SOCIAL STUDIES: BY A.A. KAPALAMULA & A.M.B.

CHIZINGA @2021:BIMTESS

SOCIAL STUDIES
FORM IV (2 Ed) nd

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Multiculturalism
2. Union and Associations
3. National Service
4. International Organizations that Foster Development
5. International Conventions on Human Rights
6. Sustainable Development
7. Developing Nations
8. International Labour Law
9. Economic Policies
10. Personal Finances
11. Financial Institutions
12. Rights and Responsibilities of Financial Service Consumers
13. Market Forces
14. Population Growth
15. Discrimination
16. Government of Malawi
17. Good Governance
18. Taxation
19. Gender and Development
20. Population and Social Behavior: HIV/AIDS
21. Drug and Substance Abuse
22. Responsible Parenthood
23. Universal Morals and Values
24. International Peace Initiatives
25. Social Justice
26. Social Services
27. World Cooperation

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UNIT 1: MULTICULTURALISM
Meaning of Multiculturalism
 This refers to the coexistence of different cultures within a given society.
 In other words, multiculturalism entails different cultures living side by side on a
complementary basis within a society.
 It involves recognizing and appreciating different cultural groups and ensuring that all
groups and members of the society live and work together.

Factors that Enhance Multiculturalism

1. Modernity
 This is characterized by abandoning traditional ideas, doctrines and values in favour of
new values and beliefs.
 Modernity has led to an increased co-existence of people from various cultural
backgrounds. It has facilitated the exposure of people to new ways of life and thought and
increased cultural exchange.
 People have also developed an interest to know more about other cultures from different
parts of the world.
2. Migration
 This is the movement of people from one place to another.
 People move to different areas for various reasons such as escaping a conflict, search for
employment, looking for better economic opportunities and many other reasons.
 Movement of this nature brings people of different (diverse) cultures together. This
results into different cultures living side by side and therefore, a creation of a
multicultural society.
3. Race and Ethnicity
 Modern societies are mostly multi-racial or multi-ethnic due to the increased coexistence
of people of different races and ethnicity within societies.
 Most of the African societies became multi-racial due to the partitioning of the continent
among European countries.
 Africans were never consulted in drawing up boundaries separating their countries and
therefore, many ended up being separated from their ethnic groups and forced to unite
with other ethnic groups into one country.
 Other countries like United States of America and Brazil became multi-racial because of
slave trade.
4. Religion
 Some societies are multicultural because they have various religious groups living side by
side.
 Missionaries spread their teachings to different parts of the world. This has made it
possible for such religions to be adopted and assimilated into various cultures of the
world.

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 Furthermore, religion promote unity and coexistence of their members regardless of

cultural differences.
5. Politics
 In politics, people of different religions and cultures work together to promote their
political interests.
 As such, members and supporters of a political party from different cultures live side by
side and work together just because they share the same political ideology thereby,
creating a multicultural society.
 Political interest act as a bond for the people belonging to different cultures to unite and
coexist.
6. Intermarriages
 This is the marriage between people of different social, ethnic, racial and cultural
background.
 Intermarriages enhance multiculturalism because people of different cultures are brought
together to coexist.
 This interaction is facilitated by various factors including education, training and
employment for people of all cultural background.
7. Trade
 Trade allows the movement of people around the world.
 This movement is facilitating the interaction of people of different cultures.
 This means that people of different cultures come into contact, live together and share
their cultural experiences while conducting trade.
8. Citizenship laws
 Citizenship laws in many countries permits people from other countries to become
citizens.
 This means that anybody from anywhere in the world can become a citizen of any
country of his or her choice.
 This is how many Indians and Europeans have become citizens of Malawi.
 This law promotes multiculturalism as it encourages people to belong to new countries
where culture may be totally different.

The Impact of Multiculturalism on Development

Positive Impact of Multiculturalism

a. Exchange of ideas: it enables people of different cultural backgrounds with different
knowledge and talents from around the world to exchange ideas.
b. Exchange of culture: multiculturalism encourages the exchange of different languages,
customs and traditions. It enables the various features of different cultures to be known
and available to the whole population.
c. Exchange of skills: multiculturalism provides an opportunity to have an access to skilled
workers from various cultures. Individuals from other cultures feel free to work into the
country where their culture is welcomed. In this way, multiculturalism encourages skills
transfer and sharing between local people and those from outside.
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d. Tolerance: multiculturalism increases levels of tolerance by encouraging people of

different cultures to live side by side. This interaction enables people of other cultures to
develop a positive attitude towards other cultures.
e. Cooperation: multiculturalism helps to bring about cooperation between people of
different cultures. It encourages coexistence and support to each other. This promotes
development because everybody participates in developmental work regardless of their
cultural identity.
f. Improve image of the country: it is something that changes and improves people’s
perception of your country as a place where all the people are welcome regardless of
cultural differences. This may also make the country become more attractive to tourists
leading to a growth in the tourism sector.

Negative Impact of Multiculturalism

a. Discrimination: multiculturalism can lead to discrimination between various groups
based on cultural differences. This may happen where a particular group of people may
try to protect its cultural identity.
b. Dilution of other cultures: the mixing of different cultures in a society makes it difficult
to maintain pure culture. Each one of the cultures gets a lot of influences from the other
cultures within the society and eventually certain aspects are lost and others gained.
c. Deprivation of employment opportunities: multiculturalism may encourage more
immigrants to come into the country and increase competition for the few jobs that may
be available. Some of the jobs that might have been taken up by the local people are
given to immigrants.
d. Expensive to promote: promoting multiculturalism can be expensive, especially in
countries where they receive more immigrants seeking economic opportunities. Upon
arrival in the host country, immigrants need government assistance in the form of food,
water, accommodation, and health care for them to settle down. It is expensive to provide
these things for poor countries like Malawi.
e. Economic Exploitation: multiculturalism promotes economic exploitation of the less
influential groups by the more influential groups. Multicultural policies may be used to
push minority cultural groups into lowly paying and often dirty jobs in order to support
the standard of living of the majority group.
f. Ethnic or racial rivalry: in most multicultural societies, disunity has always been
experienced due to ethnic, racial and cultural differences where some groups may wish to
protect their culture from dilution. These differences usually lead into conflicts.
!!!@dn2
UNIT 2: UNIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS
Definitions of Unions and Associations
 A union is a voluntary member-based civil society organization that is formed by a group
of workers to promote and protect their rights.

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 The formation of unions is based on the idea that individual workers can do little to
improve their conditions of service if they act alone, but if many workers come together,
unite and speak with one voice, employers will take notice.
 Unions do have constitutions and are legally registered therefore, they are supposed to
operate within the legal framework based on which they were formed.
 Unions are usually based on common professional characteristics that reflect various
occupations.
 Such unions are also referred to as Trade Unions.
 A trade union is an organization of workers that have come together to achieve common
goals such as fighting for better working conditions.
 A trade union is an organization of workers or employees formed mainly to negotiate
with the employers on various employment related issues.
 The primary function of trade unions is to protect the interest of workers against
discrimination and unfair labour practices.

Principles of Trade Unions

1. Unity: unity is strength
2. Equality: workers must not be discriminated. Each worker should get equal pay for equal
work.
3. Security: security of their employment and their families must be safeguarded.
Objectives of a Trade Union
 Represent members to negotiate with employers, for the better wages and conditions of
employment.
 Support members with recreation facilities and benefits for unemployment, illness,
retirement, death etc.
 Helps to resolve disputes in a mutually acceptable manner.
 Protect jobs of the members and voice decisions affecting members.
 Support pro-union political parties.
 Provide member with different services like education, training, welfare, discounts, loans.
 Represent workers interest.

Examples of Unions for Citizens in Malawi

 Examples of trade unions to which citizens in Malawi belong to include;
 Teachers Union of Malawi (TUM) which addresses the professional and welfare
concerns of all teachers
 Civil Servants Trade Union (CSTU) whose members are all civil servants in the
country
 The Malawi Congress of Trade Union (MCTU) which coordinates the activities
of all trade Unions in Malawi
 The Tobacco Tenants and Allied Workers Union of Malawi (TOTAWUM)
 Communication Workers Union of Malawi (COWUMA)

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 Malawi Union for the Informal Sector (MUFIS).

 The Journalists Union of Malawi (JUMA)
 The Central East African Railway Workers’ Union (CEARWU)
 The Commercial, Industrial and Allied Workers Union (CIAWU)
 The Congress of Malawi Trade Unions (COMATU)
 The Private Schools Employees’ Union of Malawi (PSEUM)
 The Civil Servants’ Trade Unions
NB: However, the unions that are not based on people’s trade or occupations are not categorized
as trade unions. Such unions are usually formed based on other common purposes or interests.
Examples of such unions include;
 Malawi Union of Savings and Credit Cooperatives (MUSCO), this is a financial union
 Public Affairs Committee (PAC), this is a religious Union
 Students’ unions in universities and colleges
 Farmers’ Union of Malawi
 Golf Union of Malawi
 The Copyright Society of Malawi (COSOMA)

The Role of Unions

 Sensitizing workers on the rights related to their occupation.
 Negotiating with employers for revision of workers’ salaries.
 Promoting, protecting and defending the rights of their members.
 Bargaining for fair minimum wage for the workers.
Associations
 An association is a voluntary membership based civil society institution that is formed by
people who belong to the same industry.
Difference between a Union and an Association
 An association differs from a union because its members are not necessarily employees
of a particular industry. Therefore, the members of the Associations do not aim at
achieving better wages or working conditions.

Roles of the Associations

 They strive to improve the quality and quantity of their undertakings.
 They negotiate with relevant stakeholders for better terms.
 Consumers Association of Malawi (CAMA) negotiate with sellers and service providers
for fair prices and quality of goods and services.

Examples of Associations in Malawi

 Tea Growers Association of Malawi
 Tobacco Association of Malawi (TAMA)
 Herbalist Association of Malawi

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 Rainwater Harvest Association of Malawi

 Football Association of Malawi (FAM)
 Netball Association of Malawi (NAM)
 Cane Growers Association of Malawi
 The Employers Consultative Association of Malawi (ECAM)
 Independent Schools Association of Malawi (ISAMA)
 Minibus Owners Association of Malawi (MOAM)
 National Association of Smallholder Farmers in Malawi (NASFAM)
Industrial Actions
 To achieve their interest and objectives, the unions use the principle of negotiation
through bargaining with employers. However, if the stakeholders are reluctant to respond
to their grievances, they resort to a number of industrial actions; (in chronological order).
(a). Go Slow
 Is the arrangement, the employees reduce the amount of their daily output as a way of
pressurizing the employer to listen to their grievances.
 Workers do jobs more slowly as they deliberately take longer to complete tasks.
(b). Sit- in (Picketing)
 This is the industrial action where workers report for duties at the workplace but do not
work while the employer looks on.
 They stand outside workplace to try to persuade other workers not to go to workplace
(c). stay away
 This is the industrial action where the union members stay away from normal duty in
order to pressurize employers to hear their demands.
(d). Processions
 In this industrial action, the workers mobilize and organize each other into a group and
parade through a street to demonstrate their grievances to employers.
A look at some selected Unions
(a). Teachers Union of Malawi (TUM)
 This is a teacher organization and one of the most active trade unions in Malawi.
 It works to promote the welfare of teachers.
 It also works towards the provision of quality education in Malawi.
 Formed as Nyasaland Teachers Association (NTA) at Henry Henderson Institute (HHI)
and changed the name to Teachers Association of Malawi (TUM) in 1964.
 Later on, they reconsidered of changing the name from Teachers Association of Malawi
to Teachers Union of Malawi (TUM).

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 TUM was certified on 9th February, 1994 and registered on 1st February, 1995 as a
Trade Union.

Roles of TUM
 Negotiates improved working conditions for teachers such as;
 Promotion for teachers
 Provision of housing allowance
 Healthy working condition
 Regular payment of fair salaries
Achievements of TUM
 Unified teaching profession
 Established maternity leave of 90 days for teachers
 Negotiated successfully with government on promotions, hardship and housing allowance
(b). Malawi Congress of Trade Union (MCTU)
 This is a mother of all Trade Unions in Malawi.
 MCTU was born in 1995 when it was registered as a membership labour movement
organization.
 MCTU has the membership of seventeen affiliates

Aims and Objectives of MCTU

 Promoting social welfare of the workers at the workplace
 Promoting human rights standards of the workers
 Organize and secures support in order to advance the economic security of the members
(c). Public Affairs Committee (PAC)
 This is a grouping of various religious denominations.
 It was founded in 1992.
 It is a civil society interfaith organization made up of the Protestants, Catholics and
Muslim faith groups in Malawi.
 PAC is composed of the Malawi Council of Churches (MCC), Episcopal Conference of
Malawi (ECM), Evangelical Association of Malawi (EAM), Muslim Association of
Malawi (MAM), and Quadria Muslim Association of Malawi (QMAM).
 PAC draws 24 member organizations and four associate members.

Roles/ Objectives
 Promotes democracy and good governance
 Promotes human dignity
 Promotes development
 Promotes peace and unity

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Roles of the Associations

 Promoting, protecting and defending the rights of their members
 Influencing government decisions and policies in matter affecting their members
 Mobilizing, educating and organizing members towards the improvement of their
activities

Examples of the Associations

(a). Tobacco Association of Malawi (TAMA)
 It is a voluntary membership organization of Tobacco growers formed in 1929.
 It advocates for Tobacco farmers and is involved in tobacco sales in the auction floors.
 TAMA helps a farmer to get what he or she deserves.

Roles of TAMA
 TAMA is involved in awareness campaign on good agricultural practices
 It is there to develop the Tobacco industry in Malawi
 It advances and protect the interests of the Tobacco growers
 To enhance Tobacco export overseas
 Undertake farm input surveys
 Monitor international Tobacco trends
 To participate in International Tobacco Growers Associations programs
(b). Consumers Association of Malawi (CAMA)
 It is a membership Non-governmental organization which was established in 1994.
 The duty of CAMA is to promote and protect consumer interests
 CAMA’s vision is to see that in a country
 have access to safe and sustainable goods and services
 people exercise their rights as consumers
 in order to fulfill this mission, CAMA undertakes the following strategies
 carry out research and provide consumers advice and information
 represent consumers at national, regional and international forums
 provide forums where consumers discuss and resolve issues that affect them
 educating the public about consumer rights and responsibilities
 engaging consumers in direct dialogue with civil leaders, politicians, policy
makers and other stakeholders on issues that affect their welfare
 identifying consumer advocacy issues
Benefits of Joining Unions and Associations
 The following are some of the benefits that members or workers of Unions and
Associations get;
 Protection against unfair dismissal
 Better wages and salaries

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 Better working conditions fair price of commodities

 Freedom from exploitation
 Access to pension schemes and credit schemes
 Access to legal assistance when victimized
 Maternity protection
 Better accommodation

!!!@dn2

UNIT 3: NATIONAL SERVICE

Meaning of the term “national service”
 National service is an arrangement in which citizens render their voluntary service to the
nation.
 Usually, nation service brings a lot of benefits to the citizens in the development projects
that are designed according to the needs of the local communities.
 Citizens serve their communities in various ways such as; cleaning in hospitals, sweeping
the streets, repairing community roads and bridges, teaching literacy classes, and so much
more.

Importance of National Service

(a). Promotes self-reliance
 National service encourages the development of the spirit of self-reliance on local
communities.
 People realize the importance of carrying out development projects on their own without
waiting from the government.
(b). It fosters cooperation
 National service fosters the spirit of cooperation among the citizens.
 This is achieved through collective decision making and working together on particular
projects.
 Citizens are encouraged to work together in solving their challenges.
(c). Promotes individual initiative
 National service activities encourage the spirit of initiative among individual citizens.
 National service activities ensure that citizens are the initiators of their own projects.
(d). Instils a hardworking spirit
 National service encourages people to develop a hardworking spirit.

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 This is so because individuals are taught the goodness of hard work for national
development.
 This tend to set the standards for everyone who is involved.
(e). Promotes Volunteerism and Patriotism
 Citizens involved in national service activities develop a spirit of giving out their services
for free for the common good.
 They also develop a spirit of patriotism by learning to put the needs of the nation or
community first.
(f). It teaches people important skills
 People learn different skills through their involvement in national service activities.
 National service provides opportunity for people to learn various skills which they can
use on their own to earn a living. This helps people to live an economically independent
life.
(g). Encourages wise management of economic, environmental and human resources of
the community
 National service activities involve the use of community resources to implement local
development projects. These resources are used and managed by the members of the local
community themselves. This trains them on how to manage community resources wisely
for sustainable development.
(f). Promotes the development of leadership skills
 National service ensures people who take the leading role, to acquire leadership skills.
 These leadership skills can be used by individuals when serving in different capacities.
(g). Promotes discipline and respect for others
 The rules guiding people when participating in national service provide discipline to them
and respect for others.
(h). Encourages honesty and integrity
 Honesty and integrity are key qualities that are promoted during national service.
 Being truthful promotes trust within a group of people and having integrity demonstrates
that you are supporting your own morals and ethics.
(i). Promotes the development of interpersonal skills in teamwork, communications, human
relations and social interaction
 Involvement in national service activities encourage personal development in multiple
skills.
 Individuals learn how to interact with people of different ages, how to communicate on
issues of community or national importance.

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Read Case Studies on National Service (In Arise with Social Studies, Book 4)
1. Zambian National Service (ZNS)
2. National Youth Service-Zimbabwe
3. Youth Week in Malawi
4. National Service in Mozambique
5. National Service in Botswana
Ways in which People can Participate in National Service
 Cleaning in hospitals and other public places for free.
 Working on community projects such as construction of school blocks, bridges, roads,
teachers’ houses, moulding bricks, collecting sand and providing technical expertise.
 Offering to serve in the military or police for free.
 Offering to help in offering relief assistance for free during natural disasters or other
emergencies.
 Offering to assist the elderly, orphans, and other vulnerable groups in the community by
building houses for them without being paid.

!!!@dn2

UNIT 4: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS THAT FOSTER DEVELOPMENT

International Organizations that Foster Development
 An international organization can be referred to as an organization with an international
membership scope or presence worldwide.
 International organizations are mostly initiated by developed countries with an aim to
eradicate poverty in developing countries.
 Malawi is one of the beneficiaries of International Organizations which include; Save the
Children; USAID; Care International; Action-Aid; Plan International; European Union
etc.

(A). Multilateral Organizations

 Multilateralism refers to multiple countries working together on a given issue.
 Multilateralism may also refer to the practice of coordinating national policies in groups
of three or more states to work on issues that relate to all the countries in the
organization.
 It may involve several nations acting together e.g. the United Nations or may involve
regional or military alliance and groupings such as North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO).

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 Multilateral organizations obtain their funding from multiple governments and spend it
on projects in various countries.
 Examples include; the European Union (EU); the World Bank etc.

(i). European Union

 A grouping of 27 European countries;
 Its headquarters is in Brussels, Belgium;
 It provides aid to Africa, Caribbean and Pacific countries.

(ii). World Bank

 Comprises of 186 member countries.

Aims of the World Bank

 Alleviate poverty by giving loans and credits on advantageous terms.
 Provide grants to initiate various development projects in areas of education, healthcare,
agriculture, environmental and resource management, infrastructure among others.

(iii). OPEC Fund for International Development

 OPEC stands for Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).
 This is a multilateral development finance institution established in 1976.
Aims of OPEC
 Promotes cooperation between OPEC member countries;
 Helps low-income countries in pursuit of their social and economic advancement.

(iv). United Nations Development Program (UNDP)

 Creates partnership between developing countries and experts with knowledge and
experience in tackling social issues like HIV/AIDS.
 UNDP helps countries to combat local problems.
(v). African Development Bank (ADB)
 This is a premier financial development institution of Africa.
 It comprises 27 contributing countries and benefits 40 countries.

Aims of ADB
 To assist in poverty reduction by providing funding for projects.
 Provide technical assistance for studies and capacity building activities.

(B). Bilateral Organizations

 These organizations receive funding from the government in their home countries and use
the funding to aid developing countries.
 Development agencies include;

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 Australian Agency for International Development

 Canadian International Development Agency
 Department for International Development (United Kingdom)
 Europe Aid Development and Cooperation
 French Development Agency
 Germany International Cooperation
 Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation
 Swedish International Development Agency
 Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation
 United States Agency for International Development
(i). United States Agency for International Development (USAID)
 It is an independent agency that provides economic development and humanitarian
assistance around the world.
Areas where it concentrates
 Investing in agricultural productivity so countries can feed their people;
 Providing life-saving assistance in times of disaster;
 Promoting democracy, human rights and good governance;
 Fostering private sector development and sustainable economic growth;
 Helping communities adapt to a changing environment
 Combating maternal and child mortality rate;
 Combating deadly diseases like HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria;
 Elevating the role of women;
 Enhancing early grade reading for junior primary schools;

(ii). Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)

 This is under the government of Denmark.
 It strives to combat poverty in developing countries.
Aims
 Reduce poverty in developing countries;
 Ensure women participation in development;
 Ensure protection of the environment for sustainable development;
 Ensure promotion of democracy and observation of human rights;

(iii). Germany Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ)

 GIZ has been working in Malawi on behalf of Germany government for more than 30
years.
 It focuses on three priority areas namely; Education; Health; and private sector
development in rural areas.
Roles of GIZ
 Promotes good governance;
 It works with local and international partners to reduce poverty;

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 Promote basic education;

 Promote health care;

(iv). Department for International Development (DFID)

 It was set up in 1997.
 The DFID leads the United Kingdom’s work to end poverty.
 DFID main programme areas of work are education, health, social services, water supply
and sanitation, governance and civil society, economic sector, environment protection
research, and humanitarian assistance.
Priority areas of the DFID
 Committed to addressing poverty and inequality;
 Committed to support economic growth and wealth creation and help people out of
poverty;
 Committed to promote good governance.
Roles of the DFID
 Try to end the need for aid by creating jobs;
 Unlocking the potential of girls and women;
 Help save lives in times of emergencies;
(v). The Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (Norad)
 It a directorate under Norway’s ministry of foreign affairs.
Roles of Norad
 Ensure effective foreign aid;
 Provide finance to non-governmental organizations;
 Carry out its own research and projects;

(vi). Swisscontact in Eastern and Southern Africa

 This is a private foundation for development cooperation.
 It was established in 1959 by the Swiss businessman as a non-profit organization.
 The aim of this organization is to contribute directly and indirectly to the improvement of
social and economic conditions of Asia, Africa, Latin America and Eastern European
countries.

