Engineering Electromagnetics
W.H. Hayt Jr. and J. A. Buck
Chapter 8(Part 3):
Magnetic Forces, Materials, and
Inductance
E and H -- and Related Potentials
Electric field -- electric
potential relations:
Magnetic field -- scalar
magnetic potential relations:
Vm is the magnetomotive force, or mmf
Ohm’s Law and Current Analogies
Point form of Ohm’s Law
for the electric field:
Current flux:
Analogy to Ohm’s Law B assumes the role of
for the magnetic field: current density
Magnetic “current” flux:
Reluctance as an Analogy to Resistance
In large scale form, Ohm’s Law is:
This is the analogous
A similar rule can be constructed
equation for Ohm’s Law
that relates mmf to magnetic flux:
in a magnetic circuit
where is the reluctance of the medium, in direct analogy to resistance.
For a straight wire of uniform conductivity, we found that:
For a similar medium of uniform permeability, it follows that:
Analogy to Source Voltage
We will later call this quantity
In an electric circuit, Kirchoff’s the electromotive force, or emf,
Voltage Law is expressed as: when it is related to a time-varying
magnetic flux -- in which case it is
not equal to zero.
The magnetic analogy is expressed
as Ampere’s Circuital Law:
Generally, the closed path integral of H may include N turns of wire, leading to:
This quantity is the mmf around a closed
path, which we use as Vm in our magnetic
circuit equation.
A Further Complication: Hysteresis
Increasing H to high positive values lines up all
Domain wall shifting in ferromagnetic materials introduces magnetic moments, and a single domain is
semi-permanent magnetization states that are slow to respond to left (in the extreme case). The core is thus in
changes in applied magnetic fields. The resulting magnetization saturation. Furtherincrease in H leads to an
curve demonstrates the hysteresis phenomenon as shown here. increase in B through the free space permeability
Decreasing the applied H field to zero leaves many dipoles
still aligned, and we have the remanant magnetic flux density,
Br . The material has become a permanent magnet.
Coercive field in transistioning
B from negative to positive values
The remanant flux density is reduced to zero by applying
an opposing magentic field strength, -Hc known as the
coercive field (or coercive force).
Remanant magnetic flux density, for increasing H
field from negative to positive values
Increasing H to high negative values again
leads to saturation
Energy and Energy Density in the Magnetic Field
In a previous lecture it was demonstrated that the energy in the electric field within volume v is given by:
In like manner, it would seem logical that the magnetic field energy within volume v is:
Both results are true, but are restricted to linear media (in which permittivity and permeability are constant
with field strength). Deriving the magnetic energy relation is very complicated, so we will not do it here.
Additional motivation for the concept will be seen in later lectures.
Energy density relations are as previously found, or as expected:
and
valid for isotropic media
Magnetic Flux and Flux Linkage
Consider a solenoid of length d, shown here, which carries current I in
each of N windings. The turns have individual areas Si which may be
B different from each other. The B field may also evaluate differently in each turn.
The Flux Linkage is defined as the sum of the magnetic fluxes through
all turns, where the flux evaluated at each surface is the total flux there,
generated by all turns acting together.
I
N turns d
where
Si
Units of flux linkage are Weber-turns [Wb-t]
If all turns (and B through each) are equal, then the above simplifies to:
where the integral is evaluated
over any single turn.
Inductance Definition
Having the flux linkage:
B
where
The inductance of the device is defined as the flux linkage per unit current, or
I
N turns d
where the last equality applies if all
turns are identical
Si
The units of inductance are Weber-turns per Ampere, where
1 Wb-t/A is defined as one Henry [H].
Solenoid Inductance
For a long solenoid, having turn density n, and core permeability ,
the magnetic flux density has magnitude:
B
Then, assuming equal flux densities through N identical turns,
the flux linkage is
I
N turns d
Si
…and the inductance is:
It is interesting to compare this result to the capacitance
of a parallel-plate capacitor, having plate area S, plate
spacing, d, and dielectric permittivity, :
Departure from the Ideal
In reality, flux density generated by each turn may not link the entire coil. Such fringing fields,
shown here, may link only one or two turns.
