Introduction to EEE

History of Electrical engineering

Electrical engineers are saddled with a lot of responsibility in today’s world of rapidly advancing
technologies. They are tasked with designing, developing, and testing electrical equipment and
systems. From smartphones to supercomputers, electrical engineers are deeply involved in
every step of the engineering process. But what is electrical engineering?

The definition of electrical engineering is different depending on who you ask. Electrical
engineers would agree that it is the branch of engineering that deals with the technology of
electricity, of course, but it is so much more than that. On a fundamental level, electrical
engineers combine the physics and mathematics of electricity, electromagnetism, and
electronics and apply them to information processing and energy transmission.

The discipline of electrical engineering is young less than 200 years old but rapid advances have
been made in such a short time. Developments are being made so quickly that what some
considered to be years away have become reality, giving electrical engineering a fascinating
history. How the discipline has evolved into what it is today may shock you.

Electrical engineering became a profession in the late 19th century. Practitioners had created a
global electric telegraph network and the first electrical engineering institutions to support the
new discipline were founded in the UK and US. Although it is impossible to precisely pinpoint a
first electrical engineer, Francis Ronalds stands ahead of the field, who created a working
electric telegraph system in 1816 and documented his vision of how the world could be
transformed by electricity. Over 50 years later, he joined the new Society of Telegraph
Engineers (soon to be renamed the Institution of Electrical Engineers) where he was regarded
by other members as the first of their cohort. The donation of his extensive electrical library was
a considerable boon for the fledgling Society.

Development of the scientific basis for electrical engineering, using research techniques,
intensified during the 19th century. Notable developments early in this century include the work
of Georg Ohm, who in 1827 quantified the relationship between the electric current and potential
difference in a conductor, Michael Faraday, the discoverer of electromagnetic induction in
1831 In the 1830s, Georg Ohm also constructed an early electrostatic machine. The homopolar
generator was developed first by Michael Faraday during his memorable experiments in 1831. It
was the beginning of modern dynamos – that is, electrical generators which operate using a
magnetic field. The invention of the industrial generator in 1866 by Werner von Siemens – which
did not need external magnetic power – made a large series of other inventions possible.

Thomas Edison built the world's first large-scale electrical supply network

During this period commercial use of electricity increased dramatically. Starting in the late
1870s cities started installing large scale electric street lighting systems based on arc
lamps. After the development of a practical incandescent lamp for indoor lighting, Thomas
Edison switched on the world's first public electric supply utility in 1882, using what was
considered a relatively safe 110 volts direct current system to supply customers. Engineering
advances in the 1880s, including the invention of the transformer, led to electric utilities starting
to adopting alternating current, up until then used primarily in arc lighting systems, as a
distribution standard for outdoor and indoor lighting (eventually replacing direct current for such
purposes). In the US there was a rivalry, primarily between a Westinghouse AC and the Edison
DC system known as the "war of the currents".

To understand the history of electrical engineering, look first to the history of electricity.
Humanity’s records of the origins of electricity, however, are inadequate at best. Humanity knew
about electric eels and lightning, for example, but how electricity was generated remained out of
reach. Although the history of electricity is full of unknowns, most people agree that Michael
Faraday, a British chemist and physicist, played a large part establishing electrical engineering
as a field of study.

The father of electrical engineering: Michael Faraday

Born in 1791, Michael Faraday, did not receive a traditional scientific education. He became an
apprentice to a bookbinder, where he learned about scientific subjects from the books he bound.
As he gained an interest in science, he started to attend scientific lectures. He was especially
interested in electricity, galvanism, and mechanics. Eventually, he attended four lectures given
by Humphry Davy, which marked the start of his scientific career.

In 1814, Faraday travelled throughout Europe with Davy for 18 months, meeting many scientists
and developing his scientific knowledge along the way. Upon his return, he worked on chemical
experiments with Davy for several years before he published his research on electromagnetic
rotation, which is the principle behind the electric motor, in 1821. This moment, perhaps, was
the birth of the electrical engineering discipline.

It took ten long years before Faraday did much more significant work with electricity. In 1831, he
discovered electromagnetic induction, which is the principle behind the electric transformer and
generator. He proved that a magnet could induce an electrical current in a wire, where he
converted mechanical energy into electrical energy. This discovery showed that electricity had
enormous potential for technological development. It didn’t have to be confined to a lab any
longer.

Faraday died in 1867, having made many contributions to the world of electricity. His work
serves as the basis for electrical engineering, as the fundamental principles he discovered are
still in use today.
Introduction to circuit theory

Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the two fundamental theories upon which
all branches of electrical engineering are built. Therefore, basic electric circuit theory course is
the most important course for an electrical engineering student.

In electrical engineering, we are often interested in communicating or transferring energy from

one point to another. To do this requires an interconnection of electrical devices. Such
interconnection is referred to as an electrical circuit, and each component of the circuit is
known as an element.

An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.

Basic electrical circuit

As electrical engineers, we deal with measurable quantities. Our measurement, however, must
be communicated in a standard language that virtually all professionals can understand,
irrespective of the country where the measurement is conducted. Such an international
measurement language is the International Systems of Units (SI), adopted by the general
conference on weights and measures in 1960. In this system, there are six principal units from
which the units of all other physical quantities can be derived.

Quantities Basic unit Symbol

Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Charge Coulomb C
Luminous intensity Candela cd

A major advantage of SI unit is that it uses prefixes based on the power of 10 to relate larger
and smaller units to the basic unit.

Multiplier Prefix Symbol

1012 Tera T
109 Giga G
106 Mega M
103 Kilo k
102 hecto h
 101 Deka da
10-1 Deci d
10-2 centi c
10-3 Milli m
10-6 micro μ

Charge and current

The concept of charge is the underlying principle for explaining all electrical phenomena. The
most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge. We all experience the effect of
electric charge when we try to remove our wool sweater and have it stick to our body.

Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured in
coulomb.

From physics it is known that all matter is made of fundamental building blocks known as atom
which consists of electron, protons and neutrons.

When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is connected to a battery (a source of

EMF), the charges are compelled to move; positive charges move in one direction while negative
charges move in the opposite direction. The motion of charges creates an electric current.

Electric current is the rate of change of charge, measured in amperes.

Andre-Marie Ampere (1775-1836), a French mathematician and physicist, laid the foundation of
electrodynamics. He defined the electric current and developed a way to measure it in 1820s.

Born in Lyons, France, Ampere at age 12 mastered Latin in in a few weeks, as he was intensely
interested in mathematics and many of the best mathematical works were in Latin. He was a
brilliant scientist and a prolific writer. He formulated the laws of electromagnetics. He invented
the electromagnet and the ammeter. The unit of electric current, the ampere, was named after
him.

Mathematically, the relationship between current i, and charge q, and time t is

dq
i=
dt

where current is measured in amperes (A), and 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second

the charge transferred between time to and t is obtained by integrating both sides. Which gives

Q=∫tt̥ idt

There can be several types of current depending on how the charge varying with time.
If current does not change with time, but remains constant, we call it direct current DC.