(vii). Care International

 Care International is a large humanitarian international organization that is committed to
fighting poverty.
Roles of Care International
 Empower women so that the entire community can escape poverty;
 Provides economic opportunities;
 Delivers relief in times of emergencies like floods, volcanoes, hurricanes etc.

(viii). Action Aid

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 Action-Aid is an international anti-poverty agency working in over 45 countries to end

poverty and injustice.
 It is working in Africa, Asia, America and Europe.
 Has been working in Malawi since 1991 in partnership with communities, civils societies,
social movements and governments.

Roles of Action Aid

 Supports the poor in the communities;
 Focused in women’s rights to education;
 Ensure food security;
 Ensures social justice;
 Promotes democratic governance;
 Fights HIV/AIDS
 Promotes human security

(ix). Save the Children International

 It is one of the world’s leading independent organizations for children which works in
over 120 countries.
 The vision is to have a world in which every child attains the right to survival protection,
development and participation.

Priority areas
 Maternal and child health
 HIV/AIDS
 Education and child development
 Child rights and child protection
 Food and livelihood
 Social protection
 Emergency response
 Governance
 Security

(x). Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs)

 An NGO Can be defined as a private organization that pursue activities to relieve
suffering, promote the interest of the poor, protect the environment, provide basic social
services or undertake community development.

Types of Development work which International Organizations Undertake

(i). Infrastructure Development
 Basic physical systems like transportation, communication, sewage, water and electric
systems are all examples of infrastructure.

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 For example, government of Japan through JICA is undertaking infrastructural

development in Malawi in areas of road and reconstruction, bridge replacement, rural
electrification program, and upgrading of Community Day Secondary Schools.
(ii). Capacity building or development
 This involves not only provision of learning skills and techniques but also empowers the
people concerned.
 For instance, to prevent drought and build capacity for food security, it may involve
enhancing the abilities of the individuals, groups, organizations and communities to
meet their food and nutritional security challenges.
(iii). Provision of technical expertise (expatriates)
 International organizations also come with people of professional experience in specific
areas. They bring with them expertise such as in project planning, mass media
communication, monitoring evaluation etc.
(iv). Provision of economic opportunities
 International financial institutions such as the World Bank, the European Union,
USAID, provide financial support to local communities to initiate small enterprise
projects.
(v). Advocacy and civic education
 Some international organizations are involved in creating awareness among the public
on several issues like;
 Environment
 Population problems
 Election and voting
 Good governance
 Gender based violence
 Human rights
NB: Read a Case study about World Vision Malawi (WVM).
!!!@dn2

UNIT 5: INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS ON HUMAN RIGHTS

Conventions (agreements) for Protecting Human Rights for Special Groups
 There are a number of international conventions on human rights for special groups.
 These are meant to give special attention and protection of human rights for special
groups because of their vulnerability to abuse.

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 The following are some of the conventions for protecting human rights for special
groups;

(i). Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)

 The Convention on the Rights of the Children (CRC) is an international document that
sets out all of the rights that children have.
 This was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in November, 1989.
 This convention defines a child as any person under the age of 18.
 However, the constitution of the Republic of Malawi defines a child as a person below
the age of 16.

Why do Children need a Special Protection?

 Because children are more vulnerable to war;
 They are vulnerable to exploitation;
 They are vulnerable to malnutrition;
 They are vulnerable to trafficking;
 They are vulnerable to physical and psychological ill-treatment;
 They rely on adults for enforcement of their human rights;

Important aspects of CRC

 It confirms that children have a right to express their views but with responsibility.
 It provides a set of standards for child-friendly social services and legal systems in every
country.
 It emphasizes that these rights apply to children of all ages, from 0 to 18.
 It states that children everywhere have the same basic universal rights.

(ii). Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women

(CEDAW)
 This is a legal instrument that was adopted in 1979 by the United Nations General
Assembly.
 It is often described as an international bill of rights for women consisting of a preamble
and 30 articles.
 It defines what constitutes discrimination against women and sets up an agenda for
national action to end discrimination.
 Countries that are signatory to this convention are required to translate their promises
into action.
 The following are the recommendations to those countries that have ratified the
convention;
 to ensure that women receive equal pay for equal work;
 to take special measures to protect women with disabilities;
 to increase the number of women holding senior posts in government, civil
service or private sector;
 to promote legal rights for women, such as in signing contracts to own property;
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 to give women equal rights within marriage, such as shared responsibilities for
bringing up children;
 to encourage the equal participation of women in community life and decision
making;
 to promote the participation of women in public policy-making
 To adopt education and public information programmes to eliminate
discriminatory practices against women;
 to consider temporary special measures for improving the status of women; such
as preferential treatment or quota systems for education and employment;
 to give separate statistics for males and females when carrying out economic and
social surveys;
(iii). Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE)
 The Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE) is a pan African non-
governmental organization.
 Founded in 1992 with the aim to promote girls and women’s education in Sub-
Saharan Africa.
Activities
 Intends to reduce gender inequality in education and ensure that more girls have
access to education;
 Ensures the retention of more girls in schools;
 Protects and promotes women’s and girls’ right to education;
 FAWE uses the following approaches to promote girl’s education in Sub-Saharan
Africa;
 Policy influencing
 Gender responsive demonstrations interventions
 Community and grassroots advocacy
 Capacity building of FAWE partners known as National Chapters
(iv). Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD)
 Adopted in 2006 by the UN general assembly.
 The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is an international
treaty that sets out international human rights standards for all persons with
disabilities.
 People with disabilities are often visible in the society, either segregated or simply
ignored as passive objects of charity.
 This convention aims at promoting, protecting and ensuring the full enjoyment of
human rights by the people with disabilities.
 The following terms were agreed upon;
 to take into account the protection and promotion of the human rights of
persons with disabilities in all policies and programs;

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 to take appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination on the basis of

disability;
 to promote the training of professionals and staff working with persons
with disabilities;
 to provide accessible information to persons with disabilities about
mobility aids, devices and assistive technologies;
 to adopt all appropriate legislative, administrative and other measures for
the implementation of the rights recognized;
 to take all appropriate measures, including legislation to modify or abolish
existing laws, regulations, customs and practices that constitute
discrimination;
Institutions that deal with Human Rights for Special Groups at the Local Level
(a). The Ombudsman
 This office is a constitutional body established by the Constitution of the Republic of
Malawi.
 The Ombudsman is appointed by the Public Appointments Committee of Parliament.
 It is completely independent of the interference or direction of any other person.
 It mainly helps those individuals and groups of people that are vulnerable to exploitation
and abuse without accessing proper justice.
 However, the decisions made by the Ombudsman can be reviewed by the High Court.
Function
 It investigates all cases where a person has suffered an injustice.
(b). Malawi Human Rights Commission (MHRC)
 This is a constitutional body that is independent of any other body or person.

Duties
 Source of human rights information for the government and the people of Malawi;
 Protects and promotes human rights of all people including children, illiterate persons,
people with disabilities and the elderly;
 Deliberating, considering and making recommendations regarding human rights issues;
 Promotes public awareness and respect for human rights;
 Exercise its authority by visiting places of detention including police cells;
 Comment publicly on violation of human rights;
(c). Non-Governmental Organizations
 There are various non-governmental organizations in Malawi working to promote and
protect the rights of special groups.

(i). Federation for Disability Organization in Malawi (FEDOMA)

 It is an umbrella organization of Disabled Peoples Organization (DPO).

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 Its mission is to enhance the welfare of persons with disabilities and enable them play
their rightful role in the society.

Objectives of FEDOMA
 To promote and advocate for the rights of people with disabilities;
 To coordinate and strengthen the capacity of the Disabled Peoples Organizations;
 To advocate for and monitor the equalization of opportunities for people with
disabilities;

(ii). Civil Liberties Committee (CILIC)

Objectives
 It is involved in fighting for women and children’s rights;
 It also provides counselling, legal aid and professional advice to women in distress;
 It advocates for prison reforms in Malawi;

(iii). Forum for African Women Educationalists in Malawi (FAWEMA)

 FAWEMA is a national chapter for the Forum for Africa Women Educationalists.
 Its secretariat is in Kenya.
 It brings together women educationalists in order to support and promotes girls and
women’s education in Malawi;
Objectives include;
 To increase girls and women’s access to education; by influencing policy
formulation, planning and implementation;
 Improving retention, performance and achievement of girls in schools;
 To promote public awareness on social and economic importance of girl’s education;
 To strengthen its mandate for effective implementation of its mandate;

(iv). Centre for Human Rights and Rehabilitation (CHRR)

 Ii is a human rights non-governmental organization in Malawi;
 The organization supports and promotes a vibrant Malawian culture which embraces
values of democracy and human rights;
Objectives
 Raising awareness and understanding of human rights, democracy and good
governance;
 Enhancing community awareness of safety issues;
 Providing mediation to marginalized groups in Malawi;
 Lobbying for the abolishment of laws that infringe on the people’s rights;
 It acquires information that is of national importance;

(v). Malawi Human Rights Resource Centre (MHRRC)

 It was established in 1997;
 It is a capacity building NGO that is committed to promoting a sustainable human
rights culture;
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Objectives
 Promotes and strengthen human rights culture in Malawi;
 Works with civil society organizations to effectively support democracy in Malawi;
 It empowers grassroots people to take responsibility of their own development;
 It promotes free expression and other rights for the citizens;

Institutions that deal with Human Rights issues for Special Groups at the
International Level
(a). Amnesty International (AI)
 This is a non-governmental organization focused on human rights issues.
 The organization was founded in London in 1961 by English lawyer Peter Benenson.
 Its vision is for every person to enjoy all the human rights.

Objectives
 Prevent and end grave abuses of human rights;
 Demand justice for those whose rights have been violated;
 Draws attention to human rights abuses;
 Abolish the death penalty;
 End extra judicial executions and disappearances;
 Ensure prison conditions meet international human rights standards;
 Ensure prompt and fair trial for all political prisoners;
 Promote economic, social and cultural rights for marginalized communities;
 Stop unlawful killing in armed conflict;
 It upholds the rights of refugees, migrants and asylum seekers;
 Promotes religious tolerance;
 End recruitment and use of child soldiers;

Six areas which Amnesty International deals with

 Women’s, children’s, minorities and indigenous rights;
 Ending torture;
 Abolishment of death penalty;
 Rights of refugees;
 Rights of prisoners of conscience;
 Protection of human dignity;
(b). Human Rights Watch (HRW)
 Human Rights Watch is an international non-governmental organization that conducts
research and advocacy on human rights.
 It is based in New York in the United States of America.
 Formed from the merging of Helsinki Watch and Americas Watch in 1988.

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Objectives
 Upholds human dignity and advance the cause of human rights;
 It conducts investigations into human rights violation worldwide;
 Supports the rights of women and children;
 Pressure those with power to respect human rights and secure justice;
 It promotes academic freedom, human rights responsibilities of corporations, and rights
of prisoners and refugees.

Achievements of HRW
 It successfully led international organizations in calling for a treaty to ban the use of child
soldiers in armed conflicts;
 It vigorously campaigned for the trial of the leaders of former Yugoslavia in an
international court of war crimes;
 It worked hand in hand with other organizations such as the International Committee of
the Red Cross in campaigning against the use of landmines.
(c). United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
 The UNHCR is also known as the UN Refugee Agency.
 Established on 14 December, 1950.
 It is based in Geneva, Switzerland.
 It is mandated to lead and coordinate international action to protect refugees.

Objectives
 Safeguard the rights and wellbeing of refugees;
 It strives to ensure that everyone can exercise the right to seek asylum and find safe
refuge;
 Protect and provide humanitarian assistance to internally persons;
(d). International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
 It is an international humanitarian movement that assists people suffering as a result of
wars and natural disasters.
 The movement consists of several distinct organizations that are legally independent
from each other but are united through common basic principles, objectives, symbols,
statutes, and governing organization.
 These organizations include;

(i). The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)

 Humanitarian organization founded in 1863 in Geneva, Switzerland by Henry
Dunant.
Duties
 Protect life and human dignity of the victim in armed conflicts.

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(ii). The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC)
 It was founded in 1919.
 Its secretariat is based in Geneva, Switzerland.
Duties
 Coordinates the activities of National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies;
 Organize relief assistance in response to large scale humanitarian emergencies;
(iii). National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
 Red Cross Societies are found in mostly Christian societies;
 While Red Crescent Society is found in Muslim countries because they do not
recognize the importance of the Cross.
 Red Cross and Red Crescent share similar objectives and some of their functions
include;
 Visiting prisoners of war;
 Tracing and reuniting family members separated by conflicts;
 Providing assistance for those disabled by war;
 Giving relief assistance in the form of food and shelter to those affected
by conflicts and natural disasters;
 Providing medical treatment to wounded soldiers in the battlefield;
(e). International tribunals on human rights violations;
 These are specially constituted courts under international law to hear cases involving
serious human rights violations and to pass judgement.
 The following are some of the tribunals that were set by the United Nations to hold
individuals and leaders accountable for war crimes against humanity;
(i). International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
 The United Nations Security Council established the ICTR in 1995.
 The aim was to prosecute persons responsible for genocide and other serious
violations of international humanitarian law committed in Rwanda between 1st
January, 1994 and 31st December, 1994.
 An estimated 800, 000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus were massacred by the Hutu
dominated government army and other non-military organizations.
 It is located in Arusha, Tanzania and has offices in Kigali, Rwanda.
 Since it opened in 1995, it has charged 93 individuals whom it considered
responsible for the serious violation of the law. These include; high ranking
military officials, government officials, politicians, businessmen, religious,
militia and media leaders.
(ii). International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY)
 Established by the UN Security Council in 1993.
 Its aim was to prosecute serious crimes committed during wars in the former
Yugoslavia.

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 By August 2014, the ICTY had charged 161 individuals.

 The indicted individuals ranged for common soldiers, generals, police
commanders, prime ministers and President.
(iii). Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL)
 Established in 2002 by the government of Sierra Leone and the United Nations.
 It was created to try those alleged to have committed serious violations of
international humanitarian law and Sierra Leone law within the country since
1996 during the civil war.
 So far, 13 individuals have been charged including former Liberian President
Charles Taylor for his role in the civil war.
(iv). Special Tribunal for Lebanon (STL)
 It was established by an agreement between the United Nations and the Lebanese
government.
 The aim is to try those suspected of the attack of 14 February, 2005, which
resulted in the death of former Lebanese Prime Minister, Rafiq Hariri

!!!@dn2

UNIT 6: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPEMENT

Meaning of Sustainable Development
 Sustainable development refers to the kind of development that meets the needs of the
present generation without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their
needs.
 It is about improving the standard of living by protecting human health, conserving the
environment, using resources efficiently and advancing economic competitiveness.

Importance of Sustainable Development

 It helps to control the common environmental ills such as climate change, pollution,
deforestation and soil erosion that negatively affect economic development in the long
term.
 Sustainable development caters for global rapid population and provides the basic human
needs such as food and housing.
 Sustainable development is an approach that put into use the non-renewable resources
e.g. the use of renewable energy sources like wind and solar power.
 It improves the standard of living and the quality of life of people.
 It creates a society in which people make careful use, conserve and invest in resources.

Essential Conditions for Sustainable Development

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(a). Community Participation

 The affected community should initiate, plan and implement the project because they are
the ones who know best how their lives can be improved. This ensures that the projects
are made according the needs of the people hence promotes a sense of ownership for
future maintenance and caring.
(b). Gender Equality
 For every project to be successful, men and women, boys and girls must be involved.
(c). Education and Training
 For some projects to be successful, they need to have a component of education and
training. For example, introduction of clean water supplies (boreholes) would require
training to teach people how to maintain and repair the facility when broken.
(d). Use of appropriate technology
 The technology used in development projects need to be appropriate. It should use easily
available resources, spare parts and renewable energy.
(e). Availability of resources
 The available resources which may be cheap and easily accessible would make the
project successful.
(f). Peace and security
 There must be peace and security in the region or country for a development initiative to
succeed. Conflicts disrupts development efforts.
(g). Diversification
 Development projects should have a variety of ways of generating income, such that
when one sector fails, the project is still assured resources are available from other
sectors for its survival.
(h). Availability of market and reasonable price of products
 A development project needs to take business considerations into account. If the project
makes or sells products there has to be a market and reasonable price of the products.

Read Case Studies on;

 Fish farming saves lives and protects wildlife;
 Fighting poverty with honey.

!!!@dn2

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UNIT 7: DEVELOPING NATIONS

Meaning of the term Developing Nations
 A developing nation is a nation with a lower standard of living, underdeveloped industrial
base and low Human Development Index relative to other countries.
 Human Development Index (HDI) is a tool developed by the United Nations to measure
and rank a country’s level of social and economic development based on four criteria
namely; life expectancy at birth, mean years of schooling, expected years of schooling,
and gross national income per capita.

Common characteristics of Developing Countries

i. Low levels of productivity; developing countries are characterized by low levels of
labour productivity. The main cause of this include; low education standards; poor
health among workers, lack of investment in physical capital, and lack of access to
advanced technology.
ii. High rates of population growth and dependency burden; developing countries
tend to have high birth rates which results in high population growth. This large
population mainly depend on few people who are financially stable which creates a
high dependency burden.
iii. Inequitable distribution of income; the majority of developing countries suffer from
income inequality, where a small percentage of the population earns very high
income and a big percentage of it earns very low income. This results into high
poverty levels.
iv. High unemployment levels; in developing countries there are more people looking
for jobs since few jobs are created and the result is high unemployment levels. The
main reason of this is that there is rapid population growth in such countries.
v. Lack of capital; developing countries are characterized by low savings leading to
lack of capital availability for productive investment.
vi. Rapid growth of cities and towns; developing countries are increasingly
experiencing high levels of human migration from the rural areas to the urban areas
where people believe it is easier to make a living. This has resulted in the rapid
growth of towns and cities.
vii. High levels of debt; developing countries owe foreign governments and external
lending institutions such as World Bank and International Monetary Fund, huge sums
of money exceeding their ability to pay.
viii. Instability; many developing countries experience political instability due to
dissatisfaction arising from worsening poverty. Sometimes instability may arise
because of competition for scarce resources.
ix. Dual economy; in many developing countries there exist a modern commercialized
industrial sector alongside a traditional subsistence sector.
x. Dominance of the informal sector; informal sector in economic activities is
dominant in developing countries. The main characteristics of the informal sector jobs

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are; low skill; low productivity; self-employment; lack of capital and lack of formal
contractual agreements.
xi. Dependence and vulnerability; developing countries mostly depend on the
developed countries for many things such as trade, access to technology, aid and
investment. Furthermore, developing countries are vulnerable on the international
stage and are often dominated by decisions made by the developed countries.
xii. Prevalence of imperfect markets and limited information; developing countries
lack many of the necessary factors that enable markets to work efficiently. For
instance; they may lack a functioning banking system which enables and encourage
savings and then investment.

Development Challenges Facing Malawi

(a). Environmental degradation
 Environmental degradation is taking place at an alarming rate; this is due to high
population growth and high levels of poverty. There is a rapid exploitation of trees,
overfishing, poor land husbandry practices leading to soil erosion and many more.
(b). Low agricultural productivity
 The majority of Malawians live in the rural areas with agriculture as their main source of
food and income. Agricultural production is characterized by low productivity and this is
due to a number of factors like; use of low quality seeds, shortage of land suitable for
cultivation, loss of soil fertility, dependence on rain-fed farming, low levels of irrigation
development, use of primitive technology like hoes, and poor access to markets.
(c). Unemployment
 Unemployment refers to the share of the labour force that is without work but available
for and seeking employment. In Malawi, unemployment levels is high due to rapid
population growth.
(d). Education sector challenges
 Education is the essential tool for development because it provides skilled human
resource for both public and private sectors. However, Malawi’s education sector has a
number of challenges which include;
i. Low adult literacy rate; the percentage of the country’s adult population aged 15
and above who can lead and write is slightly above 60 percent. High literacy rate
is a serious drawback to the advancement of the peoples wellbeing and to the
achievement of national development.
ii. High school dropout; the proportion of the children who dropout from school
especially at primary school level is high. Children dropout for a number of
reasons like; poverty, long distance, early pregnancies, and poor school
environment.

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iii. Shortage of qualified teachers; this is a major concern both at primary and
secondary school. In community day secondary schools most of the teachers are
not qualified as they only have primary school teaching qualification and some
have a mere Malawi School Certificate of Education (MSCE). This compromises
the provision of quality education.
iv. Lack of teaching facilities; there is shortage of textbooks and also classrooms.
Most classrooms are overcrowded which is not conducive for learning.
(e). Health sector challenges
 Good health is essential for development. It is only a health population that can work to
contribute to national development. However, there are a number of challenges facing
this sector which include;
i. Shortage of health workers; there is a shortage of health workers in the country.
For instance; Malawi has between 1 and 2 doctors and 25 nurses for every
100,000 people. The country fails to train adequate health workers and more
skilled health workers go overseas to work in high income countries such as
United Kingdom where they earn high salaries.
ii. HIV/AIDS; Malawi has one of the highest HIV/AIDS prevalence rate. This
reduces the life expectancy of Malawians and negatively impacting the quality of
life of the workforce.
iii. Limited access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities; many Malawians in
rural and urban lack access to clean water supplies and sanitation facilities.
iv. High infant and maternal mortality rate; this is one of the biggest challenge. This
clearly indicates that our health system is poor. This has a huge cost on the
development as mothers and babies who could contribute ti development are lost.

Role of Donors in Developing Countries

 Donors provide financial assistance to support development initiatives. For instance, they
provide funding for the construction of school blocks, hospitals, clinics, roads, bridges,
boreholes and many more.
 They also provide technical assistance.
 They also enhance human resource development.
Positive aspects of the role of donors (importance of donors)
 Donors help to supplement domestic resources through budget support. This also reduces
foreign exchange shortages.
 Donors also provide technical assistance to developing countries to help them use aid
money efficiently so as to generate economic growth.
 Donors also help to enhance human resource development through provision of resources
and training. Some donors may also send experts to offer training or get students to study
in their countries.

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 Donors may also help to promote good governance by exerting pressure to push for
political reforms. For instance, a country may be forced to adopt democratic principles in
exchange for donor aid.

Negative aspects of the Role of Donors (Negative Impact of Donor Aid)

 Many donors provide aid in ways that restrict, rather than promote the ability of the poor
countries to make their own policy choices. Strict conditions attached to aid have often
forced poor countries to spend their money on areas that are not a priority.
 The provision of aid by donors has often promoted foreign control over poor countries
(neo-colonialism).
 Development aid can perpetuate dependency syndrome as people or countries may expect
help instead of finding ways of sourcing money and other resources on their own. It
discourages self-reliance but promotes a culture of dependency.

