances were determined using PS-950 X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and a 7500a La-ICP-

MS, respectively. The concentration of the control standards that were used in the calibration

procedures for major element analyses fit the range of concentration of the samples. Among

25
these standards were NIM-C (Granite from the Council for Mineral Technology South

Africa) and BL-N (Basalt from the International Working Group).

26
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Field work and Sampling

Systematic geologic field mapping exercise revealed that the study area is dominated by

crystalline rocks that are either igneous or metamorphic in nature which belongs to part of the

Precambrian basement rocks of Southwestern Nigeria. The study area is underlain by

migmatite gneiss, granite gneiss, Pan African granite, and charnockites. The gneisses

(migmatites gneiss and granite gneiss) cover the largest portion (over 60%) of the study area.

Occurring in varying dimensions in the gneisses are quartz veins which cut across the whole

length and width of the host rocks. Noticeable on the he outcrops are lot of quartz, aplite and

pegmatite intrusions. Field examination using hand lens revealed the presence of quartz,

feldspar, muscovite, hornblende and biotite as main minerals in the granite rocks in the area.

The charnockites represent intrusive rocks that were possibly emplaced during the Pan-

African orogeny. The rocks appear as oval or semi-circular hills of between five and ten

meters (5-10 m) high with a lot of its boulders at different locations around the area. They are

generally massive, dark-greenish in colour with medium to coarse grained texture. Features

encountered in the area include pinch and swell structure, faults, joints, quartz vein, Micro

folds, pegmatitic intrusions, solution holes and xenolith inclusion.

The results obtained using the methodology discussed in the previous chapter are presented in

this chapter. The field relationship, structures and petrography of the rocks are presented

under the sub-heading “geology and petrography”; the geochemistry of the charnockite are

presented under the sub-heading whole rock geochemistry.

27
4.2 Structural Analysis

Rocks as aggregate of minerals experience inhomogeneous deformation when subjected to

stress. Domains of maximum strain occur in high-grade metamorphic zones of the earth

(Gardner et al., 2015). According to these authors, rheological properties of rocks is crucial to

interpretating several global structures which manifested in earth’s surface as structural

defects in rocks. Evidence of deformation in crustal rocks have been established from

deformed pebbles; shear zones; boudins and mullions. Rocks begin to respond to forces of

deformation soon after they are formed, when rocks experience stress, shortly after, the strain

component manifests as geological structures. (Odeyemi et al., 1999) suggested that almost

all the foliation exhibited by basement rocks in southwestern Nigeria are tectonic in origin.

The authors believed pre-existing primary structures have been obliterated by subsequent

deformations. Shear structures are more prevalent in cataclastic metamorphic domains,

however, rocks within Ekiti exhibits several structural elements of secondary origin, and this

includes fractures, fold, joints, and faults.

4.2.1 Fractures and Joints

Fracture symbolizes discontinuity in rocks, it connotes deformation in which there is no

noticeable displacement. When rock fractures, it suggests the endurance limits have been

exceeded. Fractures are produced in rocks as a response to extensional forces. The size and

magnitude of fracture depends on the amount of stress, composition of rocks, and duration or

length of time for which the force acted. However, fractures are more prominent in brittle

rocks like charnockite, quartzite, gneiss, and granites and less frequent in schistose

assemblages which often undergo folding.

Some joints are oriented parallel, some are oblique while others are perpendicular to the

strike direction. Specifically, massive charnockite from the study area contain unloading

28
joints. Such joints are usually aligned horizontally symbolizing the direction of stress relief

when the overburden is released. Unloading joint is a feature common to many whale-back

granite masses. This structure develops when granite which was once deep within the earth

crust now become exposed at the earth’s surface by removal of the overburden through

million years of erosion. By this, they split into horizontal joints to balance the reduction in

pressure. Adekoya, (1977) believed tectonic joints are quantitative and directional

manifestation of the operative forces that can give clue to the possible stress distribution in

deformed rocks.

Figure 4.1: Fractures and veins around study area

4.2.2. Xenolith

Xenoliths are fragmented residue of older rocks encapsulated within a granitic rock.

Xenoliths are particularly important in accessing the stress regime of any magmatic intrusion.

Small and rounded xenolith connote low energy regime, while massive types with random

shapes symbolize catastrophic (forceful) emplacement accompanied by rapid cooling.

Usually, xenoliths are older than the rocks hosting them. Charnokite around Ise road, Ikere-

Ekiti is charged with many xenoliths.

