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Intercultural Studies II

WHAT DOES THE TERM “REVOLUTION” REFER TO ?

Definitions of 'revolution'

1. A revolution is a successful attempt by a large group of people to change the political system of their country by
forcé, for example … the French Revolution.

2. A revolution in a particular area of human activity is an important change in that area.

...the industrial revolution.

[Link] : the overthrow or repudiation of a regime or political system by the governed

4. (in Marxist theory) the violent and historically necessary transition from one system of production in a society to
the next, as from feudalism to capitalism

5. far-reaching and drastic change, esp in ideas, methods, etc

6. a cycle of successive events or changes

7.a change in the way a country is governed, usually to a different political system and often using violence or war:

The French Revolution changed France from a monarchy to a republic.

8. (CHANGE)a very important change in the way that people do things, for example : a technological revolution

Collins English Dictionary. Copyright © / the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary & Thesaurus ©

A revolution is a historical event or process that results in fundamental change in the way a society or
political system is structured. Many different social and political changes can be called "revolutions," and
there is no single correct way to categorize them. However, it is still important to have a general idea of
what kinds of revolutions have occurred in history.

1-Revolutionary Wars

In history, the word revolution most often refers to the forceful expulsion of the government, either to change to a
different governing system or to establish independence from another country. Sometimes, as with the American
Revolution in the 1700s or the Russian Revolution of the 20th century, the overthrow of the government involves a
long and bloody war. Another prominent example is the 1949 Communist Revolution in China, which succeeded only
after Mao Zedong's Red Army defeated the Nationalists in a long-running civil war.

2-Government Overthrow

Sudden changes in government don't always happen through warfare. The French Revolution, one of the most
important in Western history despite its ultimate failure, was characterized by violent riots and bloody crackdowns,
but not large-scale war. And one of first popular uses of the word "revolution" for a change in government was in
1688, when England replaced Catholic King James II with Protestant William and Mary, an event known as the
"Glorious Revolution" and remembered for its relative lack of violence. Other government overthrows are truly
nonviolent, such as Czechoslovakia's 1989 "Velvet Revolution," which ended communism in the country through
mass protests by the people.
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3-Economic Revolutions

Revolutionary changes can also affect the economic systems in a society. The most famous example is the Industrial
Revolution, which began in England in the late 1700s. As traditional methods of producing goods by hand and
through direct human labor were replaced by factories and machines, the economies of England, Europe and later
the whole world were radically transformed. Another example is the "Green Revolution" of the 20th century, when
technological advances brought huge increases to the world's agricultural production, making food cheaper in the
developed world but failing to end world hunger.

4-Social and Cultural Revolutions

Political revolutions can bring about major social changes, as the French Revolution did, but other transformations of
society are separate from changes in governing structures. For example, the Protestant Reformation, when many of
today's Christian denominations split from the Catholic Church, can be described as a revolution. A different kind of
cultural transformation happened in the U.S. staring in the 1960s with the so-called "Sexual Revolution," which
replaced strict traditional sexual morality with a modern culture where sex outside marriage, contraception and
equal relationship roles for men and women are all common and in-the-open.

What is the Age of Revolutions ?

The Age of Revolutions is a period in history between c.1775-1848. Over the course of these years, society
underwent a series of revolutions in almost all theatres of life: political, war, social and cultural, and economic and
technological. Revolutionary ideas and revolutionary actions swept across the world, and historians still discuss and
debate the overall impact and change over this period.

This period is exactly that – a period of history characterised by revolutions of all kinds – political, social and
economic affecting many areas of life.

Politically, the period is characterised by a number of significant revolutionary movements which occurred in many
parts of Europe and the Americas. The period is noted for the change in government from absolutist monarchies to
constitutionalist states and republics. The Age of Revolutions includes the American Revolution, the French
Revolution, the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the Haitian Revolution, the revolt of slaves in Latin America, and of course
the wave of revolutions across Europe in 1848 among others.