Donor Countries in Malawi

 Malawi receives aid in the form of loans and grants from a number of donor countries
which include;
 United Kingdom
 Japan
 Germany
 Norway
 Ireland
 Canada
 United States of America
 Kuwait
 United Arab Emirates
 Peoples Republic of China
 Some of these donor countries have special organizations or departments responsible for
the administration of their aid; e.g.
 Department for International Development (DFID)- United Kingdom
 Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)- Canada
 United States Agency for International Development (USAID)- USA
 Some of the aid is channeled through a number of multilateral institutions such as;
 World Bank
 International Monetary Fund (IMF)
 African Development Bank (ADB)
 Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa (BADEA)
 European Union (EU)
!!!@dn2

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UNIT 8: INTERNATIONAL LABOUR LAW

Background Information
 International labour law (also called labour standards) is the body of rules which
concerns the rights and duties of employees, employers, trade unions and governments in
regulating the workplace.
 International labour law is developed by United Nations labour body known as the
International Labour Organization (ILO) in form of conventions and regulations.
 ILO was founded in 1919 just after the end of the First World War.
 International Labour Organization maintains and develops a system of International
Labour Standards or Laws which aim to promote opportunities for working men and
women; for instance, to obtain decent and productive work in conditions of freedom,
equity, security and dignity.

Definition of International Labour Laws (Standards)

 International Labour Laws refers to a body of legal principles and standards made by
International Labour Organization (ILO) which protect rights of the workers and regulate
the relationship between organized interest groups.
 It also refers to conventions agreed upon by international actors resulting from a series of
value judgements, set forth to protect basic workers’ rights and improve their terms of
employment on a global scale.
Aims/Objectives of the International Labour Laws (Standards)
 To protect the rights of workers;
 To regulate the relations between organized interest groups;
Key Elements of the International Labour Laws (Standards)
(a). Employment;
 Employment is a basic concept and category of labour law.
 In the new approach, legal provisions establish the creation of employment opportunities
as a general objective of the policy.
 Legislation has established the necessary legal framework for the forecasting of
manpower needs and availability and the provision of employment services including
placement, recruitment and vocational training.
 Freedom from forced labour, equality of treatment in employment and occupation, and
unemployment benefits are part of the same general subject.
(b). Individual employment relations
 This is the second element which involves making, modification and termination of
individual employment contract.
 It involves certain aspects of promotion, transfer and dismissal procedures and
compensation.

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(c). Wages and remuneration

 The law on wages and remuneration covers such elements as what will be the forms and
methods of payment, the protection of wages against unlawful deductions, minimum
wage arrangements, the determination of wages, fringe benefits and income policies.
(d). Conditions of work
 One of the main areas covered by labour law is working conditions.
 The conditions of work involve working hours, rest periods, vacations, prohibition of
child labour and regulation of the employment of young persons and special provisions
concerning the employment of women.
(e). Health, safety and welfare
 The law in this looks at general matters such as occupational health and accident
prevention regulations and services; special regulations for hazardous occupations such
as mining, construction and dock work;
 Provisions concerning such health and safety risks such as poisons, dangerous machinery,
dust noise, vibration and radiation constitute the health, safety and welfare category of
the labour law.
(f). Social security
 Social security involves basic employer’s liability for occupational accidents to schemes
that include income security in the form of sickness, unemployment, retirement,
employment injury, maternity, family, old-age and survivor’s benefits and medical care.
(g). Trade unions and industrial relations
 A number of legal relationships fall under the heading of industrial relations, including
the legal status, rights and obligations of trade unions and employers’ organizations,
collective bargaining and collective agreements, and the prevention of various types of
labour disputes.
(h). The administration of labour law
 Another feature of labour law involves the organization and functioning of administrative
authorities such as labour departments, labour inspection services, and other organs of
enforcement.
 Administration of the law also encompasses the operation of labour courts and other
bodies for the settlement of grievances.
(i). Special categories of workers
 Labour law includes many provisions for particular occupation or other groups.
 These sometimes appear as special parts of a general code, special legislation or
provisions that limit specific legislative provisions with regard to particular groups.

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 These special provisions are common and important in mining, transportation,

commercial and agriculture occupations.
 The main issue is the legal distinction made in some countries between blue-collar
workers and salaried employees; and certain newer distinctions such as that between
employees who earn annual salaries and have rights of tenure and persons with no such
rights engaged and remunerated on a monthly, weekly or even daily basis.

Importance of International Labour Laws (Standards)

(a). Source of inspiration
International labour standards can serve as a general guide and a source of inspiration to
governments. This is because the governments may see these laws as laws adopted by an
assembly composed of representatives of governments, employers and workers of nearly
all countries of the world. They may also for that reason provide a basis for the claim of
workers and guide the policy of employers.

(b). International cooperation

International agreements in the field of labour would help prevent international
competition from taking place to the disadvantage of workers, and would constitute a
kind of fair competition between employers and between countries.

(c). World Peace

Labour laws are a form of social justice. It has been pointed out that measures of social
justice such as that which makes the provision of trade union rights are bound to
strengthen democratic governments hence peace loving unlike dictatorial governments.

(d). Social justice

The driving force behind the idea of international labour law was the notion of social
justice. In the field labour, during industrialization, workers were exposed to harsh
working conditions. This was the main reason that forced for the adoption of laws in
order to protect children from conditions of work that had shocked the entire world.

(e). Consolidation of national labour legislation

The use and application of international labour laws is for drafting and implementing
labour laws in conformity with internationally accepted standards. The adoption of
national labour laws and regulations is an important means of implementing
international labour standards, promoting the ILO declaration and the fundamental
principles and rights at work and putting the concept of decent work into practice and
promoting the rule of law.

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International Labour Agreements

International labour agreements are negotiations between countries in free trade and also
seeking to improve working conditions and living standards of the labour force in the
country.
Examples of International Labour Cooperation Agreements
1. Agreement between the international labour organization and the Latin America
Free Trade Association;
2. Agreement concerning cooperation between the International Labour Organization
and the European Coal and Steel Community;
3. Agreement concerning liaison between the International Labour Organization and
the European Economic Community;
4. Cooperation Agreement between the Association of the Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) Secretariat and the International Labour Office;
5. Agreements on Labour Cooperation between Canada and the Republic of Honduras;
NB: These labour cooperation agreements usually have the following specific
agreements
Mutual Consultation
 This involves a regional organization or country agreeing with ILO or another country
to be consulting mutually on matters, issues and activities of common interest for the
purpose of achieving their common objectives in labour.
Reciprocal representation
 Organizations or ILO may invite a representative to exchange views with a committee
or with any other appropriate organ of the institution.
Exchange of information and documents
 Organizations or countries agree to exchange information and documentation on
matters of common concern and keep each other informed of current and planned
activities.
Statistical and legislative information
 The International Labour Organization and the other organizations combine their efforts
to obtain the best use of statistical and legislative information and to ensure the most
effective use of their resources in the collection, analysis, publication and diffusion of
such information.
 This is done to reduce the burden on the governments and other organizations from
which such information is collected.

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Technical assistance
 Organizations may ask each other for technical assistance on matters concerning the
activities of ILO.
 The ILO makes every effort to give appropriate technical assistance to the organizations,
including, for instance, the improvement of living and working conditions of the
workers, wages policy, vocational training, re-employment.
Consultative meetings and workshops
 In the event of the need, it is agreed that the organizations may consult the International
Labour Organization concerning the modalities of their cooperation in respect of any
tripartite meetings of governments, employers and workers which it may convene to
consider certain problems.
Co-operation in operational activities
 An organization may ask the International Labour Organization to act as an executing
agency for operational technical co-operational activities within the sphere of the ILO.
 The International Labour Organization considers any request from the organization for
ILO to carry out any operational project of the organization or to participate in the
carrying out of such a project.
!!!@dn2

UNIT 9: ECONOMIC POLICIES

Economic Policy
 Economic policy refers to actions that the government takes in order to influence or
control the behavior of economy.
 These economic policies are prepared by the government.

Aims of coming up with economic policies

 The government aims to create a favorable environment for citizens to carry out
economic activities, thereby contributing to the development of the country.

Types of Economic Policies

 Economic policies can be grouped into two main types namely;
 Macroeconomic policies
 Microeconomic policies
Macroeconomic Policies
 These are set of actions taken by the government, designed to affect the whole economy.

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 The aim is to provide a stable economic environment that is conducive to fostering strong
and sustainable economic growth.
 Such policies include;
 Fiscal policy
 Monetary policy
 Exchange rate policy
(i). Fiscal Policy
 Deals with governments decision on how it will spend money and collect revenues.
 These decisions include how much the government will spend in each sector and how
much revenue it plans to collect and the tax levels.

(ii). Monetary policy

 It is designed to influence the amount of money circulating in the economy and the cost
of borrowing from the banks. This function is usually delegated to the Reserve Bank.
 Monetary policy decisions are implemented by changing the interest rate (cash rate) on
overnight loans in the money market.
 Through open market operations, the Reserve Bank of Malawi (RBM) can target the
interest rate by increasing or decreasing the supply of funds that banks use to settle
transactions among themselves.

(iii). Exchange rate policy

 Exchange rate policy is concerned with how the value of the domestic currency, relative
to other currencies, is determined.
 Malawi has had a floating exchange rate since 2012. Which means the value of the
Malawi Kwacha is determined by market forces.
 Sometimes government may prefer to adopt a controlled or fixed exchange policy rate. In
this case, the true market value of the local currency may not be the one operating on the
official market. This has a disadvantage as it may create financial difficulties due to
scarcity of foreign exchange.

Microeconomic Policies
 These are set of actions taken by the government designed to affect specific sectors of the
economy; they may narrow down to specific industries or products.
 These are concerned with the demand and supply of particular goods and services and
resources.
 Microeconomic policies specifically involve measures to improve the operations of firms,
industries and markets in order to influence supply levels.
 An example is moving resources away from the inefficient industries by the removal of
tariff protection. In order to maximize efficiency and reduce production costs, industries
and firms will be much wiling to adopt latest technologies to produce their goods and
services.

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The following are the examples of microeconomic policies;

(i). Corporatization
 Corporatization aims to encourage government business enterprise to operate
independently from the government, eliminating political influence.

(ii). Privatization
 This is the process of transferring ownership of a business from government to the private
sector.
 It can be the transferring of a business, enterprise, agency, public service or public
property from government to the private ownership.
 Privatization is where government business is sold off so they become privately owned.
 There are four main forms of privatization and these include;
 Share issue privatization: Selling shares on the stock market;
 Asset sale privatization: Selling an entire organization or part of it to an investor;
 Voucher privatization: Distributing shares of ownership to all citizens usually for
free or at a very low price;
 Privatization from below: Start-up of new private businesses in formerly socialist
countries.
Goals of Economic Policy
 When setting up economic policies, the government aims to achieve the following goals;
(i). Economic growth; this is a general desire that the income of all citizens should be
increasing over time.
(ii). Full employment; the purpose of this goal is that every person who is of working age and
wants to work should be able to find a job.
(iii). Price stability; the aim is to prevent increase in the general price of goods known as
inflation. The aim is to ensure that citizens income remain strong over time.
(iv). Poverty alleviation; the main goal of the government is to improve the well-being of its
citizens, in other words, reducing the level of poverty in the country. The government puts
together actions that directly reduce poverty such as cash transfers and public works.
Importance of Economic Policies
 Economic policies can create a good environment that can help businesses reduce
production costs. This can lead to growth of the economy.
 Economic policies can be used to help keep inflation under control thereby ensuring price
stability of goods and services.
 Economic policies can be used to open the economy to competition from abroad. This
may help local producers in developing countries adopt new technologies to produce high
quality products.

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 Economic policies can be used to divert savings of the people into productive channels
and help in the growth of the economy.
 Economic policies can be used to help stimulate trade for meaningful economic
development.
 Economic policies can be used to reduce direct government interference on the market
which may encourage private businesses. This may stimulate economic growth.

How do Government Economic Policies affect the Economy

 Through economic policy, the government create the conditions in which businesses will
operate. Any changes to these conditions forces business to change the way they operate.
The most important part of governments economic policy is how much revenue it plans
to collect and how much it plans to spend.
 The government needs money to operate so it raises money by taxing businesses and
individuals. Taxes affect the cost of doing business and ultimately the lives of ordinary
people. For example, if taxes are raised, the cost of doing a business also increases. As
such, in order to keep the same level of profit businesses were making, they will also
increase the price of their goods and services and this will in turn affect the lives of
ordinary people as goods become more expensive. Due to this, people may decide to buy
fewer goods leading to low business activities as such, businesses may cut back their
operations and lay off some workers. This eventually, affects the economy of the country.

How does Monetary Policy affect the Economy?

 The Reserve Bank of Malawi is responsible for monetary policy in the country. It
changes the level of interest rates in the economy depending on the objectives it is trying
to achieve. It influences the level of interest rates by controlling the amount of money in
the economy.
 For example, if the Reserve Bank wants to encourage more business activity in the
country, it reduces the level of interest rate by increasing the amount of money
circulating in the economy. With more money available at lower interest rates, the cost of
borrowing money by businesses from banks goes down. This enables companies that are
able to borrow money to do so and invest to boost their businesses. As the companies
produce more goods and services, they hire more people to work.
 At the same time, lower interest rates encourage banks to increase lending to businesses
and individuals. This increases the amount businesses and individuals are willing to
spend. As spending increases, business activity also goes up as more goods and services
are produced to meet the demands of the people.
 If price of goods and services do not increase at a fast pace, we see that lower interest rate
leads to increased business activities, increased spending by businesses and individuals
which in turn lead to more business activity. All this has the effect of raising the incomes
of citizens and their economic wellbeing.
Economic Sustainability

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 Economic sustainability involves using resources of the company efficiently so that it

continues functioning over a number of years, while consistently returning profits.
 True economic sustainability encourages responsible use of resources.
 This involves not only making sure that the resource is bringing benefits, but also that
there are no environmental concerns being created that could harm the balance of local
ecology.
The Role of Citizens in Economic Sustainability
(a). Preference of quality to quantity;
 Citizens can help ensure economic sustainability by having preference for high quality
goods rather than quantity.
 High quality things are more efficient and more economically beneficial to both human
life and the environment. Things of low quality are less efficient and have more potential
to damage the environment because they are more prone to becoming a waste.
(b). Reducing economic waste;
 Citizens have an important role to play in reducing economic waste at the individual,
household and community level by using resources efficiently so as to generate very little
or no waste.
 Waste reduction saves the environment for an economically sustainable future.
(c). Leading sustainable lifestyles;
 Citizens can contribute to economic sustainability by reducing the use of resources that
support their lifestyles. For example, walking instead of driving to reduce gas emissions.
Indicators of Economic Sustainability
 Reduced levels of waste production from the households and manufacturing industries.
 Reduced reliance on those resources that produce environmental unfriendly by-products.
 Increased use of alternative resources to support lifestyles,
 Reduced pressure on resources that are in short supply.
 Increased efforts to replace used resources by individuals, households and businesses.

!!!@dn2

UNIT 10: PERSONAL FINANCES

Personal Finances
 Personal finances refer to all financial decisions activities of an individual; this could
include budgeting, insurance, savings, mortgages and more.
 Personal finance looks at how your money is managed.

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 Personal finances are your own money; how you earn it, manage it and hopefully make it
grow.

Managing Personal Finances

 The starting point of managing personal finances is to take some time to write down an
honest evaluation of your current financial status.
 The following are the simple strategies which you can include in order to manage your
finances;
 Thinking about what you are doing;
 Identifying the things, you are doing;
 Taking steps to change your behavior
 There are different ways in which people can manage personal finances; these include
budgeting, saving and investing.
Budgeting
 A budget is an estimate of what and how one wants to spend money in a month, a year or
more.
 Budget can also be defined as the process of creating a plan to spend the money.
 It can also be defined as a financial plan that gives some guidelines on how to spend or
utilize household income.
 This is done by coming up with a list of items and activities that one wants to buy or
carry out over a given period of time.
 Budget is all about balancing expenses with income. If they don’t balance and
expenditure is more than income, there will be a problem.

Importance of Budgeting
 Assist to create a spending plan for your money.
 Ensures that you will always have enough money for the things you need and the things
that are important to you.
 Helps to keep you out of debt.
 Gives a direction of how the money would be spent.
 Controls an individual not to over spend.
 Determines one’s success.
 Gives the authority to use the money only on planned items.
 Helps one to plan for the unexpected.
 It is a key towards the achievement of financial goal.
 It is an important tool to help you prioritize your spending and manage your money, no
matter how much or how little you have.
 Creating a budget will reduce stress levels because with a budget there are no surprises.
 Budget helps you to track your expenses.
 Planning and monitoring your budget will help you identify wasteful expenditures.
Steps on how to Budget

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(a). Figure out your income; income is the money that one receives regularly when working. So,
budget according to the income you have.
(b). Figure out your expenditure; this is the opposite of income. This refer to things you want to
spend your money on.
(c). Evaluate the budget; this is when one subtracts the expenses from the total income to see
what money is left.
(d). Decide how much to save; it is important to think of savings as a fixed expense so that you
are sure to save a set amount of money each month.
(e). Track your budget over time to make sure you are sticking to it.
Factors to consider when Budgeting
i. Income/incomings; these ae the resources that one will be getting in, and from which
one expects to pay.
ii. Expenses/outgoings; think of the things which will be required. Start with the needs
and then the wants.
iii. Time; it important to know when resources such as money will be in (available) and
when it is due to go out.
iv. Emergency; resources can be called upon to help in times of need, and which must be
added to in times of plenty. You should also plan for the unexpected.
v. Number of people; think of the number of people who will need the resource. This is
important to avoid over-budgeting or under-budgeting.
Basic Principles of Budgeting
(a). Record keeping; there is a need to have a record of your budget so that you should spend on
the things budgeted only.
(b). Prioritizing expenditure and a budget; put your money towards more important areas.
(c). Stick to your budget; follow the budget which you have come up with. Do not be influenced
to buy things you did not plan for.
(d). Think before you spend; setting a budget will open your eyes on how much money you
spend.
Savings
 Savings refers to the preservation of money for future use.
 This is one way of managing personal finances.
 Personal finances need to be saved for future use.
Ways through which People can Save their Finances
(a). Saving through accounts; these are commercial banks where people save money and an
interest is earned basing on the money saved. Saving in the banks can be through;

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 Fixed deposit; where money is deposited for a fixed period of time and interest does not
fluctuate.
 The stock market; through shares, treasury bonds and others.
(b). Pension Fund; this is when money is deducted from salaries which will be paid the time one
retires.
(c). Savings and Credit Cooperative (SACCOs); these are similar to banks.
(d). Collective Savings/Savings Clubs; this is where individuals borrow capital for their small
businesses because they have little to offer for collateral. This is done by people within a
particular community e.g. village banks (bank mkhonde).
(e). Saving through assets; buying assets which can be sold when there is need for money.
Importance of Saving
 For future use; since the future is unpredictable, money can be saved for future use.
 For emergencies; saved money can be useful in times of emergencies. This can cover
unexpected car repair, medical expenses, sudden loss of income or loss of job.
 For peace of mind; savings give people a peace of mind. Also when money is kept in the
house may be stolen by thieves or destroyed by rats or fire.
 For education costs; if you have savings, you may not have problems sending your
children to school.
 To support in old age (Pension); when people are old, they may not have any source of
money as such, pension money will help them to lead a comfortable life.
 To get enough capital to invest in business.
 Save for vacations and other luxury items. You can save to tour and visit places of
interest.
 Save for sinking funds; a sinking fund is money you set aside for future repairs or
improvements on your car, home or other possessions.

Investment
 Investing is putting some money in a bank savings account or putting money into an asset
with the expectation of gaining a profit out of it.
 Choice to keep the money idle or earn a profit on it in the future is called investment.

Importance of Investment
 Gives a peace of mind as you are assured that you have something in times of need.
 May serve as securities when one wants to a loan from some organizations.
 Money invested may earn an interest.
 Helps to save money for major purchase.
 Can be used for long term savings. For example, college savings for children and
retirement.

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 Helps to drive development in that the structures raised can assist in the development of
the nation through gaining money.
 Can be used as an emergency fund. This may help to cover for the unexpected expense.
!!!@dn2

UNIT 11: FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS

What is a Financial Institution?
 A financial institution is an institution that provides financial services for its clients
(members).

Three Major Types of Financial Institutions

(a). Depository Institutions
 These are deposit-taking institutions that accept and manage deposits and give out loans
such as banks, building societies, credit unions, trust companies and mortgage loan
companies.

(b). Contractual Institutions

 These are insurance companies and pension funds.

(c). Investment Institutions

 These are investment banks, underwriters and brokerage firms.
NB: Financial institution operate in what is called the financial market.
 Financial markets facilitate productive use of the funds borrowed.

Role of Financial Markets in the Economy

A financial market helps the economy in the following ways;
 Mobilize savings from sectors of the economy that have surplus money to sectors that do
not have enough.
 Facilitate investment. Financial institutions play a crucial role in mobilizing funds to be
invested.
 Financial markets provide the financial resources necessary for business person to use in
investment decisions.
 A healthy and efficient financial market contributes to the social and economic well-
being of citizens in the country.

Financial Institutions in Malawi

(1). Banks;
 There are different types of banks operating in Malawi and these are;

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(a). Central Bank

 Also known as the Reserve Bank.
 The Reserve Bank has monetary authority in that it manages a state currency, money
supply and interest rates.
 It oversees the commercial banking system in the country.
 Here in Malawi, it was established in 1964.

Functions of the Reserve Bank of Malawi

 Acts as a banker to commercial banks.
 Issues legal tender currency.
 Acts as a banker and advisor of Malawi government.
 Maintains extra value of Malawi currency.
 Implements measures for influencing money supply and promoting economic growth.
 Promotes a sound financial structure in Malawi.
 Promotes the existence of money and capital markets.
 Acts as a leader of last resort in the financial system.
 Supervises banks and other financial institutions in Malawi.
 Collects data foe research and policy purpose.
(b). Commercial Banks
 These are institutions that are licensed to accept deposits and provide security and
convenience to their customers.
 Examples of commercial banks in Malawi include the following; National Bank of
Malawi; Standard Bank; FDH Bank; First Merchant Bank; NBS Bank; Eco Bank;
Nedbank, First Capital Bank.