The problem is made worse by increased winding pitch. The reduction in flux linkage that results
is most easily accounted for through standard design formulas.
Example: Inductance of a Coaxial Line
Consider a length d of coax, as shown here. The magnetic field strength between conductors is:
and so:
The magnetic flux is now the integral of B over the
flat surface between radii a and b, and of length d along z.
B As we have only one turn (N = 1), the result is also the flux linkage:
d
Now, with d = 1, the inductance per unit length is:
Two Inductors
Suppose we have two solenoids, having different specifications as indicated:
B22 The self linkage and self inductance of each coil are determined in the manner
that we used before, assuming identical fluxes through each turn.
Coil 2 d2 N2
S2 I2 and
B11
Coil 1 d1
N1
and
S1 I1
Interaction Between Inductors
Actually, the magnetic fields generated by each coil will link the other,
B12 B22
as shown here. This flux overlap is the basis of mutual inductance.
Throughout this discussion, the field in red is that generated by Coil 1,
d2 while the blue field is generated by Coil 2
N2
With both currents on, all the fields indicated here will be present.
S2 I2 The fields and other quantities are kept track of by the subscripts,
the meaning of which is:
B11 B21 Bi j
arising evaluated
d1 from coil i within coil j
N1
S1 I1
i, j = 1, 2
Note that the diagrams shown here are oversimplified, because there will
be significant spreading of the crossover fields, B12 and B21 .
Mutual Inductance, M12
B12 In this case, current in Coil 2 is turned off, leaving only the flux density
generated by Coil 1, B12 , existing within Coil 2.
d2 The mutual linkage between Coils 1 and 2 is found through:
Coil 2 N2
S2 I2 = 0
B11 … and the mutual inductance between Coils 1 and 2 is defined as:
Coil 1 d1
N1
S1 I1
Again, we oversimplify here, in that the non-uniformity of B12 may likely
require a turn-by-turn evaluation of the flux in Coil 2, in order to obtain the
mutual linkage (in the worst case).
Mutual Inductance, M21
B22 In this case, current in Coil 1 is turned off, leaving only the flux density
generated by Coil 2, B21 , existing within Coil 1.
d2 The mutual linkage between Coils 2 and 1 is found through:
Coil 2 N2
S2 I2
B21 … and the mutual inductance between Coils 2 and 1 is defined as:
Coil 1 d1
N1
S1 I1 = 0
As before, the likely non-uniformity of B21 may likely require a turn-by-turn
evaluation of the flux in Coil 1, in order to obtain the mutual linkage.
Example: Concentric Solenoids
In this configuration, two concentric solenoids have different numbers
of turns, N1 and N2 (even though in the drawing the turn count would
N1 appear to be the same). Both coils have the same length, d. The area
d of each identical turn in the two coils is S1 for the outer coil, and S2 for
N2 the interior coil. The core permeability is
S1 S2
Mutual Inductance, M12
With the outer coil current I1 turned on, the interior flux
B12 exists throughout the outer coil volume, and consequently
throughout the volume of the inner coil as well.
Flux density B12 resides inside coil 2 (and in coil 1 as well)
Assuming a long coil,
the flux density is:
N1 I1
d The mutual linkage between coils 1 and 2 is then:
N2
S1 S2
.. and the mutual inductance is:
B11
Mutual Inductance, M21
With the inner coil current I2 turned on, the interior flux
B21 exists throughout the inner coil volume, which overlaps with
the outer coil volume
Flux density B21 resides inside coil 2 (and in coil 1 as well), but
the flux in the coil 1 volume is confined within the volume of coil 2.
The coil 2 flux density
(that resides in both coils) is:
N1
d
N2 The mutual flux linkage between coils 2 and 1 is then:
S1 S2
…and the mutual inductance is:
A Property of the Mutual Inductances
The foregoing example illustrates an important property of
the mutual inductances between any pair of inductors:
They’re equal!