Economically and socially, this period also includes the Industrial Revolution in which mass production in factories
replaced hand making of many goods and in turn led to the growth of cities, the birth of consumerism and the
transport revolution. Intertwined with this is of course transatlantic slavery and the abolition movement.

In thought and ideas, the Age of Enlightenment was at its height and new ideas about how to live challenged the old
order. A working class also began to demand greater rights and literacy rates began to increase. New technologies
led to a technological revolution which in turn intertwined with the Industrial Revolution.

The Industrial Revolution marked a period of development in the latter half of the 18th century that transformed
largely rural, agrarian societies in Europe and America into industrialized, urban ones.

Goods that had once been crafted by hand started to be produced in mass quantities by machines in factories,
thanks to the introduction of new machines and techniques in textiles, iron making and other industries.
Fueled by the use of steam power, the Industrial Revolution began in Britain and spread to the rest of the world,
including the United States, by the 1830s and ‘40s. Modern historians often refer to this period as the First Industrial
Revolution, to set it apart from a second period of industrialization that took place from the late 19th to early 20th
centuries and saw rapid advances in the steel, electric and automobile industries.
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The Industrial Revolution began in the 18th century, when agricultural societies became more industrialized and
urban. The transcontinental railroad, the cotton gin, electricity and other inventions permanently changed society.

The Age of Revolution, 1774–1849

The Age of Revolution is the name given to the period of history that saw large scale revolutionary movements in
Europe and the American colonies from 1774 to 1849. The revolutions of this period contributed to the replacement
of absolutist monarchies with representative governments grounded in a written constitution of rights, as well as the
construction of nation states based around the ideas of shared cultures and history. Without these revolutions the
world would be a far different place.

The American Revolution Spurred on by ideas that emerged during the Enlightenment, the American
Revolution is generally considered the first spark that set off the Age of
Revolution. Though often thought about synonymously with the year 1776
(when independence was declared) the beginning of the conflict actually goes
as far back as 1765 when American colonials declared that their should be no
taxation without representation of the colonies in British Parliament. Hostilities
would first break out in 1775 at the Battle of Lexington and Concord. With the
revolution enduring until 1777, France entered the war on the side of the
Colonists, causing the British Empire to focus on them as their main opponent.
The conflict itself finally ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1783.

The French Revolution Following the Seven Years’ War and participation in the American
Revolutionary War, the government of France had an excessive amount of
debt. Choosing to rectify this issue, the French Government attempted to
address this debt by instituting higher taxes which proved exceedingly
unpopular. Combined with years of poor harvests, which exacerbated
resentment against the nobility and church, contributed to the beginning of
the French Revolution in 1789. This chaotic period would last until 1799
when Napoleon Bonaparte would rise to take the reins of a new French Empire.

Haitian Revolution, 1791–1804 Not long after the start of the French Revolution, an insurrection broke out in
Saint-Domingue against slavery and colonial rule. Interestingly, the struggle
involved participants that were black, mulattoes, French, Spanish, and British,
most led by the charismatic ex-slave Toussaint Louverture, and was the largest
revolt since Spartacus’ revolt nearly 1,900 years earlier in the Roman Republic.
This would be the only revolution that would create a new state free from
slavery to be ruled by non-whites and former captives. The new sovereign state
of Haiti was born in 1804.

The Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution marked a period of development in the latter half of
the 18th century that transformed largely rural, agrarian societies in Europe
and America into industrialized, urban ones.
Goods that had once been painstakingly crafted by hand started to be
produced in mass quantities by machines in factories, thanks to the
introduction of new machines and techniques in textiles, iron making and other
industries.

Fueled by the game-changing use of steam power, the Industrial Revolution

began in Britain and spread to the rest of the world, including the United
States, by the 1830s and ‘40s. Modern historians often refer to this period as
the First Industrial Revolution, to set it apart from a second period of
industrialization that took place from the late 19th to early 20th centuries and
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saw rapid advances in the steel, electric and automobile industries.

ACTIVITY : WORK IN PAIRS AND ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS :

Recommended site :

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VIDEO SESSION : watch this video lesson, take notes down.

Work in pairs to write a short report about the video.

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