Functions of the Commercial Banks

 Ensure safe keeping of customer’s money.
 Provide loans to individuals and businesses to buy good and expand their businesses.
 Offer basic investment products; e.g.
 Saving accounts and certificate of deposits;
 Buying and selling of foreign currency;
 Mortgage lending;
(c). Development Banks
 These are banks that provide financing to domestic investors.

Functions
 Provide finance to domestic investors;
 Provide technical and entrepreneurial services;
(2). Credit Reference Bureau (CRB)

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 These are information solution companies or agencies that determine credit worthiness of
a person or an entity.
 A credit reference bureau provides details about an individual’s past track credit record.
Hence determine whether a particular person or entity be given credit (loan) or not.
(3). Stock Exchange
 This is an organized and regulated financial market where securities (bonds, share) are
bought and sold.
 Stock exchange serve as;
 Primary market where capital is raised by channeling savings of the investors
into productive use;
 Secondary markets where investors sell their securities like shares, T-note for
cash.
 Main function of stock exchange is to bring together buyers and sellers of stocks or
shares for investments.
 An example of a stock exchange in Malawi is the Malawi Stock Exchange (MSE).
(4). Insurance Companies
 An insurance company is a company that offers insurance policies to the public.
 These insurance policies can either be sold directly to an individual or through another
source such as an employee benefit plan.
 An insurance company provides cover for damage or loss suffered by its customers
(policyholders or customers).
 Customers (policyholders) pay to the insurance company regular sums of money called
premiums.
 The amount of insurance premium depends on the level of the risks involved. Insurance
companies calculate the probability and magnitude of the risk and then charge a price
based on the estimated cost of insuring you.
 Insurance companies are risk bearers;

Definitions
 An insurance is a contract in which an individual receives financial protection against
losses suffered.
 A premium is a regular sum of money paid by a customer to an insurance company.

Examples of Insurance Companies in Malawi

 Old Mutual
 Prime Insurance Company
 National Insurance Company (NICO)
 Vanguard Life Assurance
 Reunion Insurance Company
 Real Insurance Company

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Importance of Insurance Companies

 Provide protection against economic loss;
 Provides an opportunity to develop those larger industries that have more risk in their set
up;
 Facilitate collective risk bearing; does this by providing a medium through which few
losses are divided among larger number of people.
(5). Microfinance Institutions
 A microfinance institution is a financial institution specializing in banking services for
low-income groups or individuals.
 Most of these operate in developing countries, including Malawi and they charge low
interest rate than those offered in commercial banks.
 There are two main mechanisms of financial services delivery by microfinance
institutions, namely;
i. Relationship-based banking for individual entrepreneurs and small businesses
ii. Group based model (where several entrepreneurs come together to apply for loans
and other services as a group)

Examples of Microfinance Institutions Operating in Malawi

 Foundation for Internal Community Assistance (FINCA)
 Finance Trust for the Self-Employed (FITSE)
 Microloan Foundation
 Farmers Financing Company
 Malawi Rural Finance Company (MRFC)
 PRIDE Malawi
 Ecumenical Church Loan Fund (ECLOF)
 CUMO Microfinance Limited
(6). Credit Unions
 A credit union is a non-profit, cooperative financial institution owned and run by its
members.
 It is created and operated by its members and profits are shared amongst the owners.
 Credit union membership is based on common bond, for instance;
 People who belong to the same community, organization, association, religion or
place of employment.
Importance of Credit Unions
 Members benefit from high returns on savings
 Low interest rate on loans

Example of a Credit Union in Malawi

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 Savings and Credit Cooperatives (SACCO)

NB: SACCO; 1. They promote a habit of saving to earn interest;
2. Enable members to access more affordable loans;
3. They also provide insurance schemes for members to provide cover to the
family when a members die;
Guiding Principles of Credit Unions
 Non-discrimination; everybody is allowed to join regardless of sex, race, ethnicity, age
and other differences.
 Democratic decision-making; decisions are made through a participatory process. Each
member may run for any position in the credit union and cast a vote in elections.
 Education and training; members of credit union receive education and training in
important skills such as planning, budgeting and book-keeping.
 Cooperation and social responsibility; cooperation enables the smooth running of the
credit union. Members also need to have a sense of social responsibility towards each
other.
(7). Finance houses
 These are companies that give loans to clients whether people or businesses, with goods
as collateral (security).
 These financial institutions specialize in providing special loans for asset purchasing;
 Examples include;
 Leasing and Finance Company
 First Discount House
Services offered by Financial Institutions
(a). Current account
 This is an account of day-to-day use.
 Two or more people can set up a current account together and call it a joint account.
 A joint account works like a current account except that each person has a cheque book
and card.
(b). Loan account
 This is an account opened for a customer following the granting of a loan.
 An arrangement is made for the customer to repay the loan, with an interest, usually over
a stated period of time.
(c). Insurance policies
 Financial institutions like insurance companies offer insurance policies.

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 An insurance policy is a contract in which an individual or entity receives financial

protection against losses from an insurance company.
(d). Pension Schemes
 Pension schemes are also offered by financial institutions like insurance companies.
 A pension scheme is an arrangement by which an employer and employee pay into a fund
that is invested to provide the employee with a pension on retirement.
(e). Investments
 In finance, investment refers to the purchasing of securities or other financial assets from
the capital market.
 It also means buying money market or real properties with high liquidity.
 Financial investments can be done with the help of commercial banks and insurance
companies.
(f). Money payments and transfers
 Financial institutions facilitate the transfer of funds from your account to another
account.
 Financial institutions also facilitate money payments to the account holder.
(g). Internet banking
 This is an electronic payment system that enables customers of a financial institution to
conduct financial transactions on a website operated by the institution.
 This is also called online banking, e-banking or virtual banking.
 Internet banking services make banking services more accessible, convenient and cost
effective.
Challenges which Financial Institutions Face in the Financial Market
(1). A poor culture of saving makes it difficult for financial institutions to mobilize savings from
the general public. Factors such as low incomes and high inflation rates reduce the willingness of
potential customers to deposit their money with the financial institution.
(2). Another challenge is the tiresome process of opening bank account which requires
identification cards, proof of residence and many more.
(3). High interest rates discourage potential borrowers from obtaining loans. High interest rate
make borrowing expensive.
(4). Financial institutions also find it difficult to lend to small businesses that do not have credit
history and collateral to support their loan application.
Factors that Hinder Prospective Customers from Accessing Financial Services
Unavailability of services

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 Most of the banking institutions in Malawi are found in cities and only a few are found in
surrounding towns. This is due security concerns, poor communication and the
perception that rural people do not have enough money to save. This prevents many
people in the rural area from accessing financial services.

Collateral
 A collateral is something of value pledged as security for repayment of a loan. Financial
institutions demand collateral from borrowers in order to give them loans. Many people
fail to access loans because they do not have property or other assets to be used as
collateral.

High Interest rates

 An interest rate is the cost of borrowing money. High interest rate tend to discourage
borrowers from borrowing the money from financial institutions.

High bank charges

 Banks charge regular fees on the services they offer to customers. These charges are too
high here in Malawi. Instead of customer’s savings (money) increase in value, they tend
to decrease in value over time if no deposits are made. As such, customers fail to use
such services fearing high bank charges.

Lack of information
 Many people, particularly in the rural areas, lack information on the services provided by
financial institutions. This lack of information leads to their limited participation in the
financial activities.
Challenges People Face when Dealing with Financial Institutions in Malawi
Lack of disclosure of information on charges
 Banks and other financial institutions tend to hide information on various services they
offer. Their services have high charges. Again, they do not disclose information on the
little interest customers will earn on their savings. All this shows dishonesty.
Poor customer care
 Some employees of financial institutions do not treat their customers well. This lack of
respect tends to put off customers and further discourages them. This results in loss of
customers.
Financial Fraud
 Some of the financial institutions are involved in financial fraud. This usually involve
their employees illegally withdrawing money from customers’ accounts.

Contributions of Financial Institutions to Development in Malawi

 Financial institutions facilitate the growth and expansion of business operations through
provision of loans. This enables the investors to increase production and make more

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investments leading to the creation of employment opportunities. Businesses in Malawi

rely on bank loans to finance their activities and expansion.
 Financial institutions buy securities from government of Malawi to enable it raise money
for its operations in times of need and to invest in infrastructure projects. The sale of
securities provides the means through which government is able to borrow money from
the financial institutions on the domestic market.
 The provision of financial services to low-income earners by credit unions and
microfinance institutions helps in instilling an investment and saving culture among
many people in the rural areas. This is good for the economy as it puts the idle cash into
the financial market system so that it can be lent to investors looking for capital.
 Insurance companies have made it possible for business people to go ahead with high risk
businesses by removing uncertainty. This has led to increased business activities, creation
of employment opportunities, and improved standard of living.
 Financial institutions help to distribute financial resources in a planned way to the
potential users. They help transfer funds from those who are willing to keep for future
plans to those who want to invest in productive activities for the economy to grow.
 Financial institutions provide cash for the unexpected needs by businesses and
households.

!!!@dn2

UNIT 12: RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF FINANCIAL SERVICES

CONSUMERS
Finance Service Consumer
 Financial services are the economic activities provided to consumers by the financial
institutions.
 A consumer is a person who purchases goods, services or financial products for use.
 Financial services (products); include; bank account, loan, insurance policy, pension
scheme, shares with an investment company and many more.
 Therefore, a Finance Service Consumer is a person who purchases a financial service
product for use.

Financial Inclusion
 Financial inclusion refers to the delivery of appropriate and quality financial services at
affordable cost to all sections of the society including the low income societies.

Key principles of Financial Inclusion

 Affordability
 Appropriateness
 Usage
 Quality

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 Consumer financial education

 Innovation and diversification
 Simplicity
Goal of Financial Inclusion
 Improve the range and quality of financial services and products to financially excluded
societies.

Consumer Protection
 Consumer protection refers to a group of laws and organizations designed to protect
rights of consumers in the market place.
 Financial consumer protection includes the laws, regulations and institutional
arrangements that safeguard consumers in the financial market place.

Reasons for having Consumer Protection

 Protecting the rights of the consumers;
 Prevent businesses that engage in fraud;
 Prevent businesses that engage in unfair trade practices from gaining advantage over
competitors;

NB: Consumer protection is linked to the idea of consumer rights and the formation of
consumer organizations.
Examples of Consumer Protection Acts
(1). UN Guidelines for consumer protection; -it helps consumers understand their rights and
responsibilities;
(2). The World Bank Good Practices for Financial Consumer Protection (2012); - helps to
identify the consumer protection issues in all parts of the financial sector;
(3). African Consumer Protection Dialogue (2009); - provides an opportunity to African
governments, civil society organizations and the united states government to interface with
each other on the practices of the enforcement of consumer protection laws;
(4). The legal consumer protection document in Malawi (2003)
Examples of Consumer Protection Organizations in Malawi
 Consumers Association of Malawi (CAMA) (it is an umbrella body)
 Malawi Bureau of Standards (MBS)
 Competition and Fair Trading Commission (CFTC)
 Malawi Communication Regulatory Authority (MACRA)
 Malawi Energy Regulatory Authority (MERA)
 Reserve Bank of Malawi (RBM)

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The Rights of Financial Service Consumers

Right to clear and easy to understand information (Right to be Informed)
 Financial service consumers have the right to receive adequate and appropriate
information about financial products on which to base their decision. For example, when
a customer wants to open a bank account, he or she needs to know the charges, interest to
get, making a payment, tracking money going into and out of the account.
Right to be protected (Right to safety)
 Consumers have the right to expect protection from dangerous products. Consumers must
be protected against dishonest and misleading advertising.

Right to choose a financial institution or service with reason

 Consumers should have the right to select the goods or services that they want to
purchase.

Right to consumer education

 Consumers should acquire knowledge and skills needed to make informed choices of
goods and services.

Right to service
 Consumers have the right to be treated with respect and to receive an appropriate
response to their needs and problems.

Right to know the cost and other related charges of a financial product/service
 The consumer should know the cost that he or she will pay if he or she purchases a
certain financial product or service.
 They should also know the risk that they may encounter due to the consumption of the
product.
Right to complain (Right to be heard and the Right to voice)
 Consumers have the right to complain when there are problems or concerns.
 They have the right to speak up, to be heard, and to expect positive results.
 Through this, both business and government are expected to respond to consumers.

Right to redress or remedy

 Consumers have the right to be given an opportunity to express their dissatisfaction such
that a resolution is reached.
Responsibilities of Financial Services Consumers
Choosing a registered financial institution

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 Consumers should make sure that they are dealing with only those financial institutions
that are licensed by the Registrar of the financial institutions.
 If consumers are not sure about a financial service provider, they are supposed to enquire
from the Registrar of financial institution. This is a safeguard against fraud as some
people lost their money in dealing with financial institutions that are not registered.
Being alert to customer information
 This requires that a consumer should be alert and question about the use of products, the
price, quality of goods and services available.
 For instance, customers need to compare the associated charges and fees of a particular
financial product.
Understanding a financial contract before signing
 Consumers should never sign a contract without reading it first. They should read it and
pay attention to all the details.
 Consumers should make sure that any agreements or claims made by the salesperson or
desk officers are written into the contract.
 Elements that are not understood should be noted or highlighted and have these well
explained to you by the salesperson.
Keeping financial documents safe
 Consumers should ensure that all documents ranging from bank account book are kept
safe. Documents like policy document, security papers, guarantees and contracts should
be kept safe.
Complaining through the right channel
 Customers should know who to call for help.
 They should ask the salesperson of the financial institution the steps to take if they need
to make a complaint.
Making prompt payments
 Customers need to meet their obligations towards a financial service such as making loan
repayments, paying monthly insurance premiums and contributions to pension schemes.
Giving correct information
 A consumer should provide correct information including his or her identity when
required by the financial service providers.
Lodging a Complaint against a Financial Institution
 A consumer complaint refers to an expression of dissatisfaction with a product or
service from a customer. It can be presented orally or in written form.
 It can also be described as a report from a customer providing documentation about a
problem with a product or service.
 The Consumer Protection Act defines a consumer complaint as any allegation in
writing or orally made by a complaint that as a result of any unfair trade practice adopted
by a supplier or trader, the complainant has suffered loss or damage.
 Consumer complaints in the financial service industry may come about due to;
 Lack of awareness

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 Over indebtedness
 Financial abuse
 Financial fraud
 Lack of awareness comes about due to lack of disclosure and transparency of necessary
information by the financial service providers. They deliberately hide information on
financial products in order to hide certain service charges.
 Over indebtedness describes the situation in which borrowers have borrowed more
money than they are able to pay back. For instance, consumers may become over
indebted as a result of over borrowing behavior and then complain against the financial
service providers for overcharging them.
 Financial fraud can be defined as an intentional act of deception involving financial
transactions for purpose of personal gain. This can occur in many ways. For instance,
fraudsters may use forged signatures, and stolen and fake documents to open an account
and may obtain a loan by using someone’s property as collateral.
Guiding Steps to Lodge a Complaint
 Consumers of financial services have the right to complain if they are not satisfied with
the conduct of the financial service providers. The following are the steps which may
guide a consumer to lodge a complaint.
1. Try to sort out the complaint with the Financial Service Provider first
 The following simple procedure may guide a consumer to lodge a complaint with the
Financial Service Provider (FSP);
i. Talk to the person you normally deal with as soon as possible. This could be your
local branch manager, your broker or your pension scheme administrator;
ii. Explain the problem and state clearly what solution you want. For example, if you
want an explanation, apology or specific action;
iii. You can make a complaint in person or by phone; but a written complaint is usually
most effective;
iv. Make sure you include your account, policy or reference number when you are
contacting your FSP. Set out the facts, relevant dates and names of people you have
dealt with. Be clear as you can about the solution you want. Attach copies of any
relevant documents.
v. If your FSP responds and you are not happy with the outcome, you still have the
option of taking your complaint to the Registrar of Financial Institutions.
2. Refer your complaint to Registrar of Financial Institution
 The Registrar of financial institutions handles consumer complaints that have not been
resolved properly by the financial service providers.
 The Registrar established the complaint handling scheme within the Reserve Bank of
Malawi to protect consumers from malpractices form the FSP.
 The Registrar does;
 Decides if he or she can deal with the complaint;

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 Weighs up the evidence from the consumer and the financial institution; and
recommends a solution;
 May give the consumer compensation if he or she has suffered financial or other
losses;
3. Seek Legal Counsel
 If you are not satisfied with the decision made by the Registrar, you may seek legal
counsel and take the case to the courts.
 However, if you would prefer to take the case to court, the Registrar would consider the
case closed.

!!!@dn2

UNIT 13: MARKET FORCES

Definitions
 A market is a place or mechanism through which buyers and sellers exchange goods and
services using generally accepted medium of exchange such as money.
 In economics, a market can exist even without direct contact of buyers and sellers.
 So a market refers to an arrangement whereby buyers and sellers come in contact with
each other directly or indirectly, to buy or sell goods.
 Markets facilitate exchange of goods and services from those who supply them to those
who need them.
 Actually, at a market, buyers determine the demand and sellers determine supply.
 There are also markets for financial resources and services.
Classification of Markets
 Markets are categorized into;
 Physical markets
 Non-physical markets or virtual markets
 Auction
 Black markets
 Knowledge markets
 Financial markets
Physical Market
 A physical market is a set up where buyers physically meet sellers to buy goods of their
choice in exchange for money.
 Examples of physical markets include; shopping malls, department stores, retail stores
etc.

Non-Physical Market or Virtual Market

 This is an arrangement where buyers purchase goods and services through internet.

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 It is also called an electronic market.

 In such markets, buyers and sellers do not meet physically instead transaction is done
through the internet.
 Examples include; Rediff Shopping and eBay.
Auction Market
 It is an arrangement where the seller sells his or her goods to one who is the highest
bidder.
Black Market
 A black market is an illegal market.
 This is a setup where illegal goods like drugs and weapons are sold.
Knowledge Market
 This is a setup which deals in the exchange of information and knowledge based
products.
Financial Markets
 This is a special market that is responsible for channeling financial resources from the
surplus units (savers) to the deficit units (those who need additional funds) to carry out
some form of economic activities.
 The financial market is divided into two namely;
 Money market
 Capital market
 Money markets are financial markets where short term funds are traded. Money markets
are important because they help users of large funds such as government, banks and
similar institutions to meet their short term financial needs.
 Capital markets are financial institutions where long term funds are traded. Capital
markets are important because they facilitate the mobilization of funds for business
enterprises and governments long term projects.
 Financial markets are known of having transparent pricing, basic regulations on trading,
costs and fees, and market forces which determine the prices of securities.
Market Forces
 These are the economic factors that affect the availability of goods or financial securities
and the demand for them.
 It is the interaction and effect of supply and demand on the trading of goods, services and
financial securities within a free market economy.
 Forces of demand and supply represent the aggregate influence of self-interested buyers
and sellers on price and quality of the goods and services offered in a market.

Types of Economies

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 An economy or economic system consists of the production, distribution or trade, and

consumption of the limited goods and services or financial assets by different agents in a
given geographical location.
 The economic agents may be individuals, businesses, organizations or governments.
 The transactions occur when two parties agree to the value or price of the transacted
goods and services as well as financial securities commonly expressed in a certain
currency.
 There are three main types of the economies as follows;

(a). Free-market economy or Market-based economy

 This is where goods and services are produced without interference from the government.
 There is very little government interference in the market such that firms/industries
produce resources that provide buyers or consumers with a variety of goods as well as a
variety of financial services to choose from.
 In this economy, economic decisions are made by individuals.
(b). Command-based economy or socialist economy
 This is an economy in which the government decides what should be produced or
manufactured or which financial assets need to be made available on the market.
 The state decides how to use and distribute resources.
 The government regulates prices and wages.

(c). Mixed economy

 A mixed economic system combines elements of the free-market economy and
command-based economy.
 Many economic decisions are made in the market by individuals. But the government
also plays a role in the allocation and distribution of resources.
 Malawi today like most nations is mixed economy. This is where some aspects of the
economy are controlled by the government such as power, water supplies and transport
and others are left to free enterprise.

Market Forces: Supply and Demand

 A free market operates on the basis of the market forces. These market forces include;
supply and demand.

1. Demand
 Demand is the quantity that a buyer is willing and able to buy at a given period of time
and at a certain price level.
 The quantity demanded is the amount of a product people are willing to buy at a certain
price; the relationship between price and quantity demanded is known as the demand
relationship.

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 The law of demand states that, if all other factors remain equal, the higher the price of a
good, the less the people will demand that good. In other words, the higher the price, the
lower the quantity demanded.
 The amount of a good that buyers purchase at a higher price is less because as the price of
a good goes up, so does the opportunity cost of buying that good.
 As a result, people will naturally avoid buying a product that will force them to spend
more.

Factors affecting Demand

 Peoples level of income
 Population change (increase in number of people)
 Taste
 Competition
 Advertising

2. Supply
 Supply is the quantity of goods and services including financial assets which the
producers sell at the market at a certain reasonable price.
 A producer considers the price reasonable if it covers the cost of production and gives a
profit.
 The correlation between price and quantity of the goods supplied to the market is known
as the supply relationship.
 The law of supply states that the higher the price, the more the quantity supplied.
 Producers supply more at a higher price because selling a larger quantity at a higher price
increase the profits earned.
 Therefore, supply relationship shows an upward slope.
Equilibrium
 When supply and demand are equal, the economy is said to be at equilibrium. At this
point, the amount of goods being supplied is exactly the same as the amount of goods
being demanded. Therefore, everyone is satisfied with the economic condition.
 At the given price, suppliers sell all their goods that they have produced and consumers
get all the goods they are demanding.

How Market Forces (Supply and Demand) affect Economies

 In a free and competitive market, the actual price of a product or service is determined by
demand and supply factors.
 Supply and demand also affect interest rate. Interest rate is an amount of money charged
or paid for the use of money.
 Saving is the source of loanable funds (money which people or businesses borrow from
the banks).
 While investment (businesses) is the source of the demand for loanable funds.

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 The interest rate is the price of the loan. It represents the amount that borrowers pay for
loans and the amount that lenders receive on their savings.
 Demand for funds comes from households (individuals) and businesses who wish to
borrow to make investments such as buying new equipment or factories.
 High interest rate makes borrowing more expensive, the quantity of loanable funds
demanded falls as interest rate rises.
 Supply comes from those who have extra money to save or lend out. High interest rate
makes saving more attractive.