A common form of time varying current is the sinusoidal current or alternating current AC.

Voltage

To move an electron in a conductor in a particular direction requires some work or energy

transfer. The work in performed by an external electromotive force EMF, typically represented by
a battery. The EMF is also known as voltage or potential difference. The voltage vab between two
points a and b in an electric circuit is the energy or work needed to a unit charge from a to b.

dw
vab=
dq

where w is the energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs C. The voltage vab or v is
measured in volts V.

1 volt= 1joule/coulomb

Thus,

Potential difference or voltage is the energy required to move a unit charge through an
element.

Alessandro Antonio Volta (1745-1827), an Italian physicist, invented the electric battery, which
provided the first continuous flow of electricity and the capacitor.

Born into a noble family in Como Italy, Volta was performing electrical experiments at age 18.
His invention of battery in 1796 revolutionized the use of electricity. The publication of his work
in 1800 marked the beginning of electric circuit theory. Volta received many honors during his
lifetime. The unit of voltage or potential difference, the volt, was named in his honor.

Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854)

A German physicist, in 1826 experimentally determined the most basic law relating voltage and
current for a resistor. Ohms was initially denied by critics.

Born of humble beginnings in Erlangen, Bavaria, Ohm threw himself into electrical research. His
efforts resulted in his famous law.

Ohms law

The property or ability of a material to resist flow of current is known as resistance and is
represented by symbol R.

The resistance of any material with uniform cross-sectional area A depends on A and its length
L.
 l
Mathematically, R=ρ
A

Where ρ stands for resistivity of the material in ohm-meter, R stands for resistance of the
resistor.

Ohms law state that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the current I
flowing through the resistor.

v=iR

where R the resistance is the constant of proportionality.

Recognizing electrical engineering as a field of study

Although the study of electricity was originally considered to be a part of physics, electrical
engineering eventually branched into its own discipline. In 1883, the world’s first School of
Electrical Engineering was established at the Technische Universität Darmstadt. Other schools
followed suit in providing an education to budding electrical engineers, and the field continued
to expand.

Since electricity was becoming increasingly influential in society, an organization to support

those in electrical professions was formed in 1884. This organization was known as the
American Institute of Electrical Engineers. In 1963, this organization merged with the Institute of
Radio Engineers (formed in 1912) to form the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
which today is the world’s largest technical professional organization.

What Electrical and Electronics Engineers Do

As an aspiring electrical/electronic engineer, it is important to know/understand what being one

entails and the duties that goes along with it.

The basic duties of an electrical engineer are but not limited to designing, developing, testing,
and supervising the manufacture of electrical equipment’s.

These duties are largely dependent on work environment, area of specialization and other
aspects of the role an electrical engineer involved in.

Responsibilities Electrical Engineer

Electrical engineers play a crucial role in the design, development, and maintenance of electrical
systems and components.

Their responsibilities encompass a wide range of tasks, from conceptualizing electrical systems
to ensuring their safe and efficient operation.

Here are some of the key responsibilities of electrical engineers:

 System Design: Electrical engineers are responsible for designing electrical systems for
various applications, such as power generation, distribution, and control systems. They
must consider factors like voltage, current, load requirements, and safety standards
when creating these designs.

 Circuit Design: They design and analyze electronic circuits for a multitude of purposes,
from simple consumer electronics to complex industrial machinery. This involves
selecting appropriate components like resistors, capacitors, and transistors and
ensuring that the circuit meets performance and safety specifications.

 Testing and Evaluation: Electrical engineers conduct thorough testing and evaluation of
electrical systems and components to ensure they function as intended. This may
involve running simulations, using testing equipment, and performing experiments to
verify the performance and reliability of electrical systems.

 Prototyping: In the product development process, electrical engineers often create

prototypes to test and refine their designs. They work closely with other engineering
disciplines to integrate electrical components into a larger system.

 Troubleshooting and Maintenance: When electrical systems encounter issues or

malfunctions, electrical engineers are responsible for troubleshooting and diagnosing
the problems. They use various tools and techniques to identify and rectify faults,
ensuring that systems operate safely and efficiently.

 Safety Compliance: Electrical engineers must adhere to safety standards and

regulations to prevent accidents and electrical hazards. They ensure that electrical
systems and installations meet local, national, and international safety codes and
standards.

 Energy Efficiency: With a growing emphasis on sustainability and energy conservation,

electrical engineers are increasingly tasked with designing energy-efficient systems and
recommending improvements to reduce power consumption and environmental impact.

 Project Management: In many cases, electrical engineers are involved in project

management tasks. They create project plans, allocate resources, manage budgets, and
coordinate with other team members to ensure that projects are completed on time and
within budget.
  Documentation: They maintain detailed records and documentation of electrical designs,
schematics, test results, and maintenance procedures. This documentation is crucial for
future reference, compliance, and troubleshooting.

 Research and Development: Electrical engineers often engage in research and

development activities to explore new technologies, materials, and methods that can
enhance electrical systems and components. They stay up-to-date with the latest
advancements in their field to incorporate innovative solutions into their work.

 Collaboration: Collaboration is key in engineering projects. Electrical engineers work

closely with other engineering disciplines, such as mechanical engineers and software
engineers, to integrate electrical systems into complex products and systems.

 Continuous Learning: Given the rapid advancements in technology, electrical engineers

must engage in continuous learning and professional development to stay current with
industry trends and emerging technologies.

In summary, electrical engineers are responsible for designing, testing, troubleshooting, and
maintaining electrical systems to ensure they are safe, efficient, and reliable.

Their work spans various industries and applications, making them indispensable contributors
to technological advancements and infrastructure development.

What are the crucial Electrical engineer skills?

Technical skills (Hard skills)

Technical skills are the foundation of an electrical engineer's ability to design, develop, and
maintain electrical systems and components.

These skills encompass a broad range of knowledge and expertise, covering various aspects of
electrical engineering.

Here are some key technical skills that are essential for electrical engineers:

Circuit Design

Electrical engineers should have a deep understanding of circuit theory and be proficient in
designing electronic circuits. This includes knowledge of components, such as resistors,
capacitors, diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits, and the ability to create schematic
diagrams.

Electromagnetic Theory

Understanding electromagnetism is crucial for working with motors, generators, transformers,

and electromagnetic devices. Knowledge of Maxwell's equations and electromagnetic field
theory is essential.
Power Systems

Electrical engineers working in power generation and distribution must be well-versed in power
systems analysis. This includes knowledge of voltage regulation, power factor correction, and
the ability to design and analyze electrical distribution networks.

Digital Electronics

With the increasing prevalence of digital systems, electrical engineers should have expertise in
digital logic design, microcontroller programming, and digital signal processing.

Analog Electronics

Analog circuit design is still critical in various applications. Proficiency in designing analog
circuits for amplification, filtering, and signal conditioning is important.

Control Systems

Understanding control theory and control system design is essential for engineers working on
automation, robotics, and process control systems.

PLC Programming

For those involved in industrial automation, knowledge of Programmable Logic Controllers

(PLCs) and ladder logic programming is indispensable.