29
Figure 4.2: Xenolith on a porphyritic granite in the Study area

4.2.3. Veins and Dykes

Crosscutting veins found in almost all rock types are the easiest structures to recognize within

Ikere Ekiti. According to (Fossen, 2010) it is possible to infer stress directions by studying

attitude of veins. Veins develop commonly orthogonal to the maximum instantaneous

extension axis and have been considered as a good shear sense indicator. Thus, careful study

of complex vein system has successful applications in tectonic studies (Maeder, 2014).

Leucosome (felsic) veins cutting across each other are common features of Ikere-Ekiti

terrain. Relationships like this has been reported from many migmatite terrains.

4.2.4. Quartz Veins

Quartz vein is the commonest structural feature in Ikere-Ekiti area. It occurs as tabular

leucocratic bodies emplaced within the host rocks. Their texture, mineralogy and color are

30
quite distinctive. In the study area, quartz veins are of variable sizes, large ones measure up to

50 cm in width and are traceable for tens of meters, while the small ones are few millimeters

wide. Large quartz veins with sharp margins are common on many gneissic rocks. However,

quartz is formed in veins after cooling of hydrothermal fluids ascending through fractures in

the rock or by mobile hydro fractures (Bons, 2001). Quartz veins are common in silicified

zones and are formed by quartz injection or sucking-in (Elliston, 2018). Quartz being able to

form under low temperature-pressure conditions can withstand denudation, it tends to persist

in granite and other siliceous rocks. In Ikere-Ekiti area, quartz veins are oriented parallel or

obliquely to the foliation directions of their host. Other intrusive bodies observed during the

field investigation include dolerite, pegmatite, and aplite dykes. In the field, it forms a raised

platform higher than the host rock due to its resistance to erosion.

4.3 Minerology: Thin Section

Modal compositions and photomicrographs of the analysed rock samples are shown in Table

4.1 and Figure 4.3 to 4.7, respectively. The modal analysis revealed that the Charnokites have

high quartz contents varying between 28-31 vol. %, and contains plagioclase feldspar (29-32

vol. %). The Microcline range from 18-20 vol. %. Biotite in the granites range between 9-14

vol. %; hornblende and muscovite occur in small amounts in these rocks. The charnockites

are characteristerized by relatively anhydrous mineral assemblages.

31
 Table 4.1: Modal Analysis of the Rock Samples

MINERALS SAMPLE 1 SAMPLE 2 SAMPLE 3 SAMPLE 4 SAMPLE 5 RANGE MEAN SD

QUARTZ 28% 28% 29% 28% 31% 28%-31% 28.8 1.30

MICROCLINE 19% 18% 19% 18% 20% 18%-20% 18.8 0.84

PLAGIOCLASE 30% 32% 30% 29% 32% 29%-32% 30.6 1.34

BIOTITE 13% 12% 12% 14% 9% 9%-14% 12.0 1.87

HORNBLENDE 5% 4% 4% 6% 3% 3%-6% 4.4 1.14

MUSCOVITE 5% 6% 6% 5% 5% 5%-6% 5.4 0.55

4.3.1 Interpretation of Thin Sections

The petrographic study of the rock samples reveals mineral distribution is quality respectively

quartz, biotite, hornblende and muscovite, feldspar (microcline and plagioclase). These

analysis shows that quartz and plagioclase is the dominant mineral in all the slides and this

point to the fact that the rocks are product of acidic magma crystallization as shown in plate

A-E that depicts the sketches of the charnockite of the study area and their mineralogical

components. It is also evident from the microscopic studies of individuals’ minerals making

up the rocks that they are randomly distributed without any preferred alignment. These

analysis shows that quartz and plagioclase is the dominant mineral in all the slides and this

point to the fact that the rocks are product of acidic magma crystallization. It is also evident

from the microscopic studies of individuals’ minerals making up the rocks that they are

randomly distributed without any preferred alignment.