Equilibrium in the loanable funds

 The equilibrium interest is the interest rate at which the quantity of loanable funds
supplied equals the quantity of loanable funds demanded.
 In other words, the quantity of funds that savers want to lend is equal to the
quantity of funds that firms (businesses) want to borrow.

NB:
 Stock prices change every day as a result of market forces. By this, we mean that share
prices change because of supply and demand.
 So if more people want to buy shares (demand) than those who want to sell it (supply),
then the price moves up.
 If more people want to sell shares than those who want to buy it, there would be more
supply than demand, then the price would fall.

!!!@dn2

UNIT 14: POPULATION GROWTH

Meaning of Population Control
 Population control refers to efforts to slow population growth through action to lower
fertility.
 It can be looked at as any methodology used to control the type, location and number of
people that inhabit the earth.

Ways of Controlling Population Growth

 These ways can be grouped into two, namely;
 Natural factors
 Human-made ways
Natural Factors of Controlling Population Growth
(a). Epidemics; an epidemic is the rapid spread of infectious disease to a large number of people
in a given population within a short period of time. Example include, HIV/AIDS, Ebola, Cholera

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and Meningitis. Such diseases are capable of killing a lot of people within a short period time
hence reducing the population.
(b). Drought; this is an abnormal prolonged period without rain. Due to this, people may fail to
have enough food hence may starve to death thereby reducing the population. In addition, people
may be forced to migrate to other areas thereby reducing the population and increasing the
population where they have settled.
(c). Famine; famine refers to extreme scarcity of food. It may occur due to drought, disease
outbreaks, pest infestations, excessive rain and lack of farm inputs like fertilizer. Due to this,
people may starve to death thereby reducing the population.
(d). Natural death; people are not meant to live forever as one day, they will die even without
diseases, drought or human-made factors and may die due to old age. Natural death is thus one of
the ways of controlling population.
(e). Earthquakes; an earthquake is the sudden trembling or vibration of the earth. When
earthquakes happen, buildings tend to collapse killing a lot of people thereby reducing the
population. E.g. in Haiti in 2010, it smashed buildings killing over 200,000 people.
(f). Floods and volcanoes; floods and volcanoes lead to loss of life of people. Floods tend to
wash away the people in the process killing them thereby reducing the population. Volcanoes
and floods also tend to dislodge people from their places to other areas.
Human-Made Factors of Controlling Population
(a). Wars; due to conflicts many people die thereby reducing the population.
(b). Family planning; family planning refers to the conscious efforts of marriage partners to
regulate the number and spacing of births through artificial and natural methods of contraception.
With this process, pregnancy is avoided thereby controlling population. Family planning
involves birth control programmes and contraception and sex education. Government may also
pass some laws limiting the number of children one may have.
(c). Controlled migration; this is a method whereby large numbers of people are relocated to
new locations in order to control population. This is done by providing jobs and economic
assistance to areas desirable for human population.
Importance of Controlling Population Growth
 It helps to reduce overcrowding. Overcrowding is prevented e.g. in settlement places,
schools, hospitals, and markets.
 It helps in conserving the environment. Rapid population growth poses high demand for
environmental resources and generate a lot of wastes which pollutes the environment. So
controlling population reduces demand for environmental resources.
 It reduces pressure on the worlds resources including social services. Controlling
population ensures that available resources match the present population.

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 It helps in reducing unemployment levels. Controlling population results in relatively low

population in an area and therefore, less number of people looking for jobs.

!!!@dn2
TOPIC 15: DISCRIMINATION
Meaning of the Term Discrimination
 This is a practice of giving unequal treatment to certain individuals or groups due to actual
or perceived difference or characteristics.
 It also refers to an action of giving less favourable treatment to individuals due to actual or
perceived differences.

Forms of Discrimination
It has two forms namely:
A. Direct discrimination
Is an unequal treatment to an individual or groups of people based on their characteristics
and other grounds like race, gender, ethnicity etc.
B. Indirect discrimination
Is when the practice, rule, requirement or condition seems to be neutral but the impacts is
unsuitable on particular individuals or groups of people. E.g. Apartheid rule and Caste
system.
Factors that Contribute to Discrimination
A. Racism
This is a belief that members of each race possess characteristics specific to that race like
skin colour that make it either inferior or superior to others. As such, it leads to unequal
treat among individuals based on their physical appearance (racial discrimination).

Racial discrimination refers to unequal treatment of individuals on the basis of their

physical characteristics such as skin colour.

B. Ethnicity
This is the identity of individuals based on common ancestry and cultural heritage.
It leads to unequal treatment among individuals when some groups develop a strong ethnic
identity to the extent of judging other group members as inferior.

C. Politics
Differences in political beliefs leads to discrimination. For example, the unfair rewarding
of political party supporters with appointment in senior positions leaving out those that are
qualified just because they belong to other parties.

D. Education
It leads to discrimination as sometimes highly educated people regard themselves as
superior and look down upon those having little or no education.
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E. Economic Status
It leads to discrimination especially between the rich and the poor people.

It involves giving unequal and unfavourable treatment to certain groups or individuals

because they are poor.

In this case, poor people may be denied access to best education, healthcare and other
opportunities due to their economic status.

F. Attitudes to the Disadvantaged

It leads to discrimination or unfair treatment as disadvantaged or special groups suffer as
they are sometimes denied access to various opportunities like education, healthcare,
security and other opportunities due to their conditions.

G. Religion
Religious discrimination involves treating a person or a group of people differently
because of their religious beliefs. For instance, among the Hindu, people are in different
classes (Caste System) and this has led to social inequality.

H. Gender inequality
This is the inequality between men and women. Women and girls are mostly affected, for
instance, in having education opportunities, employment opportunities where women are
paid less and also receives fewer benefits.

Major Discrimination Cases Across the World

The following are example of discrimination cases across the globe
i. Apartheid (separation) System in South Africa
ii. Racism in America
iii. Neo-Nazism of Germany
iv. Caste (class) System in India

Effects of Discrimination
Unequal treatment among individuals has the following effects on the community;
A. Retardation of development
Discrimination slows down development in the following ways
i. Skills and abilities that could be useful to societies are not used to the fullest as
certain people are not hired for positions despite being qualified;
ii. Recruitment of employees based on religion, race or tribes slows down
productivity as unqualified personnel hold the positions leading to poor
performance of the economy and poor service delivery;
iii. It also prevents the marginalized section of labour force from engaging directly in
productive and sustainable economic activities for the benefit of the society

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B. Instability
The discriminated people may refuse to submit to the wishes of the ones discriminating
them. This may result into instability in form of violence as a way of forcing for desirable
changes;

C. Poverty
Discrimination leads to unfair distribution of resources with some groups missing out.
This increases poverty among them hence widening the gap between the poor and the rich

D. Disunity
Discrimination promotes disunity between those practicing it and victims. People may be
unable to cooperate in several areas leading to low development.

E. Crime and Insecurity

Discrimination leads to increased levels of frustration among victims as a result of huge
inequalities in income and social status. As such, the victims may resort to theft and
robbery as a result of poverty;

F. Terrorism
Discrimination can create anger among people being discriminated against. For instance,
if government imposes discriminatory policies, the victims may sometimes launch terror
attacks (destruction) against government structures and public places to attract attention
so that their problem may be attended to. Terrorism leads to destruction of life and
property.

Efforts to Curb or Eliminate Discrimination

A. Ratification of human rights declarations
Adopting and implementing various conventions (agreements) on the protection of human
rights can help eliminate forms of discrimination. Some of the conventions include;
Convention on the Rights of the Child; Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of
Discrimination Against Women; Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities;

B. Inclusion of Bill of Rights in the constitution

The inclusion of the bill of rights in the constitution gives all citizens an assurance to
enjoyment of human rights without discrimination;

C. Establishment of institutions that promote human rights

Establishment of institutions that promote human rights like the office of the Ombudsman,
Human Rights Commission; help in dealing with cases of human rights issues.

!!!@dn2

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TOPIC 16: GOVERNMENT OF MALAWI

Meaning of government
 It is a group of people that governs a community or unit by setting and administering public
policy and exercises executive, political and sovereign powers through customs,
institutions and laws within a state.
 It can also be defined as a group of people governing a state according to given rules
contained in the constitution.
 It can also be defined as the machinery for running the welfare of the state according to the
given rules usually contained in the constitution.

Composition of the Government of Malawi

The Malawian government is made up of the following;
 The central government
 The local government
 The statutory corporations

1. The Central Government

It is composed of three main branches as follows;
a. The Legislature or Legislative branch (National Assembly; The Parliament)
It is made up of the president and the National Assembly (Members of Parliament
elected for five-year term).
It is headed by the Speaker of the Parliament, two Deputy Speakers of Parliament
and the Attorney General;

It’s Functions:
i. It is responsible for making laws of the country;
ii. It provides a forum for Members of Parliament to debate on issues of
national importance;
iii. It scrutinizes and approves the national budget;

b. The Executive
 This branch is composed of the president, vice-president and the cabinet
members (ministers).
 The ministers are appointed by the president.
 In some cases, it may also include second vice president who is also
appointed by the president.
Its functions:
i. It is responsible of making policies to run the country;
ii. It decides on the objectives of the government and implementation;
iii. It makes treaties on behalf of the people of Malawi
iv. It provides various services through its ministries and government
departments e.g. education by Ministry of Education

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c. The Judiciary
 It is headed by the Chief Justice.
 It is composed of the Magistrate lower courts, High Court and Supreme
Court of Appeal;
 The judiciary operates independently from the influence of any person or
authority.

It’s Functions:
i. It interprets and applies the laws of the country;
ii. It ensures that the constitution of Malawi is observed;
iii. It also protects the rights and liberties of all the citizens;
Sources of Revenue for the Central Government
 The Central Government obtains its funds through the following ways;
i. Taxes like Value Added Tax (largest source of income); Pay As You Earn;
ii. Customs and exercise duty (taxes imposed on some imported and exported goods);
iii. Miscellaneous departments receipts; e.g. sheriff fees, payment for lodging an appeal, fees
for processing a passport etc.
iv. Loans (borrowings);
v. Aid from developed countries;
vi. Fines imposed by law courts and traffic police officers;
vii. Rent payment by civil servants occupying government houses;
viii. Commercial activities such as revenue generated by statutory corporations e.g. ESCOM,
Water Boards, Malawi Housing Corporations (MHC), Malawi Press Corporation;
ix. Revenue from privatization programmes by selling state companies (enterprises);

2. The Local Government of Malawi

 It refers to the branch of government that provides governance at local level;
 It involves the local authorities established by the law to perform or provide
services in a given area e.g. district, town, municipality or city assembly.

Objectives of local governments system

i. To create a democratic environment and institutions for governance and
development at local level as they foster the participation of the local communities
in decision making;
ii. Make public services like police, education and other services more economical,
efficient and cost effective;
iii. Mobilize the masses for social economic development;
iv. Cooperating with other district assemblies in order to learn from their experiences
and exchange ideas;
Decentralization
 This is the transfer of authority and responsibility for some government functions from the
central government to local government authorities.

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Aim of Decentralization
 Achieve sustainable development

Advantages of Decentralization
i. Enhanced government responsibility to local problems;
ii. Enhanced transparency and accountability;
iii. Integrating society and the state; i.e. reducing the gap between the state and the society;
iv. Allows many citizens to take an active part in government;
v. It encourages the mobilization of local resources e.g. human, natural and financial for
local development;
vi. Local decision making ensures that development programmes are designed according
to the needs of the people and this ensures sustainable development;
vii. Ensures that local communities are not neglected;

Local Government Institutions

 District Assemblies; there are 28 districts; and these are housed in District Commissioners
Office
 Town Assembly; there are six town assemblies which include; Dedza, Salima, Balaka,
Liwonde, Karonga and Mangochi Town Assemblies;
 Municipal Assemblies; there are two of them; Kasungu and Luchenza Municipal
Assemblies;
 City Assemblies; there are four City Assemblies which include; Blantyre, Lilongwe,
Mzuzu and Zomba;

Composition of Local Government Institutions

 Members who have been elected; (voting members); such as Councilors; these can be
elected as Chair, Vice Chair of the District Assemblies; and Mayor or Deputy Mayor for
the city and Municipality who provides leadership in the assembly.
 The non-voting members (ex-official members); these include; Traditional Authorities
(leaders); Members of Parliament; and five other appointed members to represent the
interest of special groups);
 The Chief Executive Officer; he or she is responsible for the day-to-day administration of
the Assembly; implements decisions; also acts as the Secretary of the Assembly.

Functions of the Local Government

 Make policies and decisions on local governance and development for the local area;
 Promotes local democratic institutions and democratic participation;
 Promotes infrastructure and economic development needs of the local area;
 Mobilizes resources within and outside the local government areas for governance and
development;
 Helps to maintain peace and security in all local government areas in conjunction with the
Malawi Police Service;
 Make bye-laws for good governance of the local area and facilitate its functions;
 Conducts birth and death registration within the local government area;
 Appoints, develops, promotes and disciplines its staff;

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 Fosters cooperation with other district assemblies in order to learn from their experience
and exchange ideas;
 Provide a number of services to people including;
 Public health services; e.g. refuse collection, managing public toilets, street
cleaning, septic tank emptying, food and drink inspection among others;
 Clinical health services;
 Environmental management; e.g. looking forestry reserves, tree nurseries and
landscapes, zoos;
 Promotes economic development through town planning and business
licensing, maintain markets;
 Promotes education and literacy levels through provision of public schools,
school bursaries and libraries;
 Construction of roads, bridges, bus shelters, vehicle parking areas;
 Carry out emergency services such as ambulance and fire services;
 Provides public facilities for leisure and culture e.g. parks, sports field,
museums, botanical gardens;
Sources of Revenue for the Local Government
The Local Government obtains its funds through the following ways;
i. Revenue transferred from central government
ii. Revenue from within the local government e.g.
 Service charges such as refuse collection, emptying septic tanks, fire
ambulance service
 Commercial activities such as running restaurants, rest houses and bottle
stores
 Ground rent such as fees on leased plots and estates;
 Property rates such as fees charged on buildings, land and other property;
 Occupational licenses and rents; rents that people pay for using buildings,
shops and land owned by the local authorities;
 Fees and licenses such as business license for a store, maize mill, bottle
store, tailoring shops, car park fees;
 Loans (borrowed money)
 Tax by those selling their goods at local assembly markets;

3. Statutory Corporations in Malawi

 Refers to the institutions formed by acts of parliament to effectively provide social
services like water, electricity among others to the general public;
 They are also referred to as state enterprises or parastatals and are set up to provide
essential social services such as water, electricity or run a business.
 Some of these are commercial such as ESCOM and are expected to make profits.
As such, with time, they need to be self-sustaining (relying on themselves and not
the government). They are sometimes partly funded by the government.
 Others are non-commercial which means they provide services without making
profits and therefore are fully funded such as the Malawi Institute of Education;

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Examples of statutory corporations in Malawi

i. Malawi Broadcasting Corporation (MBC)
ii. University of Malawi (UNIMA)
iii. Malawi Institute of Education (MIE)
iv. Malawi Housing Corporation (MHC)
v. Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation (ADMARC)
vi. Tobacco Control Commission (TCC)
vii. Malawi Bureau of Standards (MBS)
viii. Malawi Revenue Authority (MRA)
ix. Reserve Bank of Malawi (RBM)
x. Malawi National Examinations Board (MANEB)
xi. Malawi National Library Services (MNLS)
xii. Electricity Supply Commission of Malawi (ESCOM)
xiii. Water Boards
xiv. Mzuzu University

Features of statutory corporations

The statutory corporations have the following features
a. Management
The statutory corporations are managed by the board of directors, appointed by the
government especially the president.
b. Accountability
They are accountable to the public and parliament and are audited by the Auditor
General;
c. Appointment
They are able to recruit, promote and transfer their employees based on institutions
requirements;
d. Autonomy (no interference)
They work freely without any interference as they have their own pattern or guide;
e. Objectives
They are profit making institutions as most of their activities are commercial in
nature;

Functions of statutory corporations in Malawi

The statutory corporations play the following roles in Malawi;
i. Help to control the quality of goods on the market;
ii. Help to train people in business skills;
iii. Provide services like electricity, housing, education, communication etc.
iv. Provide information on the market.

!!!@dn2

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TOPIC 17: GOOD GOVERNANCE

Meaning of Good Governance
 It is an approach to government that is committed to creating a system founded on justice
and peace that protects individual’s human rights and civil liberties.
 It is how the political, economic and administrative authority is managed in the country’s
affairs and resources in relation to equity, accountability and rule of law.
NB: Good governance covers the quality of institutions and their effectiveness in
translating policy into successful decisions.

Principles of Good Governance

a. Rule of law
 The law must exist and always must rule, and nobody should be above the law.
 It requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced impartially.
 It also requires full protection of human rights especially of those in minorities.
b. Effectiveness and efficiency
 it also demands that processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of
the society while making the best use of resources
 it covers the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the environment
c. Accountability
 the government has a duty to report, explain and be answerable for the decisions made
on behalf of people it represent
d. Transparency
 It focuses on making sure that decisions made and their enforcement are done according
to the rules and regulations
 It also makes sure that information is freely available and accessible by all
e. Participation
 It ensures freedom of association and expression and a well-organized civil society
through provision of information to people, asking for people’s opinions etc.
f. Good governance is equitable and inclusive
 It ensures that all groups of people especially the vulnerable ones have the opportunities
to participate in the process
g. Separation of powers
 It requires that all branches of the government should have different function as they
have different roles
i. Checking the abuse of power
 There are mechanisms to prevent a person from the act of using his or her position in
an abusive way.
h. Responsive to the needs of the people
 It ensures that the government efforts to serve the needs of all while balancing
competing interests in a timely, appropriate and responsive manner
i. Legitimacy and mandate;

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 legitimacy means that the exercise of power and authority should be lawful and
popularly accepted. One way to assume public office is through elections.

Institutions that Enhance Good Governance

Accountability by the government and officials is enforced by various institutions which are
created by the government as follows;
A. The Ant-Corruption Bureau
Its functions;
i. Take proper measures for the prevention of corruption in public and private bodies
ii. Promote the rule of law e.g. prosecute those who are involved in corruption
iii. Sensitize the public on the harmful effects of corruption
iv. Investigates cases of corruption by receiving and investigating complaints of
alleged or suspected corrupt practices
B. The Electoral Commission
This body functions to;
i. Ensures free and fair elections
ii. Promote registration of voters
iii. Ensures equal treatment of competing parties
C. The Law Commission
This body functions to;
i. Study the constitution and recommend any change that may be necessary
ii. Study any law and recommend change when the law contradicts the constitution
D. The Judiciary
The body functions to;
i. Ensure protection of human rights
ii. Uphold the rule of law
iii. Help to interpret the law
E. The Office of the Ombudsman
The body functions to;
i. Investigate cases of social injustice if the victims are not getting justice
ii. Take action against institutions e.g. government
iii. Promote the rule of law
F. The Auditor General
The body functions to;
i. Check the financial and accounting records of the government in all public
institutions hence achieving transparency and accountability
ii. Identify or detect fraud and errors in an audit of financial statements and report
their findings to other authorities e.g. the president and speaker of parliament
G. Civil Society Organizations
The body;
i. Provide civil education about the dangers of corruption and other forms of abuse
of power
ii. Provide checks and balances on government and other public institutions
iii. Monitors cases of social injustice in the country

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iv. Call for changes of oppressive laws

v. Mobilize political will among the people to reform the government system or
operation
H. Human Rights Organizations
The body;
i. investigate and protect violations of human rights
ii. Ensures that governing institutions upholds national laws and internationally
recognized conventions
I. The Media
It functions or roles;
i. Helps to expose cases of human rights violations hence ensures transparency
ii. Helps to fight against abuse of power by lobbying for fair law suit against those
corrupt leaders
iii. Provide civic education
iv. Report undemocratic and illegal activities
v. Acts as a place for debate on political issues an events
J. Office of the Director of Public Procurement
The body works to;
i. Provide a professional, efficient, monitoring and oversight function on all public
procurement matters by reviewing procurement activities

!!!@dn

TOPIC 18: TAXATION

Registration of Tax
 Registration of tax involves completing an appropriate application form for the specific
tax that an individual is to pay like Value Added Tax registration, Income Tax
Registration and withholding tax registration.
 The form is then submitted to Malawi Revenue Authority, with a copy of a business
registration certificate, for processing of a registration as a taxpayer.
 The taxpayer is then given a taxpayer identification number (TIN) by MRA for all
official transactions with the tax collecting body.
Importance of Registering for Tax
i. It enables the tax collecting body to improve its efficiency in tax collection due to
availability of records
ii. It helps the business to enjoy the status of being registered as it is able to supply
goods to the government and other institutions
iii. It helps the business to access bank loans and enjoy others benefits
iv. It helps to avoid breaking tax laws hence enables the business to avoid punishments
for non-compliance
v. It helps individuals to pay their taxes hence contribute to the nation’s development

NB: As a business person, it is important to keep records of your business. This is important
in the following ways;

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 Helps one to monitor the progress of business

 Helps one to prepare financial statements
 Identify source of receipts
 Helps one to keep track of deductible expenses
 Helps one to prepare tax returns
 Help to give support of items reported on tax returns
Importance of Keeping Business Records for Tax Purposes
Keeping of business records for tax purposes is important in the following ways;
i. Makes it easier and faster to complete business activity statements and other tax
obligations when they are due;
ii. Makes it easy for MRA officers to access your business records for tax verification;
iii. Helps a business owner to know actual tax liability;
iv. Helps one’s business to avoid penalties for non-compliance;
Importance of Declaring and Paying Correct Amount of Tax
Declaring and payment of correct amount of tax is significant in the following ways;
i. It helps revenue collecting agencies like MRA to collect the right amount of tax for national
development.
ii. It enables people to make their fair contribution to national development.
iii. It gives one the moral right to demand better social services from government.
iv. It helps one’s business not to suffer due to interest, penalties and other punishments for
under-declaration and underpayment of tax.
Tax Audit
 Refers to an examination of an organization’s or individual’s tax return to verify that the
financial information is being reported correctly.
Types of Audit Methods
Ways of auditing taxes are categorized into the following;
A. Registration checks
Checking whether established businesses are properly registered;
B. Advisory audits
A visit to newly established businesses advising them on the type of taxes, filing of
declarations, payments of amounts due and records to be maintained;
C. Record keeping audits
Checks whether the taxpayer is keeping the records. Failure to keep the records attracts
penalties;
D. Desk audits
Examination conducted at the tax office when the auditor is assured that all necessary
information can be verified;
E. Single issue audits
Focuses on single tax type, single theme or single period;
F. Refund audits
It verifies the tax payer’s right to a refund prior to processing the refund;