Instrumentation and Measurement

Electrical engineers should know how to select and use various measurement instruments like
oscilloscopes, multimeters, and spectrum analyzers to troubleshoot and evaluate electrical
systems.

Electrical Safety Standards

Familiarity with electrical safety codes and standards, such as the National Electrical Code
(NEC), is essential to ensure that electrical installations comply with safety regulations.

Power Electronics

Engineers working on power conversion and control should have expertise in power electronics,
including knowledge of inverters, converters, and motor drives.

Computer-Aided Design (CAD) Software

Proficiency in CAD tools like AutoCAD or specialized electrical design software for creating
schematics and PCB layouts is crucial.

Simulation and Modeling

The ability to use software tools like SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit
Emphasis) or MATLAB for simulating and modeling electrical circuits and systems is valuable
for design validation.

Programming Languages

Familiarity with programming languages like C/C++ and Python can be beneficial for developing
control algorithms, data analysis, and automation scripting.

Renewable Energy Systems

Knowledge of renewable energy systems, such as solar and wind power, is increasingly
important as sustainable energy sources gain prominence.

Communication and Networking

Understanding communication protocols and network systems is necessary for engineers

working on IoT (Internet of Things) devices and smart systems.

Technical Writing and Documentation

The ability to effectively communicate through technical documentation, reports, and

presentations is essential for conveying design concepts and project progress.

Troubleshooting Skills

Electrical engineers must have strong troubleshooting skills to diagnose and resolve electrical
system issues efficiently.

Project Management

Some electrical engineers take on project management roles, requiring skills in project planning,
resource management, and budgeting.

Soft skills

While technical skills are vital for electrical engineers, soft skills are equally important in
ensuring their success in the field.

These interpersonal and personal attributes enable engineers to effectively communicate,

collaborate, and adapt to various situations.

Here are some critical soft skills for electrical engineers:

Communication Skills

Effective communication is fundamental in electrical engineering. Engineers must be able to

explain complex technical concepts clearly and concisely, whether they are discussing designs
with colleagues, presenting findings to clients, or documenting their work.

Problem-Solving Ability

Electrical engineers frequently encounter complex technical challenges. The ability to approach
problems analytically, break them down into manageable components, and develop innovative
solutions is crucial.

Teamwork and Collaboration

Many engineering projects involve interdisciplinary teams. Electrical engineers must work well
with colleagues from various backgrounds, contributing their expertise while respecting the
input of others.

Adaptability

The field of electrical engineering is dynamic, with technology constantly evolving. Engineers
need to adapt to new tools, techniques, and methodologies as they emerge.

Attention to Detail

Small errors in electrical designs or calculations can have significant consequences. Being
meticulous and paying attention to detail is essential to ensure the accuracy and reliability of
electrical systems.

Time Management

Electrical engineers often work on multiple projects with tight deadlines. Effective time
management skills are necessary to prioritize tasks, meet project milestones, and deliver
results on time.

Critical Thinking

Electrical engineers must be able to think critically and make informed decisions based on data
and analysis. This skill is particularly valuable when troubleshooting complex electrical systems.

Creativity and Innovation

While there are established principles in electrical engineering, creativity and innovation are
essential for developing new solutions to unique/different challenges.

Customer Focus

Engineers often work on projects that directly impact customers or clients. Understanding and
prioritizing the needs and expectations of end-users is important for delivering successful
solutions.

Ethical Conduct

Electrical engineers are responsible for designing safe and reliable systems. Upholding ethical
standards and ensuring compliance with industry regulations and safety codes is paramount.

Presentation Skills

Engineers often need to present their findings, designs, and recommendations to both technical
and non-technical audiences. Strong presentation skills help convey complex information
effectively.

Leadership Potential

As engineers gain experience, they may take on leadership roles within their teams or
organizations. Leadership skills, including the ability to inspire and motivate others, are
increasingly important.

Networking

Building professional relationships with colleagues, mentors, and industry peers can open doors
to new opportunities, knowledge sharing, and career advancement.

Listening Skills

Actively listening to colleagues, clients, and team members is crucial for understanding
requirements and addressing concerns effectively.

Continuous Learning

The field of electrical engineering evolves rapidly. A commitment to lifelong learning and staying
updated with industry trends and emerging technologies is essential.

In conclusion, soft skills of electrical engineers enable them to collaborate effectively, solve
complex problems, and navigate the dynamic and interdisciplinary nature of their profession.
Developing and nurturing these soft skills can enhance an electrical engineer's career prospects
and contribute to their overall effectiveness in the field.

Electrical Engineering courses

Becoming a successful electrical engineer requires a strong educational foundation.

To help aspiring electrical engineers plan their education, I'll outline a detailed course roadmap
from undergraduate to postgraduate studies.

Please note that specific course offerings may vary by institution, so it's important to research
and choose programs that align with your career goals and interests.

Undergraduate Level

 Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical Engineering (BENG):

Duration: Typically, 5 years

 This is the starting point for a career in electrical engineering. During your undergraduate
studies, you'll cover fundamental concepts and gain a broad understanding of electrical
engineering principles. Courses may include:

 Circuit Analysis

 Electronics

 Digital Logic Design

 Electromagnetics

 Signals and Systems

 Electric Machines

 Power Systems

 Control Systems

 Microprocessors and Microcontrollers

 Electric Circuits Lab

 Electronics Lab

 Mathematics and Physics:

Strong foundations in mathematics (calculus, linear algebra, differential equations) and
physics are essential for electrical engineering. These subjects will be integrated into
your core courses.
  Computer Programming:
Learning programming languages like C/C++ and Python will be valuable for control
systems, embedded systems, and data analysis.

 Laboratory Experience:
Hands-on laboratory work is crucial for applying theoretical knowledge and developing
practical skills.

 Technical Electives:
Many programs offer elective courses that allow you to specialize in areas like power
systems, communications, electronics, or robotics.

Internships

Consider participating in internships with engineering firms or companies to gain real-world

experience and build industry connections.

Postgraduate Level (Optional):

 Masters in Electrical Engineering (MENG):

Duration: Typically, 2 years (18 months in FUOYE)

A master's degree can provide deeper specialization and research opportunities. Courses may
include advanced topics like advanced electronics, power electronics, advanced control
systems, and advanced electromagnetics.

Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Electrical Engineering:

Duration: Approximately 4-6 years

Pursuing a Ph.D. allows you to conduct advanced research in a specific area of electrical
engineering. You will complete a dissertation and contribute to the field's body of knowledge.

Work Environment

Electrical and electronics engineers work in industries including research and development,
engineering services, manufacturing, telecommunications, and the federal government.
Electrical and electronics engineers generally work indoors in offices. However, they may have
to visit sites to observe a problem or a piece of complex equipment.

Advancements in electrical engineering

Great advancements have been made in electrical engineering since the School of Electrical
Engineering was established in Darmstadt. Since then, radar, smartphones, and computers have
all been invented.

Vast improvements in electronic technologies have also been made, like with the television.
When they were invented in the 1920s, televisions had small screens, could only show images in
black and white, and only the wealthy could afford them. Today, television screens are massive.
They can show lush colors in stunning resolution and are more affordable than ever.

