Students should be able to

16.4 Sexual reproduction in humans

Core
1 Identify on diagrams and state the functions of the following parts of the male reproductive system: testes,
scrotum, sperm ducts, prostate gland, urethra and penis
2 Identify on diagrams and state the functions of the following parts of the female reproductive system:
ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix and vagina
3 Describe fertilisation as the fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm) and a female gamete (egg cell)
4 Explain the adaptive features of sperm, limited to: flagellum, mitochondria and enzymes in the acrosome
5 Explain the adaptive features of egg cells, limited to: energy stores and the jelly coat that changes at
fertilisation
6 Compare male and female gametes in terms of: size, structure, motility and numbers
7 State that in early development, the zygote forms an embryo which is a ball of cells that implants into the
lining of the uterus
8 Identify on diagrams and state the functions of the following in the development of the fetus: umbilical cord,
placenta, amniotic sac and amniotic fluid
Supplement
9 Describe the function of the placenta and umbilical cord in relation to the exchange of dissolved nutrients,
gases and excretory products between the blood of the mother and the blood of the fetus
10 State that some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta and affect the fetus
Human reproduction
In human reproduction the two sexes,male and female, each produces special types of reproductive
cells, called gametes. The male gametes are the sperm (or spermatozoa) and the female gametes are
the ova (singular = ovum) or eggs as shown in the diagrams.

What is haploid nucleus? Why do sperm and egg have haploid nucleus?
See the next slide for explanation.
The importance of meiosis and
fertilization in sexually
reproducing organisms

•Meiosis occurs in reproductive organs to form

gametes (sperm and egg).
•The parent cell has two sets of chromosomes
(diploid), but the gametes formed have only
one set (haploid).
•This is necessary so that when fertilisation
occurs, the resulting zygote has the correct
diploid number.
Parts of male reproductive system
Functions of male reproductive organs
Sperm production
The lining of the sperm-producing tubules
in the testis consists of rapidly dividing
cells .
After a series of cell divisions, the cells
grow long tails called flagellae (singular:
flagellum) and become sperm , which pass
into the epididymis.
During copulation, the epididymis and
sperm ducts contract and force sperm out
through the urethra.
The prostate gland and seminal vesicle add
fluid to the sperm. This fluid plus the
sperm it contains is called semen, and the
ejection of sperm through the
penis is called ejaculation.
Parts of female reproductive organs
Functions of female reproductive organs
 Ovulation
The egg cells (ova) are present in the ovary from
the time of birth. No more are formed during the
female’s lifetime, but between the ages of 10
and 14 some of the egg cells start to mature and
are released, one at a time about every 4 weeks
from alternate ovaries.
As each ovum matures, the cells around it divide
rapidly and produce a fluid-fi sac. This sac is
called a follicle and, when mature, it projects
from the surface of the ovary like a small blister.
Finally, the follicle bursts and releases the ovum
with its coating of cells into the funnel of the
oviduct. This is called ovulation.
 Fertilization
The sperm swim through the cervix and into the uterus by wriggling movements of their tails.
They pass through the uterus and enter the oviduct, but the method by which they do this is not known for certain.
If there is an ovum in the oviduct, one of the sperm may bump into it and stick to its surface.
The acrosome at the head of the sperm secretes enzymes which digest part of the egg membrane.
The sperm then enters the cytoplasm of the ovum and the male nucleus of the
sperm fuses with the female nucleus.
This is the moment of fertilization and is shown in more detail in Figure
 Adaptive features of sperm
• the flagellum (tail) provides powerful
propulsion,
• the mitochondria in the midpiece generate
ATP energy for the tail's movement, and
• the acrosome (cap on the head) releases
enzymes to digest the egg's protective
layers, allowing fertilization. These features
ensure mobility and successful egg
penetration for genetic transfer, crucial for
reproduction.
Adaptive features of egg cells

Abundant energy stores

(cytoplasm/yolk) provide fuel for
early cell division before
implantation,

The jelly coat(zona pellucida)

that protects the egg and undergoes
a rapid, triggered change after one
sperm enters creating an
impenetrable barrier to stop multiple
sperms fertilizing the egg), ensuring
the correct chromosome number for
development
 Comparison of Male and Female Gametes
In humans, male gametes (sperm) and female gametes (ova or eggs) are highly specialized cells
that exhibit significant differences to fulfill their reproductive roles.
 Early development and implantation
• Early development starts with a zygote (fertilized
egg) undergoing rapid mitotic cell division to
become a ball of cells called an embryo, which
travels down the oviduct to the uterus.

• Implantation occurs when this embryo attaches

to the thick uterine lining, starting pregnancy
and allowing for nutrient exchange via the
developing placenta, eventually forming a fetus
over nine months, with key substances like
oxygen/glucose moving from mother to fetus,
and waste/CO2 moving the other way
What does ovulation in the diagram refer to ?
Role of placenta and other structures in
the development of fetus

Identify on diagrams and state the possible functions of umbilical cord,

placenta, amniotic sac and amniotic fluid of in the development of the fetus:
Chorionic villi in the placenta are finger-like projections
that grow from the chorion (outer fetal membrane).