The thin section analysis presented in plates also reveals the minerals in both plane and cross

polarized light (Figure 4.3- Figure 4.7). The rock samples in cross polarized light revealed the

32
presence of varying composition of constituent minerals such as quartz, plagioclase, biotite,

microcline, hornblende, and muscovite minerals. Plagioclase feldspar is one of the most

abundant mineral in charnockite igneous rocks, its occurs as large phenocrysts and sometimes

as smaller grains within the matrix and the grains are anhedral and are much larger than they

are wide. However the longer axes do not have a preferred orientation. They show a well-

developed polysynthetic albite and carlsbar twinning while some grains shows strain shadow

of wavy extinction due to the weakly development of the grains suggesting that the grains

was subjected to slight deformation after crystallization. Quartz shows an irregular, subhedral

body, greyish to whitish colouration. Biotite are phenocryst with small fakes whose long axes

have perfect orientation in a reddish brown colour and very pleochronic.

Slide A: was observed to have the mineralogical content as follows, Quartz 28%, Microcline

19%, Plagioclase 30%, Biotite 13%, Hornblende 5% and Muscovite 5%

Slide B: was observed to have the mineralogical content as follows, Quartz 28%, Microcline

18%, Plagioclase 32%, Biotite 12%, Hornblende 4% and Muscovite 6%

Slide C: contains the mineralogical composition as follows, Quartz 29%, Microcline 19%,

Plagioclase 30%, Biotite 12%, Hornblende 4% and Muscovite 6%

Slide D: was observed to have the mineralogical content as follows, Quartz 28%, Microcline

18%, Plagioclase 29%, Biotite 14%, Hornblende 6% and Muscovite 5%

Slide E: contains the mineralogical composition as follows, Quartz 31%, Microcline 20%,

Plagioclase 32%, Biotite 9%, Hornblende 3% and Muscovite 5%

33
4.3.2 Photo Micrograph of showing Mineralogical Component of Charnockitic rock

(A) (B)

Figure 4.3: Photomicrograph of charnockites from Ikere-Ekiti area in (A) plane and (B) cross
polarized light showing the component minerals.

(A) (B)

Figure 4.4: Photomicrograph of charnockites from Ikere-Ekiti area in (A) plane and (B) cross
polarized light showing the component minerals.

34
 (A) (B)

Figure 4.5: Photomicrograph of charnockites from Ikere-Ekiti area in (A) plane and (B) cross
polarized light showing the component minerals.

(A) (B)

Figure 4.6: Photomicrograph of charnockites from Ikere-Ekiti area in (A) plane and (B) cross
polarized light showing the component minerals.

35
(A) (B)

Figure 4.7: Photomicrograph of charnockites from Ikere-Ekiti area in (A) plane and (B)
cross polarized light showing the component minerals.

36
4.4. Geochemical Analysis

Geochemical study of Ikere Ekiti charnockites with the aim of establishing the chemical

compositions of the studied rocks. Representative rock samples were analyzed (major

elements and traces elements) through the use of an inductively couple plasma atomic

emission spectrometry the major elements were analysed following a lithium borate fusion

and dilute acid digestion while trace and REE were analysed by couple plasma mass

spectrometry following a multi-acid digestion method (Maja et al., 2011). Five rock samples

which includes (SP17, SP25, SP19, SP24, and SP16) were analyzed.

4.4.1 Major Element

Major elements for the five charnockite (SP17, SP25, SP19, SP24, and SP16) are shown in

Table 4.2. The charnockites were remarkably similar with only slight differences in the

concentration values. The SiO2 content of the charnockites varied from 67.98-71.01% with an

average of 69.90%, which clearly indicate the crystalline rock in Ikere Ekiti charnockites is

siliceous. It show a significant fractionation of plagioclase and alkali feldspar. But the

composition of MgO, P2O5, CaO, and TiO2 is very minute. The Ikere Ekiti charnockites have

a considerable amount of Fe2O3, Al2O3, and K2O. The high silica content points to the felsic

nature of the rocks and therefore they that are supersaturated with respect to SiO 2. They are

well enriched in Al2O3 greater than the sum total of Na2O + CaO + K2O which indicate that

the charnockite samples are peralumunous in nature. Average alumina contents in rock

samples range from 13.01-14.02 with an average of 13.41, and the mean Na 2O and K2O

contents in this rock is 3.60% and 4.22% respectively. The Fe 2O3 is present also in

considerable amount having composition ranging from 3.96-4.33% and average composition

of 4.22% respectively.