Other major advancements in electrical engineering include Wi-Fi, lasers, microwave ovens, and
smart home products. Electrical engineering has come a long way.

The world would cease to function as it does today without electrical engineers. Global
positioning systems are a great example of their contributions. Electrical engineers helped to
develop the components for these systems and make them resilient enough to withstand years
of use. Without their contributions, your smartphone wouldn’t know your location, and you
couldn’t track the location of your Jumia packages. The next time you use anything electronic,
be sure to thank an electrical engineer.

Recent innovations in electrical engineering

Electrical engineering is a constantly evolving field, and continues to produce incredibly

innovative products. Being able to check the contents of a refrigerator while on vacation? Boots
that can provide workers with alerts of unsafe environmental conditions? Having food delivered
by drone? What were dreams a decade ago are now realities.

The discipline will continue to evolve at a breakneck pace. Processing power will continue to
improve, allowing for smaller, faster, more innovative devices to be produced. Moore’s Law,
which states that the number of transistors that can be packed onto a microchip doubles every
two years, allows for processing power to grow exponentially. Microchips that could host fewer
than 100,000 transistors in the 1970s can today host more than 50 billion.
Whenever someone drives an electric car, tracks their fitness on a smartwatch, or controls
home systems through a smartphone app, they’re witnessing the impact of electrical
engineering. This discipline drives technological innovations that propel society forward.

Industries driven by innovation present significant growth opportunities for electrical engineers.
Sectors like electric vehicles, smart grids, robotics, and consumer electronics are expected to
witness sales growth of over 10% annually in the next decade.

Understanding the industry’s future is critical for today’s electrical engineering students.
Exploring emerging technologies helps students align their studies and career goals with the
evolving demands of the field.

Here are four trends that are rapidly redefining the electrical engineering field:

Electrical Engineering Trends

The Rise of Wide Bandgap Semiconductors

One of the most significant trends in electrical engineering revolves around the increasing
prominence of wide bandgap (WBG) semiconductors. These materials, such as silicon carbide
and gallium nitride, boast superior properties compared to traditional silicon. WBG
semiconductors offer higher operating temperatures, improved efficiency, and greater power
density, making them ideal for various applications.

The automotive industry is a prime example of this trend. WBG semiconductors are playing a
pivotal role in developing next-generation electric vehicles. Their ability to handle higher
voltages and currents translates to more efficient power electronics, leading to longer driving
ranges and faster charging times for electric vehicles.

Additionally, WBG semiconductors are finding applications in renewable energy systems, smart
grids, and industrial automation, contributing to a more sustainable and efficient future.

The Symbiotic Relationship Between AI and Electrical Engineering

Another exciting trend involves the burgeoning relationship between artificial intelligence (AI)
and electrical engineering.

AI algorithms are revolutionizing the way electrical systems are designed, optimized, and
controlled. Predictive maintenance, for instance, utilizes AI to analyze sensor data from
electrical equipment, anticipating potential failures before they occur. This not only minimizes
downtime and maintenance costs but also enhances overall system reliability.

Furthermore, AI is being used to design more sophisticated power electronics that can
dynamically adjust to changing loads and grid conditions. This intelligent approach to power
management is crucial for integrating renewable energy sources like solar and wind into the grid,
which inherently have variable outputs.

As AI and electrical engineering continue to converge, we can expect to see the emergence of
even more intelligent and efficient electrical systems across various industries.

The Bio-convergence Revolution

The field of electrical engineering is increasingly intersecting with the world of biology, giving
rise to the exciting area of bio-convergence.

This interdisciplinary approach combines electrical engineering principles with biological

knowledge to develop innovative healthcare solutions. Electrical engineers play a critical role in
the design and development of biocompatible medical devices such as prosthetic limbs,
artificial organs, and biosensors.

For instance, recent advancements have led to the creation of biocompatible brain-computer
interfaces that allow paralyzed individuals to control external devices using their thoughts.
Additionally, electrical engineers are developing implantable biosensors that can continuously
monitor vital signs and detect potential health issues early on.

As bio-convergence matures, it holds immense promise for revolutionizing healthcare,

improving patient outcomes, and creating a future where technology seamlessly augments
biological functions.

The Growing Focus on Cybersecurity in Electrical Systems

As electrical systems become increasingly interconnected and complex, the potential for
cyberattacks grows ever more significant. Electrical grids, communication networks, and
industrial control systems are all vulnerable to cyberattacks that could cause widespread
disruption and pose safety risks. This has led to a growing emphasis on cybersecurity in
electrical engineering.

Electrical engineers are now tasked with designing and implementing security measures into
electrical systems. This includes measures like encryption, access control, and vulnerability
assessments. Additionally, there’s a growing need for electrical engineers with expertise in
cyber-physical security, which focuses on protecting the physical and digital aspects of
electrical systems.

As the threat landscape evolves, electrical engineers will play a crucial role in safeguarding
critical infrastructure from cyberattacks.

Professional registration (IEEE, COREN, NSE, IET)

IEEE (Institute of electrical and electronics engineering): is an American 501 professional

association for electrical engineering, electronics engineering, and other related disciplines. The
IEEE has a corporate office in New York City and an operations center in Piscataway, New
Jersey.

COREN (Council for the registration of engineering in Nigeria): is a federal government body
established by law and empowered to regulate and control the practice of engineering
profession in all its aspects and ramifications.

NSE (Nigerian society of engineers): NSE is an umbrella organization of engineering in Nigeria

and a non-governmental organization.

The Two Types of Electronic Devices

Electronic elements that make up a circuit are connected together by conductors to form a
complete circuit.

 Active components

 Passive components

Active Components

An active component is an electronic component which supplies energy to a circuit.

Common examples of active components include:

 Voltage sources

 Current sources

 Generators (such as alternators and DC generators)

 All different types of transistors (such as bipolar junction transistors, MOSFETS, FETs,
and JFET)

 Diodes (such as Zener diodes, photodiodes, Schottky diodes, and LEDs)

Voltage Sources
A voltage source is an example of an active component in a circuit. When current leaves from
the positive terminal of the voltage source, energy is being supplied to the circuit. As per the
definition of an active element, a battery can also be considered as an active element, as it
continuously delivers energy to the circuit during discharging.

Current Sources

A current source is also considered an active component. The current supplied to the circuit by
an ideal current source is independent of circuit voltage. As a current source is controlling the
flow of charge in a circuit, it is classified as an active element.

Transistors

Although not as obvious as a current or voltage source – transistors are also an active circuit
component. This is because transistors are able to amplify the power of a signal.

Passive Components

A passive component is an electronic component which can only receive energy, which it can
either dissipate, absorb or store it in an electric field or a magnetic field. Passive elements do
not need any form of electrical power to operate.

As the name ‘passive’ suggests – passive devices do not provide gain or amplification. Passive
components cannot amplify, oscillate, or generate an electrical signal.