Functions:
Increase the surface area for exchange
Help in the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste
products between mother and fetus
Anchor the embryo to the uterine wall

Structure:
Contain fetal blood capillaries
Are surrounded by maternal blood (without mixing of blood)

In short:
Chorionic villi form the main functional units of the
placenta.
Diagram Identification & Functions
1. Umbilical Cord
Identification: A tube-like structure connecting the fetus's navel (belly button) to the placenta.
Function: Acts as the lifeline, transporting oxygenated blood and nutrients from the placenta to the fetus via
the umbilical vein, and carrying deoxygenated blood and waste products from the fetus back to the placenta
via umbilical arteries.
2. Placenta
Identification: A temporary, pancake-shaped organ attached to the uterine wall, where the umbilical cord
originates.
Function: The primary site for metabolic exchange, providing oxygen and nutrients, removing carbon dioxide
and waste, producing hormones, and offering some protection and immunity.
3. Amniotic Sac
Identification: A thin, double-layered membrane (amnion and chorion) that encloses the fetus and fluid
within the uterus.
Function: A protective barrier against infection, maintains a stable temperature, and contains the amniotic
fluid.
4. Amniotic Fluid
Identification: The clear, watery liquid filling the amniotic sac, surrounding the fetus.
Function: Cushions the fetus from bumps, allows freedom for movement (muscle development), helps lungs
and digestive system mature (fetus swallows and breathes it), and maintains constant temperature.
Can pathogens and toxin pass across
placenta and affect fetus? Explain.
 Yes,
 Certain pathogens (like Zika viurs, Rubella virus
and Syphilis bacteria) and various toxins (heavy
metals, alcohol, plastics) can cross the placenta.
 These directly infect the fetus or cause
developmental harm, leading to congenital
defects, growth restriction, or organ damage, as
the placenta isn't fully impermeable.
Review questions (Hodder publication)
[Link] do sperm differ from ova in their structure?
2 List the structures, in the correct order, through which the sperm must pass from the time they are
produced in the
testis, to the time they leave the urethra.
3 In what ways does a zygote differ from any other cell in the body?
4 List, in the correct order, the parts of the female reproductive system through which sperm must pass
before reaching and fertilizing an ovum.
5 State exactly what happens at the moment of fertilization.
6. In what ways will the composition of the blood in the umbilical vein differ from that in the umbilical
artery?
[Link] embryo is surrounded with fluid, its lungs are filled with fluid and it cannot breathe. Why doesn’t it
suffocate?
 Review questions- answers
1. How do sperm differ from ova in their structure?
Sperm (Male Gamete): Small, streamlined, motile (has a tail/flagellum for movement), differentiated into head
(DNA), neck, middle piece (mitochondria for energy), and tail; designed to travel to the egg.
Ova (Female Gamete): Large, spherical, non-motile, contains abundant cytoplasm and nutrients for early embryo
development; contains DNA in the nucleus.
2. List the structures, in the correct order, through which the sperm must pass from the time they are
produced in the testis, to the time they leave the urethra.
Testis→epididymis→sperm duct→urethra
3. In what ways does a zygote differ from any other cell in the body?
A zygote is the first diploid cell formed by the fusion of haploid sperm and ovum; it's unique because it contains a
complete, new combination of genetic material (half from each parent) and is the starting point for a new
organism, initiating rapid cell division (cleavage) to form an embryo.
4. List, in the correct order, the parts of the female reproductive system through which sperm must pass before
reaching and fertilising an ovum.
Vagina → Cervix → Uterus → Oviduct (Fallopian Tube).
5. State exactly what happens at the moment of fertilization.
At fertilization, the nucleus of a single sperm fuses with the nucleus of the ovum, combining their genetic material
(chromosomes) to form a single, diploid cell called a zygote, which starts the process of embryonic development.
6. In what ways will the composition of the blood in the umbilical vein differ from that in the
umbilical artery?
The composition of blood in the umbilical vein differs significantly from that in the umbilical artery
because the vein carries oxygenated blood from the placenta to the fetus, while the arteries carry
deoxygenated blood back to the placenta for processing.
The umbilical vein is rich in nutrients like glucose and amino acids (e.g., higher glutamic acid).
Conversely, the umbilical arteries carry metabolic waste products such as urea and lactic acid from the
fetus back to the placenta.

[Link] embryo is surrounded with fluid, its lungs are filled with fluid and it cannot breathe. Why doesn’t it
suffocate?
Although the embryo is surrounded by fluid and its lungs are non-functional, it does not suffocate because
the placenta acts as its external lung, facilitating the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between
the maternal and fetal bloodstreams.
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