37
Table 4.2: Major elements compositions of Charnockites around Ikere Ekiti

Oxide Sample 17 Sample 25 Sample 19 Sample 24 Sample 16 Average

SiO2 71.14 71.01 67.98 68.14 71.32 69.90

AL2O3 12.84 13.01 14.02 14.08 13.13 13.41

Fe2O3 3.77 3.96 4.22 4.23 4.92 4.22

TiO2 0.98 0.23 0.39 0.78 0.26 0.52

CaO 0.83 0.98 1.33 1.81 1.13 1.21

P2O5 0.09 0.26 0.62 0.76 0.06 0.35

K2O 4.12 3.66 4.77 4.33 4.23 4.22

MnO 0.37 0.15 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.15

MgO 1.89 1.87 1.78 1.71 0.32 1.51

Na2O 3.12 3.87 3.99 3.41 3.65 3.60

LOI 0.72 0.82 0.62 0.45 0.40 0.60

4.4.2 Rare Earth Elements

The elements Ba, Rb, Sr were highly concentrated in the charnockites. This might be due to

the presence of more plagiodase in the charnockite, which harbours Ba. Barium also

substitutes for K in the biotite in the charnockites. Strontium and rubidium are anomalous in

38
the charnockites due to substitution of these elements for Ca in plagiodase and hornblende,

which are abundant in the charnockites. The Ba+ content of charnockites is very high with

about 276 – 388 ppm respectively with an average of 322 ppm (Table 4.3), this indicates that

the magma is enriched with K – feldspar. Ba+ is known to replace only K+ out of all cations.

It replaces K+ in biotite and to a higher degree in k-feldspar. It is not depleted in magma until

very late stage and is instead enriched in the magma towards the end of fractionation

(Nockolds and Allen, 1953). Higher concentrations of Ba+ are therefore indications of higher

degree of fractionation. Heier and Taylor (1959), observed that strontium (Sr) concentrate

higher relative to (Ba) in feldspars from pegmatites. In our study samples however, Sr is

observed to have less than halve of the concentrations of Ba.

Furthermore, the high content strontium (Sr) of 166.8 ppm and Rubidium of 181.2 ppm

indicates that the magma source must have rich in Sr and Rb. It also indicates the likely

crustal origin of the magma and the less efficient removal of these elements by mafic and

silicic phenocryst. The concentrations of Lu, Eu, and La are by far lower than those for rocks

that originated from the primitive mantle sources, which are in hundreds of ppm. This

suggests again, that the magma of these rocks cannot be from a pure primitive mantle source

(Wilson, 1991).

39
 Table 4.3: Trace elements concentrations in (ppm) of Charnockites around Ikere Ekiti

Trace Elements(ppm) Sample 1 (SP17) Sample 2(SP25) Sample 3 (SP19) Sample 4 (SP24) Sample 5(SP16) Average

Ba 311 388 309 276 326 322

Rb 213 277 109 98 209 181.2

Ce 90 65 94 56 210 103

Y 23 12 9 16 86 29.2

Ta 32 62 28 67 2 38.2

Nb 167 129 142 120 63 124.2

Zr 199 182 165 182 112 168

La 12 13 13 12 196 49.2

Sr 172 292 217 109 44 166.8

Eu 0.25 1.20 1 0.65 0.93 0.80

Lu 1.15 1.11 1.04 1.11 1.20 1.12

Ga 72 32 86 54 23 53.4

40
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1. Conclusion

Mineralogical and geochemical features of the charnockite rocks in Ikere-Ekiti the study area

was investigated through extensive field geological exercise. The geochemical data of rocks

reveals high felsic composition. The SiO2 content of the charnockites varied from 67.98-

71.32% with an average of 69.90% which clearly indicate the crystalline rock in Ikere Ekiti

charnockites is siliceous. It show a significant fractionation of plagioclase and alkali feldspar.

But the composition of MgO, P2O5, CaO, and TiO2 is very minute. The Ikere Ekiti

charnockites have a considerable amount of Fe 2O3, Al2O3, and K2O. The high silica content

points to the felsic nature of the rocks and therefore they that are supersaturated with respect

to SiO2. They are well enriched in Al 2O3 greater than the sum total of Na 2O + CaO + K2O

which indicate that the charnockite samples are peralumunous in nature. Average alumina

contents in rock samples range from 12.84-14.08 with an average of 13.41, and the mean

Fe2O3, Na2O, and K2O contents in this rock is 4.22%, 3.60% and 4.22% respectively. The

rock types found on the field are crystalline rocks and they includes charnockites. The origin

and formation of these rocks can be tied to metamorphism and deformation, as well as

magmatic intrusions. The rock of the study area has undergone more than one period of

metamorphism and deformation as well as the Pan-African Orogeny.

41
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