Common examples of passive components include:

 Resistors

 Inductors

 Capacitors

 Transformers

Resistors

A resistor is taken as a passive element since it cannot deliver any energy to a circuit. Instead,
resistors can only receive energy which they can dissipate as heat as long as current flows
through it.

Inductors

Inductors, much like conductors and resistors, are simple components that are used in
electronic devices to carry out specific functions. Normally, inductors are coil-like structures
that are found in electronic circuits. The coil is an insulated wire that is looped around the
central core.

Inductors are mostly used to decrease or control the electric spikes by storing energy
temporarily in an electromagnetic field, and then releasing it back into the circuit.

An inductor is a passive component that is used in most power electronic circuits to store
energy in the form of magnetic energy when electricity is applied to it. One of the key properties
of an inductor is that it impedes or opposes any change in the amount of current flowing
through it. Whenever the current across the inductor changes, it either acquires charge or loses
the charge in order to equalise the current passing through it. The inductor is also called a
choke, a reactor or just a coil.

An inductor is described by its distinctive nature of inductance, which is defined as the ratio of
the voltage to the rate of change of current. Inductance is a result of the induced magnetic field
on the coil. It is also determined by several factors, such as

The shape of the coil.

The number of turns and layers of the wire.

The space that is given between the turns.

Permeability of the core material.

The size of the core.

The SI unit of inductance is henry (H), and when we measure magnetic circuits, it is equivalent
to weber/ampere. It is denoted by the symbol L.

Moreover, an inductor is totally different from a capacitor. In the case of a capacitor, it stores
energy as electrical energy, but as mentioned above, an inductor stores energy in the form of
magnetic energy. One key feature of the inductor is that it also changes its polarity while
discharging. In this way, polarity during discharging can be made opposite to the polarity during
charging. The polarity of the induced voltage is well explained by Lenz’s law.

Symbols for an inductor are given below:

Construction of an Inductor

An inductor usually consists of a coil of conducting material (widely used ones include insulated
copper wire) that is wrapped around a core that is made up of plastic material or ferromagnetic
material. One advantage of using a ferromagnetic core is that it has high permeability, which
helps in increasing the magnetic field and, at the same time, confining it closely to the inductor.
Ultimately this results in higher inductance. On the other hand, inductors with low frequency are
usually constructed like transformers. They have cores made up of electrical steel that is
laminated to help prevent eddy currents. ‘Soft’ ferrites are also widely used for cores above
audio frequencies. Inductors come in many shapes and types. In some inductors, you will find
an adjustable core that allows changing the inductance. Inductors that are used in blocking very
high frequencies are mostly made by stringing a ferrite bead on a wire. Planar inductors are
made using a planar core, while small-value inductors are built on integrated circuits using the
processes of making interconnects. Typically, an aluminium interconnect is used and fixed in a
spiral coil pattern. However, small dimensions have some limitations. They restrict the
inductance. There are also shielded inductors which are commonly used in power regulation
systems, lighting, and other systems requiring low-noise operating conditions. These inductors
are often partially or fully shielded.
Different Types of Inductors

Depending on the type of material used, inductors can be classified as follows:

Iron Core Inductor

Air Core Inductor

Iron Powder Inductor

Ferrite Core Inductor, which is divided into:

Soft Ferrite

Hard Ferrite

Iron Core Inductor

As the name suggests, the core of this type of inductor is made of iron. These inductors are low
-space inductors that have high power and high inductance value. However, they are limited in
high-frequency capacity. These inductors are used in audio equipment.

Air Core Inductor

These inductors are used when the amount of inductance required is low. Since there is no core,
it does not have a core loss. But the number of turns the inductor must have is more for this
type when compared to the inductors with the core. This results in a high-quality factor. Usually,
ceramic inductors are often referred to as air-core inductors.

Iron Powder Inductor

In this type of inductor, the core is iron oxide. They are formed by very fine and insulating
particles of pure iron powder. High magnetic flux can be stored in it due to the air gap. The
permeability of the core of this type of inductor is very less and is usually below 100. They are
mainly used in switching power supplies.

Ferrite Core Inductor

In this type of inductor, ferrite materials are used as the core. The general composition of
ferrites is XFe2O4, where X represents transition material. Ferrites can be classified into two
types: soft ferrites and hard ferrites.
Soft Ferrite: These are materials that have the ability to reverse their polarity without any
external energy.

Hard Ferrite: These are permanent magnets, that is, their polarity will not change even when the
magnetic field is removed.

Choke

A choke is a type of inductor that is used mainly for blocking high-frequency alternating current
(AC) in an electrical circuit. On the other hand, it will allow DC or low-frequency signals to pass.
As the function of this inductor is to restrict the changes in current, it is called a choke. This
inductor consists of a coil of insulated wire wound on a magnetic core. The main difference
between chokes and other inductors is that they do not require high Q factor construction
techniques, which aim to reduce the resistance in inductors found in tuned circuits.

Functions of an Inductor

Inductors can be used for two primary functions:

To control signals.

To store energy.

Controlling Signals

Coils in an inductor can be used to store energy. The function of the inductor depends upon the
frequency of the current passing through it. That is, higher frequency signals will be passed less
easily and vice versa. This function tells that it blocks AC Current and passes DC Current. Hence,
it can be used to block AC signals.

Inductors can be used along with capacitors to form LC filters.

Storing Energy

Inductor stores energy in the form of magnetic energy. Coils can store electrical energy in the
form of magnetic energy, using the property that an electric current flowing through a coil
produces a magnetic field, which in turn, produces an electric current. In other words, coils offer
a means of storing energy on the basis of inductivity.
Inductors in Parallel Form

If two terminals of an inductor are connected to two terminals of another inductor, then the
inductors are said to be parallel. We know that when resistors are connected in parallel, their
effective resistance decreases. Similarly, when inductors are connected in parallel form, their
effective inductance decreases. Inductors in parallel are somewhat similar to the capacitors in
series.

Here, the current flowing through each inductor will be different. This current depends upon the
inductance value. However, the voltage across each conductor will be the same. By using
Kirchoff’s Current law, the total current is the sum of the current through each branch. That is,

IT = I1 + I2 +I3

We know that the voltage across an inductor is given by the equation

V = L di / dt

We can write,

vAB = LTotal x dlt / dt

VAB = LTotal x d (I1 + I2 + I3) / dt

We can further write it as

vAB = LTotal x dl1 / dt + LTotal x dl2 / dt + LTotal x dl3 / dt

That is,

vAB = LTotal ( V / L1 + V / L2 + V / L3 )

Since voltage are equal, we can simplify the equation as,

1 / LTotal = 1 / L1 + 1 / L2 + 1 / L3

Inductors in Series

When the inductors are chained together in a straight line or when they are connected end to
end, then the inductors are said to be in a series connection. We know that when resistors are
connected in series, their effective resistance increases.

Similarly, when inductors are connected in series, their effective inductance increases. Inductors
in series are somewhat similar to the capacitors in parallel. In order to get the total inductance,
it is very easy. You only have to add every inductance. That is, when inductors are connected in
series, the total inductance is the sum of all inductance.