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G. Audit projects
These are audits that are organized as a separate project for specific group of taxpayers to
address a particular risk or establish the degree of non-compliance in a particular sector;
H. Comprehensive audits
It is conducted if there is an indication of under-reporting that will impact across taxes. It
involves the examination of all tax obligations over a number of tax periods and is
therefore time consuming.
I. Fraud investigations
Is an investigation which requires special skills as it involves serious cases of non-
compliance having criminal implications-fraud, evasion and criminal activity;
Importance of Tax Audit
i. It is a strategy to fight against taxpayers’ non-compliance behavior
ii. It is a real check on businesses to establish that they are registered
iii. It offers opportunity for newly established businesses to receive advice on filing of
declarations, payment of amount due and records to be maintained
iv. It enables MRA to maximize tax collection from businesses operating in the country
v. It enables MRA to come up with appropriate strategies to curb tax evasion
Tax Offences and Penalties
The following are examples of tax offences and their penalties

TAX OFFENCES PENALTIES

Submission of incorrect tax returns Payment of a fine
Obstructing an MRA officer in the discharge Payment of a fine
of his or her duty
Forceful rescue of seized property Payment of fine plus one year imprisonment
Smuggling A penalty of minimum of 30% of duty
Presentation of fake documents or Payment of fine plus imprisonment for 3
information years
Failure to pay tax on due date Payment of fine
Late filing of tax returns A fine plus payment of specific interest for
any further delays
Delay in payment of tax on due dates Payment of fine
Inciting a person to refuse to pay tax Payment of a fine
Failure to register for tax Payment of a fine
Failure by an employer to pay fringe benefit Pay fringe benefit tax due plus a penalty of
tax 20% of the fringe benefit
Evasion of VAT A fine not exceeding 20 times the amount of
VAT evaded and imprisonment for 5 years
Counterfeit or without authority using any A penalty of a minimum of 30% of duty
seal, signature, or any other mark used by
any officer for any purpose

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Alterations of value, currency code,

percentage content and any other
information
Conveyance of smuggled goods A fine determined by the type of vehicle used
(the bigger the tonnage of the vehicle the
higher the fine
Under-declaration of values and other A penalty of a minimum of 30% of duty
charges for goods

Declaration of the wrong origin of goods

Failure to keep records Payment of a fine
Failure to submit tax returns Payment of a fine
Presentation of fake documents and Payment of a fine plus imprisonment for 3
information years

Tax Exemption and Incentives

Meaning of terms
1. a. Tax exemption refers to the monetary exemption or exclusion which reduces taxable
income.
 It provides complete relief from taxes and reduce tax rates
b. Tax exemption also refers to removal of tax on a particular item. For instance, there
are some goods and services that are not taxed (exempted) from Value Added Tax (VAT).
2. Tax incentives refers to the measures put in place to provide favourable tax treatment of
certain activities or sectors so as to encourage a particular economic activity.
 It is important as it removes part or all burden of the tax from any market
transaction.
 Removing tax or a portion results in lessening the burden and so encourages
economic activity.
Examples of Tax Incentives
i. Annual allowances
ii. Initial allowances
iii. Investment allowances
iv. Transport allowances
v. Export allowance
vi. Mining allowance
Forms of Tax Exemption and Incentives
The following are forms of tax exemptions and incentives
i. Tax holidays
ii. Special zones e.g. geographical area
iii. Investment allowance
iv. Investment tax credit

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v. Acceleration depreciation
vi. Tax exemption on salaries e.g. president, parliamentarians, ministers and other diplomats
vii. Duty exemption on selected imports e.g. charitable organizations, religious organizations
and Non-Governmental Organizations
Tax Agreement
It is an arrangement between two jurisdictions or countries meant to address duplication regarding
the issue of taxation e.g. income and capital tax agreement between Malawi and Denmark signed
in 1959, Malawi and France signed in 1963 and others

Impacts of Tax Agreements on National Development

Tax agreements are essential instruments for commercial and economic development of a country
as they:
i. Provide equal taxation treatment to investors in the concerned countries;
ii. Provide an environment that stimulates foreign direct investment, encourages business
ventures and enhancement of cooperation between countries;
iii. Contribute new common projects that benefit the national economic outcomes of the
countries;
iv. Encourage tourism and bilateral trade between countries especially after the
implementation of tax exemption regulations granted to companies;
v. Ensures the growth of existing businesses and formation of new ones;
vi. Facilitate movement of capital and technology between countries;
vii. It encourages joint investments between countries;
The Role of Taxation in Development
Taxation fosters development as it;
i. Help the government to provide various social services to citizens e.g. infrastructures like
schools, hospitals, markets etc.
ii. Helps to mobilize revenue from the private sector to the public sector;
iii. It is also used to stimulate economic activities through various tax incentives;
iv. It is used to attract foreign direct investments by entering into bilateral tax agreements
with other countries;
v. It is used to control inflation and spending in an economy through appropriate tax
increment or reduction;
Challenges of Revenue Collection that Affect Sustainable Development
There are many challenges associated with revenue collections;
i. Smuggling of goods through un-designated entry points resulting in massive loss of
revenue;
ii. Under-invoicing as some people declare false invoices to pay less duty on imported goods
and this leads to big loss of government revenues;
iii. Under-declaration as some importers fail to declare all goods imported to avoid paying
duty on some goods;

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iv. Under-valuation by officers as they connive with importers to make payment of less duty
due to corruption;
v. Lack of appropriate technologies like detecting machines to curb smuggling. This reduces
tax collected;
vi. The growth of informal sector in the economy reduces taxes collected due to lack of
documentation and proper registration;

!!!@dn2

TOPIC 19: GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

The issues of gender and development are interlinked as equality among people increases their
participation in community or country’s developmental activities. Therefore, gender equality
fosters the development of a country.

Indicators of Gender Balance

The following are signs of gender balance
A. Education
 As an indicator, it looks at various issues concerning education for all like adult
literacy rate for men and women, education enrolments for males and females,
dropout rate for boys and girls. There has been an increased access to school
opportunities by both boys and girls. There has also been an increased educational
enrolment for women and girls in subjects and courses that at first were considered
for men such as engineering and sciences.
B. Health
 It looks at the quality and equity for men and women, boys and girls access to
health care and information on related issues like access to health care, clinics and
family planning services. This has given both sexes power and authority to decide
on family matters like number of children.
C. Power and decision making
 It aims at empowering both women and men in power and decision making in all
sectors e.g. politics. Men and women should share power and positions of decision
making at all levels e.g. at home, in government, private organizations.
D. Employment
 Both men and women need to have equal access to employment, equal pay for the
same job and promotion.
 There is a sign of gender balance in employment as both sexes are given equal
employment opportunities in various sectors e.g. women are now pursuing their
careers in engineering and other courses which were once dominated by males.
E. Law and human rights
 There is now equality in the observation, protection and promotion of the law and
human rights as all discriminatory laws and human rights are being eliminated.
 Both men and women have equal access to information regarding the law and
human rights. However, cases of discrimination and inequality against women are

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still happening around the world e.g. sexual violence, forced early marriages,
forced prostitution, genital mutilation and many more.
F. Agriculture and access to resources
 Gender balance in this sector is observed not only in access to information,
technology, loans and inputs used in agriculture but also in eliminating policies
and tradition practices affecting women e.g. access to land. This has made both
sexes to have similar opportunities.
Gender Platforms of Action
 It is a method used to mainstream gender equality.
 As a strategy, it uses previous experiences when trying to bring gender
perspectives to the centre of attention in policies and programmes so as to develop
effective strategies.

Examples of Gender Platform of Actions

Currently, there are two active gender platforms of action as follows;

A. The Beijing Platform of Action

 It was adopted at the United Nation’s Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995
where Malawi was a participant.
 About 189 countries around the world adopted this Platform for Action in 1995.

Aim of Beijing Platform of Action

It is an agenda for women’s empowerment which aims at removing all the obstacles to women’s
active participation in all areas of public and private life e.g. equal share in economic, social,
cultural and political decision-making

Areas of concern of Beijing Platform of Action

i. Women and poverty
ii. Education and training of women
iii. Women and health
iv. Violence and women
v. Women and armed conflict
vi. Women and the economy
vii. Women in power and decision-making
viii. Institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women
ix. Human rights of women
x. Women and the media
xi. Women and the environment
xii. The girl-child

B. The Malawi National Platform of Action

 As a way of responding to the Global Platform of Action adopted at the 1995
Beijing Conference, Malawi introduced its action in 1997 and a national gender
policy in 2000.

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 The platform has four main areas of focus out of the twelve areas of the Beijing
platform of Action. These are as follows;
i. Poverty alleviation and empowerment
 It focuses on women’s participation in agriculture, access to
economic resources, employment, reproductive health, food
security, nutrition, environment and natural resource management.
ii. The girl-child
 It focuses on harmful traditional and cultural practices that
negatively affect the girl child’s right to proper growth, protection
and development.
iii. Violence against women
 It focuses on gender-based discrimination; and marginalization of
women and girls in private, public and domestic areas.
iv. Peace
 It focuses on women’s rights, international conventions, protocols
and treaties that promote peace, plight or predicament of Malawian
women, children and persons with disabilities in relation to their
shelter conditions, and women’s participation in politics and
decision making
The Roles of Gender Platform of Actions in Promoting Gender
The platform of actions of gender promotes gender in the following ways;
a) they prevent and combat violence against women. They make sure that women and girls
are not mistreated by calling for elimination of laws and cultural beliefs and practices that
are discriminatory in nature;
b) guarantees equal access of women to justice;
c) leads to the achievement of a balanced participation of women and men in political and
public decision-making. This is achieved through revised laws, policies and action that aim
at promoting equal participation of all sexes;
d) help countries to combat or fight gender stereotype and sexism as it removes all forms of
discriminations;
e) ensures equal enjoyment of human rights and freedom by women and girls as it eliminates
bad practices like child and forced marriages;
f) leads to the achieving of gender mainstreaming in all policies and measures;

Importance of Gender Balance in Development

Gender balancing can promote development as it;
a) Promotes businesses. When women enjoy economic rights like access to loans and credits,
they are able to engage in businesses which later improves their lives.
b) It also leads to reduction in maternal-related discrimination. Elimination of all forms of
discriminations against women promotes health of women as they are able to equally
access healthcare and other related issues.

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c) It leads to increased skilled human resource. Allowing all sexes to have equal access to
education and training, increases skilled human resource hence more contributions to the
development.
d) It leads to an increase in the number of women in managerial position. Allowing women
to hold managerial positions increases performance through improved governance,
decision-making and financial returns.
e) It enhances economic development, improves prospects for future generations and
strengthens political and social systems. Gender gap especially in poor countries hinders
economic production and creates weaker social and political system as only one sex is
active.
f) Gender balance leads to increased agricultural production and food insecurity. Improving
access for women leads to increased agricultural productivity.

!!!@dn

TOPIC 20: POPULATION AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR: HIV AND AIDS

Meaning
 Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI) are infections that are commonly spread through
unprotected sexual intercourse.
 They are also known as Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) or venereal diseases (VD).

Examples of Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Malawi

i. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
ii. Syphilis (Chizonono)
iii. Gonorrhea (Chindoko)
iv. Candidiasis (Mauka)
v. Genital Herpes
vi. Buboes (Mabomu)
vii. Chlamydis
viii. Chancroid
ix. Warts
x. Tricomoniasis

Modes of Transmission
Such diseases are spread through the following ways;
i. Sexual intercourse,
ii. Contact with infected body fluids such as blood, semen, cervical and vaginal fluids,
iii. Infected mother to child.

Importance of Caring for STI Patients

Caring of STI patients is significant as it;

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i. Promotes sense of belonging to the patients as they feel wanted;

ii. Gives hope of living longer to the patients as they develop confidence and positive image
of themselves and can willingly engage in developmental activities;
iii. Helps to reduce stigma of having STI and HIV and AIDS as community leaders accept,
respect and support those affected and infected;
iv. Helps to keep patients healthy and able to work for as long as possible;
v. Helps to strengthen prevention activities as the target audience has the chance to contact
with the patients;
vi. Helps patients to live longer. Caring for such people helps to prolong their life.

Ways of Caring for STI, HIV and AIDS Patients

Infected patients can be cared for in the following ways;
A. Physical care
They require to be given physical support by guardians or care takers. For instance, helping
them to eat, drink, bath and walk when the patient is too weak;
B. Emotional and material support
Providing financial support to the patients in form of money and materials like clothes and
other things;
One can also encourage the patients to seek early medical assistance so as to be treated in
good time;
One can also provide emotional and psychological support through guidance and
counselling the patients so as to remove fear by making them feel loved;
C. Spiritual and moral support
One can provide spiritual and moral support to patients by offering prayers or taking them
to churches and mosques as this reduce stress and worry while avoiding other infections.

Importance of Hospital Based and Home-Based Care for STI including HIV and AIDS
Patients
A. Hospital based care
This is a care support and treatment that is offered to the patients by medical experts while
in the hospital. Hospitals provide medication and full nursing care. This is important in
the following ways;
i. It helps the patients to get maximum treatment, required dosage as they are full
time in the hospital;
ii. It helps medical experts to monitor and check the patient’s progress hence a quick
recovery;
iii. It helps to prevent overburdening individuals or household in providing care and
support to patients;
iv. It helps guardians to acquire required advice on how they can care for the patients;
v. It helps patients to prevent further contraction of infections due to good sanitation
observed in hospitals;
B. Home based care
This is care, support and treatment that patients receive in their homes. It is usually offered
by relatives, friends or home-based care groups. This is important in the following ways;

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i. It reduces pressure and burden of caring patients in the hospital as it reduces

congestion in hospitals;
ii. It is cost effective as it reduces some costs like transport expenses. Relatives and
friends do not have to look for money for transport to and from the hospital each
time they want to see the patient;
iii. It helps the patient to practice hygiene and prevent further infections in hospital
congested environment;
iv. It provides psychological stability due to familiar environment;
v. It promotes love and affection since the patients are looked after and supported by
relatives;
vi. It gives an opportunity to relatives to engage in other developmental activities.
Since a patient is in the home, it means that relatives can attend to other duties and
activities while caring for the patient.

Ways of Avoiding Contraction of STD and HIV and AIDS When Caring for Patients
When caring for patients suffering for STIs, HIV and AIDS, one has to do the following;
i. Covering wounds with a clear cloth or bandage. This prevents the infected fluids and blood
from the patient to be in contact with yours;
ii. Wearing of gloves or plastic papers when bathing patients to avoid blood or fluid contact;
iii. Wash hands before and after attending to the patients to avoid transferring of germs;

Institutions that Deal with Guidance and Counseling of HIV and AIDS Patients and
Guardians
Due to the nature of HIV and AIDS epidemic; medical, healthy, religious organizations and other
non-governmental organizations have engaged in provision of guidance and counseling for
patients. The main institutions offering guidance and counselling include;

A. Public Hospitals, Christian Health Association of Malawi (CHAM) hospitals, and

Private hospitals
They provide guidance and counseling on HIV and AIDS, provide information on HIV
and AIDS, screening of clients for HIV and AIDS and the treatment of other diseases
associated with HIV and AIDS;
B. Non-Governmental Organizations
There are both local and international organizations like;
 Banja la Mtsogolo
 National Association of People Living with HIV/AIDS (NAPHAM)
 Malawi Network of People Living with HIV/AIDS (MANET)
 World Vision
 Action Aid
 Malawi Aids Counselling and Resource Organization (MACRO)
 Plan International Malawi
 Family Planning Association of Malawi (FPAM)
C. Religious organizations

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Religious groups encourage home-based care of HIV/AIDS and also offer pastoral
guidance and counselling in the community; Such religious organizations include;
 Adventist Relief Agency (ADRA)
 Catholic Development Committee (CADEM)
 The Living Waters Church
 The Church of Central Africa Presbyterian (CCAP)
D. Community Based Organizations
They empower the communities to voluntarily respond to HIV and AIDS e.g. Salima
AIDS Support Organization
E. Drop-in-Centers
These are community-based simple facilities where people can receive HIV and AIDS
counseling and education and can participate in support groups activities.
They are aimed at raising awareness towards HIV and AIDS, befriend with infected people
and offer civic education about the epidemic;
F. Youth Organizations
They target the young people in HIV and AIDS prevention and counseling;
G. Companies and government ministries or departments
They engage in the provision of HIV and AIDS programmes like testing and counseling;

Types of HIV and AIDS Counseling

A. Preventive counseling
 It is a way of assisting uninfected individuals to prevent contracting the disease.
 It is also offered to people already infected to help them to take care of their health
and stop spreading the disease.
 It is also offered to those people who have not yet got HIV/AIDS but whose
behaviours puts them at risk;
B. Supportive counseling
 It is offered to guardians, patients and families to solve or cope with the problems
the epidemic brings and be able to make decisions about the future.
 It also provides support to relatives of patient in cases of death of the patient.
NB: Preventive and Supportive counseling is given to a client at different time or stages
which include;
 Pre-test counseling; this is given to a client just before he or she gets tested of
HIV/AIDS. This counselling is important since it prepares the client
psychologically accept the results of the test.
 Post-test counseling; this is provided after the test and depends on the outcome of
the test, which may be positive or negative.
 Continuing counseling; this is the counselling that client who tested positive and
were already counselled, continues to get in their life to cope with the situation.

C. Pastoral counseling
It is offered by religious leaders to help people live long e.g. use of biblical messages to
encourage faithfulness and abstinence.

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Methods of Counseling
People can obtain counseling through the following ways;
A. Hospital-based counseling
It involves a client to visit the hospital and receive guidance and counseling service on
emotional and social issues related to HIV and AIDS from trained personnel (counsellors).
B. Home-based counseling
It involves supervisors or counselors from local-based organizations visiting patients and
guardians to strengthen and support them.
C. Community-based counseling
It is done at community level where some individuals within the community are trained to
provide guidance and counseling to HIV patients and guardians within the community so
as to reduce stigma, provide comfort and support and promote positive living among the
people.
D. Man to man counseling
 It focuses on men, who socialize more than women, do their job away from home
and therefore, put their lives at risk of acquiring HIV/AIDS. As such, programmes
are designed by hospitals specifically for men.
 Such programmes involve providing health education for men in workplaces,
villages and other communities so as to create awareness of the existence,
symptoms and treatment of STIs.
 It also provides facts and information about HIV and AIDS, family planning and
responsible sexual behavior.
 It also distributes condoms and provides counseling to those infected
E. Peer counseling
It involves people of the same age and social status educating and sharing information on
STIs and HIV and AIDS.

Importance of Guiding and Counseling STI, and HIV/AIDS Patients and Guardians
Guidance and counseling is for impact mitigation and is important in the following ways;
i. It removes fear and anxiety to a patient hence accept the reality and seek for solutions;
ii. It helps to build and promote hope, confidence, independent and affirmation of life in the
patient;
iii. It helps people to examine behaviors that puts them at a risk of HIV and AIDS infections;
iv. It reduces the burden on those already affected;
v. It provides moral support to the patients;
vi. It helps people to understand the relationship between STIs and the acquisition of HIV and
AIDS;
vii. Play a significant role in the fight against HIV/AIDS in the country;
viii. Helps in reducing the spread of STIs and HIV/AIDS.

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Consequences of Lack of Guidance and Counseling for STI and HIV/AIDS Patients and
Guardians
Lack of guidance and counseling on issues concerning STIs and HIV/AIDS can lead to the
following consequences;
i. The patient becomes increasingly anxious, depressed, and worried of his or her status.
Many patients may end committing suicide.
ii. Patients becomes hopeless and considers themselves as a moving corpse. This make them
not to engage in any positive contribution to development;
iii. Patients may intentionally or unintentionally continue indulging in risky behaviors hence
increasing infections;
iv. It may lead to discrimination of infected people from uninfected ones;
v. The patient is not aware of eating nutritious foods which puts his or her life at a risk;
vi. Lack of counselling and guidance to the guardians may result in the guardian being at risk
of contracting of HIV/AIDS.

!!!@dn2

TOPIC 21: DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE

 Drugs and other chemicals are helpful when used properly.
 Drugs are usually prescribed for specific purpose meant to help the body.
 However, some people use drugs and substances for purposes other than those for which
they are intended or in a manner or in quantities other than directed, and this is called
“Drug and Substance Abuse.”

Types of Drugs and Substances

a). Drugs that cure and prevent infectious diseases (Antibiotics)
 Drugs used for this purpose are antibiotics such as Penicillin.
 Failure to follow instructions by either taking less or more means you are abusing the drug.
b). Drugs that affect the nervous system
These include;
 Drugs that speed up the action of the brain making you more alert (Stimulants) such as
Cocaine, kola nut, Caffeine (found in coffee and tea), amphetamines;
 Drugs that slow down the action of the brain and make you feel sleepy (Depressants) such
as mandrax and valium;
 Drugs that make a person see or hear things that do not exist (Hallucinogens) such as
marijuana;
 Drugs that remove sensation known as anesthetics;
 Drugs that relieve pain such as aspirin, morphine, opium and heroin.
NB: There are also substances which affect the human body and mind that are frequently abused
such as glue, petrol, alcohol, tobacco, and pesticides such as termic.

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Causes of Drug and Substance Abuse

The abuse of drugs and substances like excessive beer drinking, smoking of chamba, and glue
sniffing is commonly among the youth in Malawi and is caused by the following;
A. Peer pressure
Young people want to feel accepted by their peers or friends and may be tempted or
attracted into drug and substance abuse by their desire to conform or match to the groups
behavior;
B. Curiosity
The desire to have new experiences leads some young people into trying drugs and
substances as they are curious to know how drugs will make them feel despite knowing
the dangers;
C. Frustrations
Some young ones may resort to drugs and substance abuse with an aim of suppressing
their frustrations or disappointments e.g. failure to achieve their goals;
D. Desire to escape reality
Some people engage in drug and substance abuse as they want to forget a tough situation
they face and to have an illusion that they no longer have the problem;
E. Desire for pleasure
Some people engage in drug and substance abuse as they want to be happy or feel high
since some drugs create euphoria or excitement;
F. Misinformation
Most young people engage in drug and substance abuse as they get wrong information
especially from their peers. They are told that the drugs are harmless and good for their
health hence they become addicted;
G. Low self-esteem
Some youth especially those having low self-esteem e.g. having a feeling of little value or
not appreciated engage in drug and substance abuse with an intention of boosting their
confidence and improve their social skills;
H. Influence of the media
The depiction or portrayal of celebrities and other key characters in movies as drug addicts,
chain smokers and alcoholics make some youth to think that abuse of drugs and substances
is good as they want to be like them.