Inductors In Series
Here, three inductors are connected in series. In this case, the current flowing through each
inductor is the same, while the voltage across each inductor is different. This voltage depends
upon the inductance value. By using Kirchoff’s voltage law, the total voltage drop is the sum of
the voltage drop across each inductor. That is,

VT = V1 + V2 +V3

We know that the voltage across an inductor is given by the equation

V = L di / dt

So, here we can write,

LTotal dl / dt = L1 x dl1 / dt + L2 x dl2 / dt + L3 x dl3 / dt

But

I = I1 = I2 = I3

Therefore,

L dl / dt = L1 x dl / dt + L2 x dl / dt + L3 x dl / dt

LTotal = L1 + L2 + L3

Energy Stored in an Inductor

When a current passes through an inductor, an emf is induced in it. This back emf opposes the
flow of current through the inductor. So, in order to establish a current in the inductor, work has
to be done against this emf by the voltage source.

Consider a time interval dt.

During this period, work done, dW, is given by

dW = Pdt = – Eidt = iL di / dt x dt = Lidi

To find the total work done, the above expression must be integrated.

W = 0∫ILidi = ½ LI2

Therefore, energy stored in an inductor is given by the equation,

W = ½ LI2

An inductor is also considered as passive element of circuit, because it can store energy in it as
a magnetic field, and can deliver that energy to the circuit, but not in continuous basis. The
energy absorbing and delivering capacity of an inductor is limited and transient in nature. That is
why an inductor is taken as a passive element of a circuit.

Capacitors

A capacitor is considered as a passive element because it can store energy in it as electric field.
The energy dealing capacity of a capacitor is limited and transient – it is not actually supplying
energy; it is storing it for later use. As such it is not considered an active component since no
energy is being supplied or amplified.

A capacitor is a little like a battery but works completely differently. A battery is an electronic
device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy, whereas a capacitor is an electronic
component that stores electrostatic energy in an electric field.

A capacitor is a two-terminal electrical device that can store energy in the form of an electric
charge. It consists of two electrical conductors that are separated by a distance. The space
between the conductors may be filled by vacuum or with an insulating material known as a
dielectric. The ability of the capacitor to store charges is known as capacitance.

Capacitors store energy by holding apart pairs of opposite charges. The simplest design for a
capacitor is a parallel plate, which consists of two metal plates with a gap between them. But,
different types of capacitors are manufactured in many forms, styles, lengths, girths, and
materials.
How a Capacitor Works

Consider the most basic structure of a capacitor – the parallel plate capacitor. It consists of two
parallel plates separated by a dielectric. When we connect a DC voltage source across the
capacitor, one plate is connected to the positive end (plate I) and the other to the negative end
(plate II). When the potential of the battery is applied across the capacitor, plate I become
positive with respect to plate II. The current tries to flow through the capacitor at the steady-
state condition from its positive plate to its negative plate. But it cannot flow due to the
separation of the plates with an insulating material.

An electric field appears across the capacitor. The positive plate (plate I) accumulates positive
charges from the battery, and the negative plate (plate II) accumulates negative charges from
the battery. After a point, the capacitor holds the maximum amount of charge as per its
capacitance with respect to this voltage. This time span is called the charging time of the
capacitor. When the battery is removed from the capacitor, the two plates hold a negative and
positive charge for a certain time. Thus, the capacitor acts as a source of electrical energy.
If these plates are connected to a load, the current flows to the load from Plate I to Plate II until
all the charges are dissipated from both plates. This time span is known as the discharging time
of the capacitor.

Determining the Value of Capacitance?

The conducting plates have some charges Q1 and Q2 (Usually, if one plate has +q, the other has
–q charge). The electric field in the region between the plates depends on the charge given to
the conducting plates. We also know that potential difference (V) is directly proportional to the
electric field hence we can say,

Q is proportional to V

Q=CV
C = Q/V

This constant of proportionality is known as the capacitance of the capacitor.

Capacitance is the ratio of the change in the electric charge of a system to the corresponding
change in its electric potential.

The capacitance of any capacitor can be either fixed or variable, depending on its usage. From
the equation, it may seem that ‘C’ depends on charge and voltage. Actually, it depends on the
shape and size of the capacitor and also on the insulator used between the conducting plates.

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

Once the opposite charges have been placed on either side of a parallel-plate capacitor, the
charges can be used to work by allowing them to move towards each other through a circuit.
The equation gives the total energy that can be extracted from a fully charged capacitor:

U = ½ CV2

Capacitors function a lot like rechargeable batteries. The main difference between a capacitor
and a battery lies in the technique they employ to store energy. Unlike batteries, the capacitor’s
ability to store energy doesn’t come from chemical reactions but from the physical design that
allows it to hold negative and positive charges apart.

Standard Units of Capacitance

The basic unit of capacitance is Farad. But, Farad is a large unit for practical tasks. Hence,
capacitance is usually measured in the sub-units of Farads, such as micro-farads (µF) or pico-
farads (pF).

Most of the electrical and electronic applications are covered by the following standard unit (SI)
prefixes for easy calculations:

1 mF (millifarad) = 10−3 F

1 μF (microfarad) =10−6 F

1 nF (nanofarad) = 10−9 F

1 pF (picofarad) = 10−12 F

Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor

Capacitor And Capacitance

The parallel plate capacitor as shown in the figure has two identical conducting plates, each
having a surface area A and separated by a distance d. When voltage V is applied to the plates,
it stores charge Q.

The force between charges increases with charge values and decreases with the distance
between them. The bigger the area of the plates, the more charge they can store. Hence, the
value of C is greater for a large value of A. Similarly, the closer the plates are, the greater the
attraction of the opposite charges on them. Therefore, C is greater for a smaller d.

The formula gives the charge density on the plates

Charge density = Q/A

When the distance of separation (d) is small, the electric field between the plates is fairly
uniform, and its magnitude is given by:

E = charge density/permittivity of free space

As the electric field between the plates is uniform, the potential difference between the plates is
given by

V = Ed = Qd/ϵoA

Substituting the above value of V in the capacitance formula, we get

C = Q/V = ϵoA/d

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by the formula

C = ϵo . A/d

Exercise:

Calculate the capacitance of an empty parallel-plate capacitor with metal plates with an area of
1.00 m2, separated by 1.00 mm.

Factors Affecting Capacitance

Dielectric

The effect of dielectric on capacitance is that the greater the permittivity of the dielectric, the
greater the capacitance, likewise lesser the permittivity of the dielectric the lesser is the
capacitance. Some materials offer less opposition to the field flux for a given amount of field
force. Materials with greater permittivity allow more field flux. Hence greater charge is collected.
Plate Spacing

The effect of spacing on the capacitance is that it is inversely proportional to the distance
between the plates. Mathematically it is given as:

C proportional to 1/d

Area of the Plates

The effect of the area of the plate is that the capacitance is directly proportional to the area. The
larger the plate area, the more the capacitance value. Mathematically it is given as:

C is proportional to A

Applications of Capacitors

Capacitors for Energy Storage

Since the late 18th century, capacitors have been used to store electrical energy. Individual
capacitors do not hold much energy, providing only enough power for electronic devices during
temporary power outages or when they need additional power. Many applications use
capacitors as energy sources, and a few of them are as follows:

Audio equipment

Camera Flashes

Power supplies

Magnetic coils

Lasers

Supercapacitors are capacitors that have high capacitances up to 2 kF. These capacitors store
large amounts of energy and offer new technological possibilities in areas such as electric cars,
regenerative braking in the automotive industry and industrial electrical motors, computer
memory backup during power loss, and many others.

Capacitors for Power Conditioning

One of the important applications of capacitors is the conditioning of power supplies.

Capacitors allow only AC signals to pass when they are charged, blocking DC signals. This
capacitor effect is used in separating or decoupling different parts of electrical circuits to
reduce noise as a result of improving efficiency. Capacitors are also used in utility substations
to counteract inductive loading introduced by transmission lines.

Capacitors as Sensors
Capacitors are used as sensors to measure a variety of things including humidity, mechanical
strain, and fuel levels. Two aspects of capacitor construction are used in the sensing
application – the distance between the parallel plates and the material between them. The
former detects mechanical changes such as acceleration and pressure, and the latter is used in
sensing air humidity.

Capacitors for Signal Processing

There are advanced applications of capacitors in information technology. Capacitors are used
by Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) devices to represent binary information as bits.
Capacitors are also used in conjunction with inductors to tune circuits to particular frequencies,
an effect exploited by radio receivers, speakers, and analog equalizers.

Transformers

The transformer, in a simple way, can be described as a device that steps up or steps down
voltage. In a step-up transformer, the output voltage is increased, and in a step-down
transformer, the output voltage is decreased. The step-up transformer will decrease the output
current, and the step-down transformer will increase the output current to keep the input and
output power of the system equal.

The transformer is basically a voltage control device that is used widely in the distribution and
transmission of alternating current power. The idea of a transformer was first discussed by
Michael Faraday in the year 1831 and was carried forward by many other prominent science
scholars. However, the general purpose of using transformers was to maintain a balance
between the electricity that was generated at very high voltages and consumption which was
done at very low voltages.

A transformer is a device used in the power transmission of electric energy. The transmission
current is AC. It is commonly used to increase or decrease the supply voltage without a change
in the frequency of AC between circuits. The transformer works on the basic principles of
electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.

Transformer Types

Transformers are used in various fields like power generation grid, distribution sector,
transmission and electric energy consumption. There are various types of transformers which
are classified based on the following factors:

Working voltage range

The medium used in the core

Winding arrangement
Installation location

Classification Of Transformer

Based on Voltage Levels

Commonly used transformer types, depending on the voltage, are classified as follows:

Step-up Transformer: They are used between the power generator and the power grid. The
secondary output voltage is higher than the input voltage.

Step-down Transformer: These transformers are used to convert high-voltage primary supply to
low-voltage secondary output.

Based on the Medium of Core Used

Different types of cores that are used in a transformer:

Air Core Transformer: The flux linkage between primary and secondary winding is through the
air. The coil or windings wound on the non-magnetic strip.

Iron Core Transformer: Windings are wound on multiple iron plates stacked together, which
provides a perfect linkage path to generate flux.

Based on the Winding Arrangement

Autotransformer: It will have only one winding wound over a laminated core. The primary and
secondary share the same coil. Auto means “self” in the Greek language.

Based on Installation Location

Power Transformer: It is used at power generation stations, as they are suitable for high voltage
application

Distribution Transformer: It is mostly used at distribution lanes for domestic purposes. They
are designed for carrying low voltages. It is very easy to install and characterised by low
magnetic losses.

Measurement Transformers: They are mainly used for measuring voltage, current and power.

Protection Transformers: They are used for component protection purposes. In circuits, some
components must be protected from voltage fluctuation, etc. Protection transformers ensure
component protection.

Working Principle of a Transformer

The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and
mutual induction.

There are usually two coils – primary coil and secondary coil – on the transformer core. The
core laminations are joined in the form of strips. The two coils have high mutual inductance.
When an alternating current passes through the primary coil, it creates a varying magnetic flux.
As per Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, this change in magnetic flux induces an EMF
(electromotive force) in the secondary coil, which is linked to the core having a primary coil. This
is mutual induction.

Overall, a transformer carries out the following operations:

Transfer of electrical energy from one circuit to another

Transfer of electrical power through electromagnetic induction

Electric power transfer without any change in frequency

Two circuits are linked with mutual induction

The figure shows the formation of magnetic flux lines around a current-carrying wire. The
normal of the plane containing the flux lines is parallel to the normal of a cross-section of a wire.
Formation of varying magnetic flux lines around a wire

The figure shows the formation of varying magnetic flux lines around a wire wound. The
interesting part is that the reverse is also true; when a magnetic flux line fluctuates around a
piece of wire, a current will be induced in it. This was what Michael Faraday found in 1831,
which is the fundamental working principle of electric generators, as well as transformers.

Parts of a Single-phase Transformer

Parts of a Single-phase Transformer

The major parts of a single-phase transformer consist of

1. Core

The core acts as a support to the winding in the transformer. It also provides a low reluctance
path to the flow of magnetic flux. The winding is wound on the core, as shown in the picture. It
is made up of a laminated soft iron core in order to reduce the losses in a transformer. The
factors, such as operating voltage, current, power, etc., decide core composition. The core
diameter is directly proportional to copper losses and inversely proportional to iron losses.
2. Windings

Windings are the set of copper wires wound over the transformer core. Copper wires are used
due to the following:

The high conductivity of copper minimises the loss in a transformer because when the
conductivity increases, resistance to current flow decreases.

The high ductility of copper is the property of metals that allows it to be made into very
thin wires.

There are mainly two types of windings: primary windings and secondary windings.

Primary winding: The set of turns of windings to which the supply current is fed.

Secondary winding: The set of turns of winding from which output is taken.

The primary and secondary windings are insulated from each other using insulation coating
agents.

3. Insulation Agents

Insulation is necessary for transformers to separate windings from each other and to avoid
short circuits. This facilitates mutual induction. Insulation agents have an influence on the
durability and stability of a transformer.

The following are used as insulation mediums in a transformer:

Insulating oil

Insulating tape

Insulating paper

Wood-based lamination

Ideal Transformer

The ideal transformer has no losses. There is no magnetic leakage flux, ohmic resistance in its
windings and no iron loss in the core.

EMF Equation of Transformer

N1 – Number of turns in the primary

N2 – Number of turns in the secondary

Φm – Maximum flux in the weber (Wb)

T – Time period. It is the time taken for 1 cycle.