Effects of Drug and Substance Abuse on the Individual and Family:

A. Addiction
Drug and substance users can become addicted to the extent that they cannot live without
using drugs.
B. Mental breakdown or madness
Some drugs like marijuana may lead to mental breakdown or madness hence the abuser
becomes a nuisance or irritant to the society and a burden to relatives
C. Violence
The use of drugs can induce a violent behavior in an individual leading to an individual
committing various crimes
D. Prostitution

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The strong desire to buy and consume drugs can lead to prostitution in order to get money
E. Ill health and death
The abuse of drugs can damage organs like liver, lungs, brain and others hence leading to
ill health and death
F. Loss of employment
Use of drugs leads to poor work performance which may result in dismissal
G. Loss of morals
Use of drugs and substances induces irresponsible behaviors like lack of respect,
prostitution of which some may lead to contraction of sexually transmitted infections and
HIV and AIDS
H. Poor performance in school
It can lead to poor performance in school

Impact of Drug and Substance Abuse on Development

A. Increased crime rate
Drug and substance use increases the rate of crime in the society. This can slow down
economic growth of such communities as investors are scared to invest in such areas.
B. Reduced levels of productivity
Drug and substance abusers weakens the quality of the labour force as they become lazy,
weak and sick due to the effects of the drugs hence slows down economic development
C. Loss of man power
Drugs and substance abuse leads to the death of energetic people who could have made
tremendous contributions to the development of the country
D. Increased expenditure on health
Drug abusers increase the number of people seeking medical attention in hospitals as such
the government may end up spending much money buying drugs and providing care to
those that are sick
E. Wastage of resources
Resources invested in education of young drug abusers is wasted as they become lazy,
irresponsible and sick hence have nothing to give back to the nation

Ways of Avoiding Drug and Substance Abuse

Drug and substance abuse can be avoided through the following ways
i. Avoid drug trafficking
ii. One has to take drugs according to prescription
iii. Seeking information on proper use of drugs
iv. Develop important skills like assertiveness, positive self-esteem, self-control and problem
solving and decision-making so as to resist peer pressure

!!!@dn2

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TOPIC 22: RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD

Background Information
 A parent is a person who is either a father or a mother of another person.
 A parent can either be biological or foster.
 Parents have a duty and responsibility over their child or children starting from pregnancy
to adulthood. As such, when parents are fulfilling their obligations and responsibilities
towards their children, they become “responsible parents”.

Meaning of the term Responsible Parenthood

This refers to the fulfillment of one’s obligations and responsibilities as a parent.

Qualities of a Responsible Parenthood

Parenting is a journey that requires patience and understanding as it requires not only provision of
physical needs of the child or children. As such, a responsible parent has to possess the following
qualities;

A. Sense of humour
This encourages open and good dialogue between parents and children. Lack of humour
among parents leads to unwarranted anxiety in young people which affect their emotional
health.
B. Flexibility
Parents need to be open-minded and be able to accommodate the views of their children
like resolving conflicts smoothly as this reduces defiance and rebelliousness in their
children.
C. Sense of responsibility for pregnancy care
Parents have to show care to the unborn child right from conception to delivery by
providing balanced diet to a pregnant woman to ensure that the unborn child is healthy.
They should also avoid extra-marital sexual relations to avoid contraction of STIs which
may harm the unborn child.
D. Good modeling
Parents needs to portray good morals to their children since children learn much from their
parents (absorb or take up 10% of what parents say and 90% of what parents do). As such,
when parents are showing immoral behaviours their children also copy such behaviours
E. Empowerment
Good parents nurture independence, foster personal responsibility and encourage self-
reliance in their children since children are born with innate or natural drive to define
themselves and develop their unique strength and talents. They also demonstrate to their
children the reward of hard work and personal compliments hence children grow with
psychosocial and strong sense of purpose.
F. Ability to identify good qualities in your children
Responsible parents make conscious or mindful efforts to identify and compliment their
children for their good qualities as this enables the children to build good qualities and
become reliable adults.
G. Provision of basic needs

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Responsible parents provide necessary basic needs to their children like good health,
education, shelter among others. These ensure good health, enables them to acquire skills
and knowledge for their protection and survival.
H. Willingness to engage in positive communication with children
Responsible parents talk to their children in a positive way. They talk to their children in
a friendly manner about whatever subject they wish to discuss.
I. Attunement
This is the emotional sensing of others, knowing their experience and it goes beyond
empathy. Parents need to be great listeners and this comforts children better than any
counsel.

!!!@dn2

TOPIC 23: UNIVERSAL MORALS AND VALUES

Definitions of some of the important terms;
1. Social values
These are practices, ideas or beliefs that a particular group of people in a society holds in
high esteem.
2. Ethical values
These are established principles governing virtuous behaviours as people are able to
differentiate right from wrong.

Importance of Social and Ethical Values in General

 Provide goals for the members of the society to aim for;
 They hold the society together because they are shared in common;
 They bring legitimacy to the rules that govern specific activities;
 Social and ethical values help to bring about some kind of adjustment between different
set of rules;

Social and Ethical Values for International Life

There are certain social and ethical values that are accepted as universal as they regulate behaviour,
beliefs, ideas and practices of in the global society as follows (these are the social and ethical
values for international life)
A. Respect and appreciating other people’s culture
This is a universal value as it promotes peaceful coexistence among people of cultural
diversity. Every culture is important and therefore people should be allowed to practice
their own culture even in areas where they are in minority.
B. Respect for other people’s rights
Every human being is supposed to enjoy human rights. This maintains the global peace as
people are able to get the respect they deserve regardless of who or what they are
C. Racial and ethnic quality

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It acts as a driving force towards democratic stability as it ensures that distinct groups of
people are not excluded from decision-making processes and the enjoyment of human
rights. There is no any other race or ethnic group which is superior than the other.
D. Freedom of worship
This is the fundamental provision seeking to encourage people to exercise tolerance and
respect for other people’s religions so as to have a more peaceful world
E. Respect for the rule of law
Rule of law is the legal principle that the law should govern a nation. Promotion of the
rule of law at the national and international levels is significant as it helps to achieve a
durable peace in the aftermath or outcome of conflict, to the effective protection of human
rights and to sustain economic progress and development
F. Respect for the international health requirements
This is an international ethical value that a traveler has to fulfill. In this, a traveler is
supposed to be vaccinated against and be certified free of diseases. This differs from
country to country as it helps in containing most of deadly diseases from spreading
G. Respect for the international immigration requirements
Travelers are required to respect and abide by to international immigration requirements
or laws like valid passport or visa, international health certificates, minimum amount of
money among others as they prevent them to be stranded in the host country.
H. Sympathy and Empathy
It is the nature of human beings to have feelings. Sympathy is a feeling of a sense of
compassion. This is where you feel sorry for someone who is going through a hard time.
Empathy is the ability to experience the feelings of another person or being in someone’s
shoes. All these ensures us that we should reach out to others and help them.

Importance of Social and Ethical Values for International Cooperation

i. Values like respect for other people’s culture and rights helps to fight against global
discrimination.
ii. They enhance cultural exchange as they encourage respect and appreciation of each other’s
cultures.
iii. Helps to strengthen security as people of different cultures are able to coexist.
iv. Empathy and sympathy acts as driving force behind humanitarian assistance globally hence
reduces the suffering and improve the livelihood of many people.

!!!@dn2

TOPIC 24: INTERNATIONAL PEACE INITIATIVES

 Peace is the state or condition existing during the absence of war or hostilities.
 Initiative is the ability to make a decision and take action without waiting for someone to
tell you what to do.
 Therefore, Peace Initiative is the first or opening move in negotiating an end to conflict.
Definitions of various terms
1. Peace initiative

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 It an opening move in negotiating an end to conflict or negotiating for a peace

treaty.
2. Peace enforcement
 It is the application of a range of forceful measures including the use of military
force to act in the face of a threat to peace.
3. Peace building
 It is a way of reducing the risk of a conflict by strengthening national capacities
for conflict management and laying a foundation for sustainable peace and
development.
4. Peace keeping
 These are operations deployed to support the implementation of a ceasefire or
peace agreement.
5. Peacemaking
 These are measures to address conflicts in progress and usually involve diplomatic
action to bring hostile parties to a negotiated agreement.
6. Conflict prevention
 These are diplomatic measures to keep intra-state or inter-state disagreements and
disputes from rising up into violent conflict.

Principles of Peace Building

The following are principles for peace building;
i. Interreligious and international cooperation are important to build genuine and lasting
peace;
ii. The highest standard in human relationships is to live for the sake of others;
iii. Human beings are essentially spiritual in their nature;
iv. There is one God, who is the creator and Parent of all humankind;

Examples of Global Peace Initiatives

The following are examples of peace initiatives across the globe;
1. The Paris Peace Settlement and the Treaty of Versailles
 It was agreed in 1919 to end the First World War between Germany and the allied
powers i.e. Britain, France, Italy and United States.
 Defeated powers like Germany were not invited. It was dominated by France,
Britain, Italy and USA.
 Based on the treaty, the allied powers decided the following;
 Germany must give up part of her territory,
 Germany must get rid of her weapons or disarm her weapons,
 Germany must reduce the size of her army,
 Germany must accept the responsibility of the war and pay for the damages
(worth 6.600 million pounds),
2. The League of Nations

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 The League of Nations was formed on 10th January, 1920 by the treaty of Versailles
to establish world peace by helping to settle misunderstandings between countries
through negotiations and arbitration.
Aims of the League of Nations
 Establishing fair labour conditions,
 improve global health,
 control global arms trade,
 protect the minority groups in Europe,

Successes of the League of Nations

 It helped to settle the Swedish-Finnish dispute over Aaland Island in 1920-21
 It guaranteed the security of Albania in 1921
 It rescued Austria from economic disaster
 It provided aid to the refugees and prevented the outbreak of war in the Balkans between
Greece and Bulgaria in 1925

Weaknesses of the League of Nations

 It failed to defend the treaty of Versailles
 It failed to pursue powerful nations not to engage in wars
 It failed to prevent the second world war which broke out in 1939

3. The United Nations

 It is an Inter-Governmental Organization established on 24th October, 1945 after
the second world war to promote international cooperation and has 193 member
states.
 It replaced the League of Nations.

Objectives of United Nations

The United Nations aimed at;
i. Maintaining international peace and security throughout the world
ii. Conflict prevention and mediation
iii. Peacemaking
iv. Peace enforcement
v. Peace building

The Role of the Organs of the United Nations

(i). The role of United Nations General Assembly

It is the main deliberative, policy making and representative organ of the United Nations and
has the following roles;

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i. It provides a unique forum for multilateral discussion of international issues like peace
and se curity;
ii. It also plays a role in peacekeeping financing (all member state share the cost with
members of the Security Council to pay the larger share)
(ii). The role of the Security Council
 It has the responsibility to determine when and where a United Nations
peacekeeping operation should be deployed through the use of diplomacy and
imposed sanctions or punishments
(iii). The role of the international Court of Justice
 it makes legal decisions where there are conflicts between countries

4. The Middle-East Peace Initiative

The Middle East has been affected by a number of conflicts like that of Israelis and
Palestinians and the following are some of the peace initiatives implemented to resolve
the scenario;
A. The Camp David Accords
 It was signed on 26th March, 1979, in Washington D.C. by Israel Prime
minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian President, Anwar al-Sadat, with
United States President Jimmy Carter as a witness.
 The treaty made Israel to agree to return the area of Sinai to Egypt as a way
of bringing peace among them.
 The treaty also made the two to agree to negotiate Palestinian autonomy
measures in the Israeli-occupied West bank and Gaza strip and this was
signed in 1993 in Oslo Accords by Yasser Arafat (Palestinian leader) and
Yitzhak Rabin (Israel Prime Minister).

B. Declaration of principle on Interim or Temporary Self-Government

arrangement (The Oslo Accords)
 It was an agreement made on 13th September, 1993 by the state government
of Israel and Palestine.
 Its main concern was to let Israel withdraw from territories of Judea,
Samaria and Gaza Strip so as to allow Palestinians to establish authority of
stand-by self-government with an aim of achieving the following
i. To put to an end of confrontation and conflict
ii. Recognize the mutual legitimate and political rights of Palestinians
iii. Strive to live in peaceful coexistence and mutual dignity and
security to achieve a just lasting and comprehensive peace
settlement and historic reconciliation through the agreed political
process.

NB: Through the treaty, as of October 1996, the Israeli troops withdrew from all
territories except for the West Bank City of Hebron. This made the Palestinians to
elect a parliament and a president (Yasser Arafat) and established their own force.

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C. The Arab Peace Initiative

 The treaty gave Israel a historical opportunity to live in peace not only with
its neighbours but also with Islamic nations as well.
 The plan which was endorsed in 2007 in Beirut offered Israel a recognition
of its right to exist and normalize its diplomatic relations in exchange for
its withdraw from Arab lands captured since 1967.
Objectives of the Plan or initiative
The plan called for;
i. Restoration of Palestine with East Jerusalem
ii. Fair solution to Palestinian refugees
iii. Restoration of Israeli-occupied territory in Southern Lebanon
D. The international Peace initiative for Syria
 The conference took place in January, 2014 in Geneva Switzerland and on
March 8th and 9th, 2014 in Australia (the Castle of Schlaining)
 It aimed at ending the Syrian civil war by bringing together the Syrian
government and the opposition to discuss steps towards a transitional
government with full executive powers.
Objectives of the initiative
i. Ceasefire by all participants of the war and demand all non-Syrian armed
forces to leave the Syrian territory.
ii. Stop the war and promote social justice like enjoyment of political,
economic and social rights to all people.
5. Peace initiatives in Somalia
 The conference occurred in January, 2004 in Nairobi, Kenya.
 The initiative aimed at forming a new Transitional Federal Government.

Results of the initiative

i. It led to the expansion of the parliament from 275 to 550 members so as to
accommodate members of an Alliance of Re-liberation of Somalia (ARS)
parliamentarians and an expanded cabinet;
ii. To let United Nations to deploy an international stabilization force from countries
that are friends of Somalia;
iii. Withdraw of Ethiopian troops from Somalia.

NB: This brought out peace as Al-Shabaab forces were forced out of the urban areas

6. Peace initiative in Democratic Republic of Congo

 Despite signing several agreements between 22 armed groups, fighting between
the Congolese army, the Federation for Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), National
Congress for the Defense of the People (CNDP) and other armed militias
continued. This then led to the formation of the Ihusi Peace Agreements.
The Ihusi Peace Agreement
 It was signed on 23rd March 2019 with Congolese rebel groups to bring peace in
the eastern region of DRC.
Its objectives

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i. Allow rebel groups to be integrated into the national army.

Successes of International Peace Initiatives

Though international peace initiatives seem not to be more effective but they managed to achieve
the following;
1. They have helped and they are helping to end conflicts and foster reconciliation through
peacekeeping operations in many countries like Namibia, Mozambique, and Guatemala
etc.
2. They have managed to prosecute Liberian and Serbian terrorists’ leaders like Charles
Taylor and Slobodan Milosevic in order to achieve justice.
3. They have managed to end famine as decline in conflicts and wars has led other
stakeholders like United Nations to engage in various programmes such as World Food
program; and Land and Agriculture to help the needy.
4. They have made other countries like South Africa, Kazakhstan etc. to surrender their
nuclear weapons program leading to world peace.
5. They have managed to protect the world’s most important natural and historic places like
Galapagos Island which has contributed to economic development through tourism.

Failures of International Peace Initiatives

Apart from fostering world peace, international peace initiatives have also affected the world
negatively in the following ways;
1. Failure to stop some world conflicts like Rwanda genocide where peacekeepers failed to
stop the majority (Hutus) to murder the minority (Tutsi).
2. They increased the cases of rape and child abuse like in Congo where peacemakers paid
women and young girls for sex and sometimes raped them.
3. They increased the cases of pandemics like Cholera as Nepal peacekeeping force was
responsible for the outbreak of Cholera in Haiti in 2010.
4. They encouraged corruption like the case of Iraq oil for food programme where the large
sums of money were channeled into personal pockets of peace keepers through the
programme though the money was meant to relieve the suffering of Iraqis.

!!!@dn2

UNIT 25: SOCIAL JUSTICE

Organizations that Promote Social Justice Internationally
There are many organizations across the globe that promote social justice and each of them has a
specific role as follows;
1. The United Nations (UN)
 It is an International Organization founded in 1945 with its headquarters in New
York, United States of America.

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 It aims at maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly

relations among nations and promotes social progress, better living standards and
human rights as people have equal rights which must be protected with respect and
justice.
 It has organs responsible to address various concerns like poverty, injustice,
illiteracy, mismanagement of the environment, wars and civil conflicts;
 It has a membership of 193 countries;
Objectives or roles of United Nations
 The organization has the following objectives;
a. Maintaining international peace and security,
b. Promoting human rights,
c. Promotes social and economic development in order to reduce
poverty,
d. Protecting the environment,
e. Providing humanitarian aid in cases of calamitous events like
famine, natural disasters and armed conflicts.

2. International Court of Justice (ICJ)

 It is a principle judicial organ of the United Nations established in June, 1945 by
the Charter (agreement) of the United Nations with its headquarters in Hague,
Netherlands.
 It is composed of 15 judges, elected for 9 year-term of office by the United Nations
General Assembly and the Security Council.
 It is assisted by Registry, composed of 60 administrative officials and temporally
staff (the Registrar and the deputy are appointed by the court for 7 year-term of
office);
Objectives or roles of the International Court of Justice
 The court plays the following dual jurisdiction;
a. It decides on disputes between states in accordance with
international law,
b. It gives advisory opinions on legal questions at the request of the
organs of the United nations or specialized agencies.

3. International Criminal Court (ICC)

 The court was established in 1948 but started its operations on July 1, 2002, when
Rome Status entered into force (Rome Status is a multilateral treaty which served
as the ICC foundation and governing document).
 It has four governing bodies: Presidency, Judiciary Divisions, Office of the
Prosecutor and Registry.
Objectives or roles of the International Criminal Court
 The court has the role or jurisdiction;
a. To prosecute individuals for the crimes of genocide, crimes against
humanity and war crimes. For instance, cases of Ugandan rebel
leader, Joseph Kony, Libyan president Muammar Gaddafi,
Sudanese president Omar Hassan al-Bashir, Ivorian president
Laurent Gbagbo etc.

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4. International Police (INTERPOL)

 It is an inter-governmental organization facilitating international police
cooperation.
 It was established in 1923 as the International Criminal Police Commission in
Vienna, Austria with the aim of combating international crime.
 It was revived after the Second World War in 1945 as the International Criminal
Police Organization (Interpol).
 It has its headquarters in Lyon, France.
 It has two governing bodies; The General Assembly and The Executive
Committee.
Objectives or roles of the International Police
 It plays the following roles
a. to ensure and promote mutual assistance between all criminal
police authorities in different member countries;
b. to establish and develop all institutions likely to contribute
effectively to the prevention and suppression of ordinary law
crimes;
c. it arrests individuals accused of war crimes and crimes against
humanity;
d. it also tracks down criminals throughout the world by
disseminating critical crime-related information;
e. provides warnings and criminal intelligence about persons who
have committed criminal offences and are likely to repeat these
crimes in other countries;
f. It also combats drug trafficking, child labour, forced prostitution
and forced labour by breaking international syndicates;
g. It also traces and recovers stolen property across international
borders.

5. Amnesty International
 It is an international grassroots organization focused on investigating and
exposing human rights abuses around the world.
Objectives or roles of Amnesty International
 The body plays the following roles;
 It engages in awareness campaigns by mobilizing public opinion to
put pressure on governments and allow the following;
a) Abolishing the death penalty,
b) Ending extra judicial executions and disappearances,
c) Ensures prison conditions meet international human rights
standards,
d) Ensures prompt and fair trial for all political prisoners,
e) Fight impurity from systems of justice,
f) End the recruitment and use of child soldiers,
g) Promote economic, social and cultural rights for
marginalized communities,

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h) Protect human rights defenders,

i) Free all prisoners of conscience,
j) Promote religious tolerance,
k) Stop torture and ill-treatment,
l) Stop unlawful killings in armed conflicts,
m) Uphold the rights of refugees, migrants and asylum seekers,
n) Protect human dignity.

The Roles of International Organizations in Promoting Social Justice

They engage in various activities so as to promote social justice as follows;
a) Monitoring social injustice in the world
 Such organizations act as watchdogs and raises concerns where abuses are taking
place so as to draw international attention for action. For example, the United
Nations maintains world peace by monitoring and intervening to solve various
problems whereas the international Police and International Criminal Court
involve themselves in monitoring human rights violations to promote justice.
b) Exposing social injustice in the world
 Such organizations make use of various platforms like media to expose human
rights violations existing in different areas around the world. These help to prevent
further violations and draw world attention so that necessary actions can be taken
to protect the victims. For instance, Amnesty International.
c) Conducting court trials for acts of social injustice
 Settles disputes between conflicting countries and passes judgment so as to
prevent powerful nations victimizing the weak ones;
 Investigates, prosecute and put to trial individuals accused of serious international
crimes so as to attain social justice.
d) Lobbying for international action against countries that promote social injustice
 International organizations may lobby for sanctions against those countries that
promote social injustice. Sanctions can take the form of isolating the country by
imposing flights and trade embargo, freezing bank accounts held in other countries
and freezing donor aid.

Successes of International Organizations in promoting Social Justice

a). Promotion of human rights; The United Nations and other international organizations have
made great achievements in raising the consciousness of human rights. Their efforts have helped
end injustices including apartheid rule in South Africa.
b). Prosecution of perpetrators of genocide and other crimes against humanity; special
tribunals were established by the UN to prosecute those accused of genocide and other crimes
against humanity in Yugoslavia and Rwanda. Many of the perpetrators are now serving jail terms.
c). Exposure of acts of social injustice; through the use of the world’s media, International
Organizations such as Amnesty International have helped to expose acts of social injustice around
the world. Some of the acts exposed include; torture and ill-treatment of prisoners, unfair trials,

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use of child soldiers, human trafficking, forced prostitution, rape, female genital mutilation and
extra-judicial executions.