The flux formed is a sinusoidal wave. It rises to a maximum value of Φm and decreases to a
negative maximum of Φm. So, flux reaches a maximum in one-quarter of a cycle. The time
taken is equal to T/4.
Average rate of change of flux = Φm/(T/4) = 4fΦm

Where, f = frequency

T = 1/f

Induced EMF per turn = Rate of change of flux per turn

Form factor = RMS value / average value

RMS value = 1.11 (4fΦm) = 4.44 fΦm [form factor of a sine wave is 1.11]

RMS value of EMF induced in winding = RMS value of EMF per turn x No. of turns

Primary Winding

RMS value of induced EMF = E1 = 4.44 fΦm * N1

Secondary Winding

RMS value of induced EMF = E2 = 4.44 fΦm * N2

This is the EMF equation of the transformer.

For an ideal transformer at no load condition,

E1 = Supply voltage on the primary winding

E2 = Terminal voltage (theoretical or calculated) on the secondary winding

Voltage Transformation Ratio

E1/N1=E2/N2=K

K is called the voltage transformation ratio, which is a constant.

Case 1: If N2 > N1, K>1, it is called a step-up transformer.

Case 2: If N2< N1, K<1, it is called a step-down transformer.

Transformer Efficiency

Comparing system output with input will confirm transformer efficiency. The system is called
better when its efficiency is high.

Efficiency = Output power/Input power x 100

Applications of Transformer
The transformer transmits electrical energy through wires over long distances.

Transformers with multiple secondaries are used in radio and TV receivers, which require
several different voltages.

Transformers are used as voltage regulators.

Resistor Colour Code

Resistors are usually very tiny, and it is challenging to print resistance values on them. So,
colour bands are printed on them to represent the electrical resistance. These colour bands are
known as resistor colour codes. The resistor colour code was invented in the 1920s by the
Radio Manufacturers Association (RMA).

All leaded resistors with a power rating up to one watt are marked with colour bands. They are
given by several bands and together they specify the resistance value, the tolerance rate and
sometimes the reliability or failure rates. The number of bands present in a resistor varies from
three to six. The first two bands indicate the resistance value and the third band serves as a
multiplier.

Resistor Colour Table

Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 1
Brown 1 10 ± 1%
Red 2 100 ± 2%
Orange 3 1000
Yellow 4 10,000
Green 5 100,000 ± 0.5%
Blue 6 1,00,000 ± 0.25%
Violet 7 10,000,000 ± 0.1%
Grey 8 ± 0.05%
White 9
Gold 0.1 ± 5%
Silver 0.01 ± 10%

How to Read Resistor Colour Code?

 To read them, hold the resistor such that the tolerance band is on your right. The
tolerance band is usually gold or silver in colour and is placed a little further away from
the other bands.

 Starting from your left, note down all the colours of the bands and write them down in
sequence.
  Next, use the table given below to see which digits they represent.

 The band just next to the tolerance band is the multiplier band. So, if the colour of this
band is Red (representing 2), the value given is 102.

 After learning about resistance colour codes, let us learn how to find resistor colour
codes with an example. Here’s an example to get you started:

 The band colours for resistor colour code in the order:

Band colours in Red Red Black Gold
order
Digits 2 2 1 ± 5%
representation
Value 22 Ω ±5 %

 The tolerance values represent by how much the resistance can vary from its mean
value in terms of percentage. A gold band represents the lowest variation, so be sure to
buy these at the electronics store. The value of the given resistance is: 22 Ω ± 5%. The
tolerance of the resistor can be calculated as follows:

 Tolerance=Value of resistor × value of tolerance band

 = 22 Ω × 5% = 1.1 Ω
  This means that the 22 Ω resistor with a tolerance value of 1.1 Ω could range from the
actual value as much as 23.1 Ω to as little as 20.9 Ω. It is important to note that the band
next to the tolerance band represents the multiplier. All the bands to the left of this band
represent the significant digits. There can be more than two such bands.

AC & DC signal parameters

AC, DC and Electrical Signals AC means Alternating Current and DC means Direct Current. AC
and DC are also used when referring to voltages and electrical signals which are not currents!
For example: a 12V AC power supply has an alternating voltage (which will make an alternating
current flow). An electrical signal is a voltage or current which conveys information, usually it
means a voltage. The term can be used for any voltage or current in a circuit.

Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating Current (AC) flows one way, then the other way, continually reversing direction.

An AC voltage is continually changing between positive (+) and negative (-).

The rate of changing direction is called the frequency of the AC and it is measured in hertz (Hz)
which is the number of forwards-backwards cycles per second.

Mains electricity in the UK has a frequency of 50Hz. See below for more details of signal
properties. An AC supply is suitable for powering some devices such as lamps and heaters but
almost all electronic circuits require a steady DC supply (see below).

Direct Current (DC)

Direct Current (DC) always flows in the same direction, but it may increase and decrease.

A DC voltage is always positive (or always negative), but it may increase and decrease.
Electronic circuits normally require a steady DC supply which is constant at one value or a
smooth DC supply which has a small variation called ripple.

Cells, batteries and regulated power supplies provide steady DC which is ideal for electronic
circuits. Power supplies contain a transformer which converts the mains AC supply to a safe
low voltage AC.

Then the AC is converted to DC by a bridge rectifier but the output is varying DC which is
unsuitable for electronic circuits.

Some power supplies include a capacitor to provide smooth DC which is suitable for less-
sensitive electronic circuits.

Lamps, heaters and motors will work with any DC supply.

Properties of electrical signals

An electrical signal is a voltage or current which conveys information, usually it means a voltage.
The term can be used for any voltage or current in a circuit.

The voltage-time graph on the right shows various properties of an electrical signal. In addition
to the properties labelled on the graph, there is frequency which is the number of cycles per
second. The diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any signal with a
constant shape.

• Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is measured in volts, V. • Peak
voltage is another name for amplitude. • Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage
(amplitude). When reading an oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.

• Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle. It is measured in seconds
(s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms) and microseconds (µs) are often
used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1µs = 0.000001s.

• Frequency is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies
tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and
1MHz = 1000000Hz. 1 1 frequency = time period and time period = frequency

• Mains electricity in the Nigeria has a frequency of 50Hz, so it has a time period of 1 /50 =
0.02s = 20ms.

Root Mean Square (RMS) Values

The value of an AC voltage is continually changing from zero up to the positive peak, through
zero to the negative peak and back to zero again. Clearly for most of the time it is less than the
peak voltage, so this is not a good measure of its real effect.

Instead, we use the root mean square voltage (VRMS) which is 0.7 of the peak voltage (Vpeak):

VRMS = 0.7 × Vpeak and Vpeak = 1.4 × VRMS

These equations also apply to current. They are only true for sine waves (the most common
type of AC) because the 0.7 and 1.4 are different 4 values for other shapes.

The RMS value is the effective value of a varying voltage or current. It is the equivalent steady
DC (constant) value which gives the same effect. For example, a lamp connected to a 6V RMS
AC supply will light with the same brightness when connected to a steady 6V DC supply.

However, the lamp will be dimmer if connected to a 6V peak AC supply because the RMS value
of this is only 4.2V (it is equivalent to a steady 4.2V DC). You may find it helps to think of the
RMS value as a sort of average, but please remember that it is NOT really the average.
In fact, the average voltage (or current) of an AC signal is zero because the positive and
negative parts exactly cancel out.

References

Wikipedia

Bjyu’s

WWW