Failures of International Organizations in Promoting Social Justice

a). Many civilians, including children, were murdered, raped and mutilated during civil wars in
countries such as Mozambique and Angola but none has ever been held accountable.
b). The International Criminal Court has been accused of selective justice in pursuit of cases. For
instance, most of the cases it has handled are of African Countries and some tiny European nations.
c). Member countries often defy orders given by organizations such as International Criminal
Court. For instance, countries refuse to cooperate in arresting the sitting heads of state accused of
war crimes and crimes against humanity.
d). The United Nations has failed to resolve the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians
rendering Palestinians Stateless. There are acts of social injustice in form of killings being
committed on both sides.
e). Failed to prevent the genocide in Rwanda in 1994 between the Hutu and the Tutsi where about
800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus were killed.
f). Failed to prevent the period of terror established by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia. The Khmer
Rouge introduced terror against ordinary Cambodians where almost two million people died from
diseases due to lack medicines and medical services; executions and exhaustion from over-work.

Importance of Promoting Social Justice

Promotion of social justice is important in the following ways;
 It helps to ensure that vulnerable people are protected and given the same opportunities as
others worldwide.
 It helps to rid the world of all forms of discrimination.
 It leads to the creation of a more just world where human rights are respected.
 It helps to make the world a safer place for everyone.
 It enables victims of injustice to access justice.
 It enables resources to get to the poorer areas of the world for social and economic
development.

!!!@dn2

TOPIC 26: SOCIAL SERVICES

The provision of social services is a basic factor in the improvement of the living standards of
people as lack of it worsens poverty and increases people’s dissatisfaction based on the way
taxpayer’s money is used.
Need for Safeguarding the Environment in the Provision of Social Services

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Social services exist in the environment as it has many resources needed for the provision of such
services. As such, environmental protection can help in the provision of quality and sustainable
social service as follows:
 The environment ensures sustained provision of various social services. For instance,
environmental resources like forest provide timber for roofing and furniture for the services
while land provides a space to build these social services. Water is also used in construction
of social services.
 The environment ensures proper protection of social service institutions from damage as
resources like trees around the institution acts as a wind break to prevent the roof from
being blown off.
 The environment makes the social service institutions look more attractive and user-
friendly.
Importance or Need for Caring for Social Services
Caring for social services has the following advantages;
i. It helps to ensure continued use of the social service to the next generation;
ii. It reduces further damages to the social services which in turn reduces maintenance costs
(cost saving);
iii. It helps to ensure accessibility of the services by the users;
iv. Helps to improve people’s living standards.

Critical or Important Issues Related to the Provision of Social Services

These are barriers that get in the way or the important elements that need to be focused on so as to
move forward and offer better social services. These include:

1. Type of social service

 Social service providers require to consult community members when offering the
type of social service in order to provide needed or necessary social services as
different communities requires different social services to achieve meaningful
social development.

2. Availability of social service

 Social service providers need to consider the equal distribution of social services in
all areas, rural as well as urban as their presence foster the well-being of individuals.

3. Accessibility of social service

 Accessibility is mainly concerned with the location of the available social service.
 Social service providers need to consider the fair distribution of social services.
This will enable people to be within reach of a particular social service.

4. Affordability of social services

 Affordability is the ability of people especially the poor to pay for social service.
In this case, social service providers need to make sure that their services are

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affordable to the poor. This will increase people’s chances of using and accessing
such services thereby improving their standard of living.

5. Quality of social services

 Social service providers need to adhere to the quality guidelines to maintain high
quality standards as this achieves lasting impact on people’s living standards. For
instance, materials used to build social service infrastructures have to be of the right
kind, of high quality. This will enable the service last long.

6. Care for social services

 Social service providers need to involve community members in all the stages of
the project implementation as this instills a sense of ownership among them. As
such, community members are able to care for the service by engaging themselves
in the following; guarding it from any act of vandalism, cleaning its premises,
planting flowers etc.

Effects of Critical Issues in the Provision of Social Services on Development

i. Unavailability or lack of social services compromises the general wellbeing of people and
overall social development of the society as people’s living standards cannot improve in
the absence of the social services.
ii. Unnecessary social services given to a particular community cannot bring joy to the
supposed beneficiaries and this result in the social service being under-utilized and not
being cared for by members of the community hence no contributions to alleviation of
people’s suffering and to the improvement of their living standards.
iii. Poor quality of the social service cannot achieve user satisfaction and people can be
exposed to dangerous poor services which might even lead to death if there are poor health
services.
iv. Unaffordable social services due to high cost can systematically stop the poor from using
them hence increasing the poverty levels of the already poor people. This increases the gap
between the poor and the rich in terms of the standard of living.
v. Lack of care for the social services can lead to the quick deterioration and seriously
compromise the quality of the services leading to low standard of living of the people.

The Work of Renowned or Famous People in the Provision of Social Services

The world has many people who are well known for their tremendous contributions towards the
provision of social services in their countries and internationally. Some of these are as follows:
1. Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda
He was the first Malawian president from 6 July, 1964 to May 1994 and died on 25
November, 1997 at the age of 99. He made tremendous efforts in various areas as follows:
a. He made efforts in promoting the rights of women in Malawi than any other
African leader as he founded the Chitukuko Cha Amayi M’Malawi (CCAM) to
spearhead or strengthen the social economic empowerment of women.

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b. On infrastructure, he embarked on massive infrastructure developments as he built

good roads connecting most of the districts in malawi e.g. M1, M5, Capital Hotel,
Mzuzu Hotel, Mount Soche Hotel trading under the name Malawi Hotels Limited
(Sunbird) and many others, government seat at Capitol Hill in Lilongwe, Kamuzu
International Airport. He also established Malawi Development Corporation
(MDC) to foster development in the country and Capital City Development
Corporation (CCDC) to lead in the development of new capital city in Lilongwe.
c. In health sector, Kamuzu constructed health infrastructures in all areas of the
country like Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital, Kamuzu Central Hospital, districts
and health centres across the country.
d. In education sector, Kamuzu Banda worked tirelessly to provide and maintain
quality education as he personally founded the Kamuzu Academy, he also
constructed University of Malawi (having five constituent colleges namely
Chancellor College, Malawi Polytechnic, Kamuzu College of Nursing, Bunda
College of Agriculture (now LUANAR) and College of Medicine. He also built
technical colleges, teachers’ training colleges and various districts boarding
schools.
e. In agricultural sector, he made the country food self-sufficient as he established
colleges to train extension workers like Natural Resources College to assist farmers
in modern methods of farming.

NB: He also fostered unity among Malawians by downplaying tribal

connotations. Thus despite his poor record on human rights due to his harsh
treatment, he is still remembered as a visionary leader who transformed Malawi
during his 30 year-rule.

2. Winnie Madikizela Mandela

 She was born on 26th September, 1936 and was married to Nelson Mandela (first
black South African President).
 She is a South African activist and politician who had held various government
positions and also headed the African National Congress Women’s League and
managed to achieve the following;
i. She fought against Apartheid as she emerged as a leading opponent of the
white minority government during the later years of her husband’s
imprisonment (August 1963 to February 1990);
ii. She also organized local clinics and campaigned actively for equal rights
hence she was promoted by African National Congress (ANC) as a symbol
of its struggle against Apartheid.

3. Henry Dunant
 He was a businessman, born in Geneva, Switzerland on 8th May, 1828. His
character and education encouraged him to help the distressed and the unfortunate
and to be concerned about social work hence achieved the following;
 He wrote a book in 1862 entitled “A memory of Solferino”, in which he put
forward his ideas to foster the creation of relief societies in each and every country
for the purpose of giving care to the wounded in wartime. This resulted in the

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formation of the Red Cross Society aiming at providing humanitarian work across
the globe.
NB: The writing of his book, A Memory of Solferino, was influenced by the
events he witnessed (at a place called Solferino) during a war between Italian
and French troops against Austrian soldiers.

4. Jairos Jiri
 He was a generous man from Zimbabwe who worked hard to relieve the suffering
of the disabled in his country as he founded the Jairos Jiri Association for
Rehabilitation of the Disabled and the Blind which was formed in 1950. Such
people were given opportunities to engage in various technical works hence the
centre became a prime source of tourists in 1960s.

5. Mother Teresa
 She was a Roman Catholic nun, who devoted her life to caring for the poorest and
was born in 1910 of Albanian parents and died on 5th September, 1997.
 She dedicated her life to helping the poorest of the poor in India as she established
the order of nuns called “Missionaries of Charity in Calcutta” (the sisters fed,
sheltered and cared for the sick).
 The sisters also helped the dying by looking after them in clean and loving
surroundings so they could die with dignity.
 Apart from providing health care facilities, orphanages and schools, she also
established homes for the poor and the lepers, a house in Rome for the alcoholics,
drug addicts and the homeless. She also established soup kitchens, dispensaries
and mobile clinics.

6. Jimmy Carter
He was the president of the United States of America from 1977 to 1981 who was involved
in promotion of social justice, peace and human rights through the non-profit Carter Center
in Atlanta, USA.
 He established the Carter Center in 1982 to promote democracy, mediate and
prevent conflicts and monitor the electoral process in support of free and fair
elections. The Carter Center also works to improve global health through the
control and eradication of diseases like Guinea worm, river blindness, malaria etc.
It also works to diminish the stigma of mental illnesses and improve nutrition
through increased crop production in Africa.
 Jimmy and his wife lead the Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter Work Project for Habitat
for Humanity International which aims at eliminating sub-standard housing by
providing people with affordable housing.

7. Florence Nightingale
She was born in Italy on 12th May, 1820 and died in August 13, 1910 and was involved in
philanthropic work, ministering to the ill and the poor people in villages. She is known as
a pioneer of nursing and a reformer of hospital sanitation as she achieved the following;
 She created more patient services that contributed to improvement in the quality
of hospital sanitation. She also instituted an invalid kitchen, classroom and a library

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for patients’ intellectual stimulation and entertainment and this contributed to the
world’s health care reforms.
 Nightingale made it a mission to improve hygiene practices which significantly
lowered the death rate in hospitals.
 She was also called to assist the British soldiers at Crimea when Britain was at war
with Russia. She assisted the British wounded soldiers by improving their
sanitation and hygiene.
 She also established St. Thomas’ Hospital and the Nightingale training school for
nurses.

!!!@dn2

TOPIC 27: WORLD COOPERATION

 Cooperation is an act of working together for a common good or benefit.
 World cooperation refers to the interaction of persons or groups representing various
nations in pursuing a common goal.
 World cooperation is also called International Cooperation or Global Cooperation.
NB: For cooperation to work, everyone has to be an active member of the team and do what
they agree.
Areas for World Cooperation
Globally, there are issues and challenges which cannot be dealt with by an individual country, but
requires concerted or combined effort of the international community. Such global issues and
challenges include;
i. Epidemics; e.g. HIV/AIDS, Meningitis, Ebola
ii. Global poverty
iii. Refugee crisis
iv. International conflicts, e.g. Syria, Iraq, Somalia, Nigeria, Central African Republic,
Afghanistan, Sudan as well as South Sudan
v. Terrorism; terrorist groups include; Taliban, Boko Haram, ISIS, Al-Qaeda
vi. Weapon of mass destruction (WMD)
vii. Climate change
viii. Loss of biodiversity (extinction or depletion of plants and animal species)
ix. World population growth

Factors that Foster World Cooperation

1. Establishment of international organizations
Such organizations are established to deal with some of the global challenges like taking
action and providing a forum for its members to express their views on global issues e.g.
peace and security, relations among nations, development, human rights, environmental
sustainability etc.

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2. International agreements on specific issues (conventions)

Establishment and acceptance of international treaties or agreements, either binding or
non-binding e.g. conventions and declarations enables countries to have the same agenda
or say on global issues like discriminations, child abuses, climate change etc.

3. Economic interdependence through world trade

Existence of international trade through various organizations like COMESA, AU, World
Trade Organization (WTO) and others encourage people in various countries to coordinate
so as to progress and deal with challenges affecting their economic issues.

4. Common political ideologies

Countries which share common political ideologies tend to cooperate with each other to
deal with the challenges affecting them; for example, Communist China, Laos, Vietnam
and Cuba cooperate with each other just like other democracies like USA, UK, Malawi
and Botswana.

5. Organized sporting activities

Sporting activities like World Cup, Olympic Games and others demonstrate the value of
international friendship and cooperation among various participating athletes and
countries they represent. Despite holding different ideologies, they participate in a
peaceful and friendly way.

Prominent Personalities that have Contributed in Facilitating World Cooperation

The following persons played a role in facilitating world cooperation;

1. Martin Luther King Junior

 He was an African-American Baptist minister, born on 15th January, 1929 and was
assassinated in 1968.
His achievements
i. He fought for racial equality as he played a role in the advancement of civil
rights using non-violent civil disobedience based on Christian beliefs and
Mahatma Gandhi’s principle. This led to a pass of legislation to end racial
segregation in public facilities and expansion of voting rights (between
1950-1965);
ii. He also organized and led a year-long 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott in
protest of segregated seating policy by the bus companies hence he became
the leader of the National Black Civil Rights Movement;
NB: He is remembered for his fight for social justice and peace for all
through non-violence. As such, his birth day is celebrated as a national
holiday in United States of America.
2. Mahatma Gandhi
 He was born in 1869 to a Hindu Merchant Caste family in Coastal Gujarat in
Western India.
 He studied law at the Inner Temple, London and started working as an expatriate
lawyer for a law film in South Africa from 1893-1914.

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His achievements
i. He explored methods of peaceful protest called “Satyagraha” meaning
“holding the truth.” He first employed non-violent civil disobedience in
the resident Indian Communities in South Africa where he first
experienced racial segregation. He campaigned for the rights of
immigrants Indians in South Africa.
ii. When his contract ended in 1915, he returned to India where he took a
leading role against struggle for independence from Britain.
iii. In India, he organized peasants, farmers and urban labourers to protest
against excessive land-tax and discrimination;
iv. As a leader of India National Congress, he led national wide campaigns
for easing poverty, expanding women’s rights, building religious and
ethnic amity, ending untouchability, and achieving Swaraj (self-rule).
NB: Though he was assassinated, but he is remembered for bringing
independence and promotion of non-violence in India. As such, 2nd October
is set as a public holiday in honor and respect of him.
3. Henry Kissinger
 He was an American diplomat and political scientist, born on May 27, 1923 in
Germany.
 He fled to United States in fear of Nazi persecution and worked as national security
advisor and secretary of state during the time of president Richard Nixon and
Gerard Ford of United States.
His achievements
i. He extended the policy of “détente” which led to relaxation of United
States-Soviet Union Tension. He also led talks in the opening of relations
between US and China.
ii. He also negotiated the Paris Peace Accord ending American involvement
in the war of Vietnam.
NB: He is remembered as he believed that America needed to change its
international relations policy and make friends with other world countries.
4. Kwame Nkrumah
 He was born in 1909 in Ghana.
 He studied economics and sociology at Liverpool, England.
 He became the first Ghanaian leader from 1951-1966 and died in 1972.
His achievements
i. In London, he was active in the Pan-African Movement which demanded
freedom and independence for African colonies;
ii. Back home, he founded the Convention of People’s Party in 1949 which
led Ghana to independence in 1957;
iii. He had an idea of uniting Africa which led to the formation of Organization
of African Unity (OAU) currently known as African Union (AU).
NB: He is remembered as he became an international symbol for freedom as the leader of the
first black African country to shake off the chains of power of colonial rule and British colonies
in Africa.

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NB: In the independence Day speech of 6th March,1957 he said, “We have won and again
rededicate ourselves…. our independence is meaningless unless it is linked up with the total
liberation of Africa.”

5. Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda

 He was born on 14th May, 1898 in Kasungu.
 He studied medicine in United States and became a Malawian leader from 1966-
1994.
His achievement
i. He advocated for a policy of contact and dialogue as he believed that
disputes and problems can only be solved through discussions, dialogue,
negotiations and arbitration.
NB: He is remembered as a destroyer of federation; Malawi’s first post-
colonial ruler; various developments he laid; he laid cornerstone policy at
home of unity, loyalty, obedience and discipline; laid policy on contact and
dialogue when dealing with Apartheid in South Africa.
6. Desmond Tutu
 He was born in 1931.
 He is a South African social rights activist and a retired Anglican Arch-Bishop
who opposed the apartheid.
 He used his position to good effect, working to achieve greater racial harmony and
justice worldwide.
His achievements
i. He established the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to allow those
who committed atrocities (acts of violence) during white rule to speak
without fear of punishment. This reduced inter-racial tension.
ii. He also spoke against injustice and oppression worldwide.
iii. He has campaigned to fight HIV/AIDS pandemic, tuberculosis, poverty,
racism and sexism.
iv. Continues to work on issues of democracy, freedom and human rights.
NB: He is remembered much due to a critical role he played in the
reconciliation process.
7. Nelson Mandela
 He was born in 1918.
 He was a South African Anti-Apartheid revolutionary, politician and
philanthropist (goodhearted person) who served as a South African president.
His achievements
i. He helped in organizing the peaceful African National Congress’s defiance
campaign. This led to his arrest and thrown into prison where he stayed for
27 years.
ii. When he was released and ascended into leadership, he did not revenge to
the whites for the Apartheid, rather he worked hard to achieve
reconciliation among the different races by establishing a government of
national unity by inviting other political parties to join his cabinet.

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iii. He also created the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate the
past human rights abuses.
iv. He also acted as a mediator between Libya and United Kingdom in the Pan
AM Flight 103 bombing trial.
NB: In South Africa, he is recognized as Madiba or Tata (father) while
internationally, he is considered as the greatest activist and reconciliatory of
all times.
Nelson Mandela, Rivonia Trial Speech, 1964
NB: “I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against white domination, and
I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free
society in which all persons will live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an
ideal for which I hope to live for and to see realized. But, my Lord, if it needs be, it is an ideal
for which I am prepared to die for.”

International Intervention to Promote and Preserve World Cooperation

There are over 30 organizations across the globe that promote world cooperation as follows;
1. United Nations
Intergovernmental Organization;
Established on 24th October, 1945 just after the Second World War;
It replaced the League of Nations;

Objectives of the UN
Maintain international peace and security,
Promote human rights,
Fostering social and economic development,
Protecting the environment,
Providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine, natural disaster and armed conflicts.

Organs of the UN
(a). The General Assembly (where main deliberations take place);
(b), The Security Council (decides on certain resolutions for peace);
(c). The economic and social council (promote international economic and social cooperation and
development);
(d). The Secretariat (for providing studies, information and facilities needed by the UN);
(e). International Court of Justice (judicial organ);
(f). The UN Trusteeship council (administering trust territories);
(g). UN system agencies; e.g. World Health Organization (WHO); World Food Program (WFP);
UNESCO; UNICEF and many more.

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2. The African Union (formerly known as Organization of African Unity (OAU)

The OAU was established on 25 May, 1963 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

32 African countries signed the agreement

Objectives of the OAU

 To promote unity and solidarity among African States;
 To eradicate all forms of colonialism from Africa;
 To promote international cooperation;
 To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of African countries;
NB: The OAU initiatives paved the way for the formation of the African Union (AU);
The AU was established on 26th May, 2001 and launched on 9th July, 2002 to replace the
OAU at the Durban Summit.
It has 54 members except Morocco.
It is modelled after European Union and its headquarters is in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Objectives of African Union

a). to achieve greater unity and solidarity between African countries and the people of Africa;
b). to defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of its member states;
c). to accelerate the political and socio-economic integration of the continent;
d). to promote and defend African common positions on issues of interest to the continent and its
people;
e). to encourage international cooperation;
f). to promote peace, security and stability on the continent;
g). to promote democratic principles and institutions, popular participation and good governance;
h). to promote and protect human rights in accordance with African Charter on human rights;
i). to work with relevant international partners in the eradication of preventable diseases and
promotion of good health on the continent;
j). to advance development of the continent by promoting research in all fields particularly in
science and technology;
k). to promote sustainable development at the economic, social and cultural levels;
l). to promote cooperation in all field of human activity to raise the living standards of African
people.

Organs of African Union

a). The Assembly;

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 Supreme organ of the union;

 Composed of Heads of State and Government;
 Makes most important decisions of the body;
b). The Executive Council
 Composed of Ministers from member countries;
 Prepares decisions of the Assembly;
c). The Commission
 Composed of the chairperson, the deputy chairperson, staff members, eight commissioners;
each commissioner responsible to a portfolio;
 It is the AU secretariat responsible for the day to day management of the AU;
d). The Permanent Representatives Committee
 Composed of representatives from member states (Ambassadors);
 Prepares work of the executive council;

e). Peace and Security Council (PSC)

f). Pan-African Parliament
 Consist of 265 members elected by the national legislature of AU member states;
 Ensures full participation of African people in governance, development and economic
integration;

g). The Economic, Social and Cultural Council (ECOSOCC)

 This is an advisory organ composed of social and professional groups; a civil society
consultative body;

h). The Court of Justice

i). Specialized technical committees
 They address the following issues;
 Rural economy and agricultural matters;
 Monetary and financial affairs;
 Trade custom and immigration matters;
 Industry, science and technology;
 Energy, natural resources and environment;
 Transport, communication and tourism;
 Health, labour and social affairs;
 Education, culture and human resources;

Other Regional Organizations

a). The Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)
 Formed on 8th August, 1967 based on the principle of peace.
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 Founded by Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.

 It has now expanded and has ten members; countries located in the South East Asia.
Aims
 Accelerate economic growth, social progress and socio-cultural evolution among its
members;
 Promote regional peace and stability.

b). The Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD)

 It is a trade organization between eight countries in Eastern Africa;
 It includes countries from the horn of Africa, Nile Valley and the African Great Lakes.
 Member countries include;
 Djibouti
 Ethiopia
 Somalia
 Eritrea
 Sudan
 South Sudan
 Kenya
 Uganda
Objectives
 Promote joint development strategies;
 Promote free movement of goods, services and people within the region;
 Create an enabling environment for foreign and domestic trade and investment;
 Achieve regional food security, combat drought and other natural and man-made disasters;
 Mobilize resources for the implementation of programs;
 Facilitate, promote and strengthen cooperation in research, development and application
in science and technology;
 Promote peace and stability in the region;
 Develop and improve infrastructures in areas of transport, communication and energy in
the region.

Importance of World Cooperation

World cooperation is significant as it;
a) Helps to promote social and economic development through international trade,
b) Makes it easier for nations to solve problems as they work together,
c) Improves international understanding through interaction with people of different races,
cultures and nationalities as they work together,
d) Promotes peace as people live peacefully with each other.

!!!@dn2

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