GST 111 EDWARD CARES

STATUS: REQUIRED

CREDIT UNITS: 2

LECTURE DAY: THURSDAY

LECTURE TIME: 12 – 2PM

LECTURER: DR. FLORENCE CHIKA NWOSU

DEPARTMENT: LINGUISTICS AND NIGERIAN LANGUAGES, FACULTY OF

ARTS
 MODULE

Listening Skills is one of the vibrant topics in GST 111. It is designed to

help the learner develop the communication skills of listening. It
critically analyse listening skills as aspects of grammatical acquisition in
language learning especially in the second language (L2) learning
situation. It highlights how best a learner can comprehend aspects of
grammar through the use of appropriate listening skills. Among the
areas of concentration of this topic are: definition of listening skill,
listening communication processes, principles of effective listening,
barriers to effective listening, process of listening, listening types, and
purpose and role of listening.
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the teaching and learning, student should be able to:

i. itemise the principles of effective listening skill;

ii. identify the types and levels of listening;
iii. enumerate the various listening communication processes; and
iv. list factors that inhibit effective listening skill;
 AIM

This course aimed to:

i. demonstrate the principles of effective listening skill;

ii. examine the types and levels of listening;
iii. highlight the various listening communication processes; and
iv. identify the factors that inhibit effective listening skill;
 TITLE

LISTENING SKILLS
 INTRODUCTION

Listening is taken for granted mainly because people fail to differentiate

between the two concepts of hearing and listening. They also forget the
fact that listening requires more than the hearing of speech sounds.
Hearing does not require much effort since the auditory organs are not
impaired for the sound waves to pass through. Hearing is the mere
process by which sound wave are received and relayed along the
nervous system of the ear. Hearing covers picking out all forms of sound
around us irrespective of the source of the sound. Listening on the
other hand, is the process of directing attention to the sound contrasts
produced by the human organs of speech and their sequences. Beyond
sounds, listening is the ability to differentiate between the dictionary
meaning of words and the meaning words acquire when used in
connected speech.
 DEFINITION OF LISTENING SKILLS

Listening skills is the ability to pay undivided attention to utterances and

effectively interpret what was said. Listening skills encompasses
receiving sounds, understanding the message conveyed in the sounds
that is heard, evaluating the message, and responding to it.
 TYPES OF LISTENING
• ACTIVE LISTENING
• PASSIVE LISTENING
LISTENING COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Information Transmitter Noise

source Source

Destination
Receiver
ACTIVE LISTENING VERSUS PASSIVE
LISTENING
• Active Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret
messages in the communication process.

• Passive listening is tantamount to hearing because it does not require

concentration unlike active listening.
Principles of Effective Listening

• Things to do to enhance your listening ability include the following:

1. Stop talking
2. Prepare Yourself to Listen by Relaxing
3. Put the Speaker at Ease
4. Ignore Distractions
5. Empathise: Try to understand the other person’s point of view
6. Be patient
7. Listen to the tone, pitch and volume for emphasized parts
8. Watch out for the Non-Verbal Communication Aspects
Barriers to Effective Listening

• Listening to more than one conversation at a time

• Lack of interest in the topic of discussion
• Lack of interest in the speaker.
Meaning, Nature and Characteristics of Listening

Listening is one of the four communicative skills of language, used most

often in our daily lives than the other three skills of speaking, reading
and writing.
PROCESS OF LISTENING
• Predicting what the talk is about.
• Guessing the contextual meaning of unfamiliar words and phrases.
• Identifying and retaining relevant points.
• Recognizing discourse markers and cohesive devices.
• Understanding the speaker’s inferred meaning and attitude to what
he is saying.
• Separating facts from opinions, and
• Understanding the speaker’s pattern of thinking and presentation
Types of Listening

1. Attitudinal Listening: The listener must be able to develop positive

attitude toward the subject matter of the speech
2. Appreciative Listening: The listener here goes ahead to infer the
mood of the speaker and see how the speaker makes his words
have effect on his intended meaning. Here you watch out for the
tune/intonation of the speaker for that is what will inform you the
mood of the speaker.
3. Analytical/Critical Listening: This involves listening to explicitly
stated points and using the point and their contents to arrive at
other points in other discourse situations
Purpose and Role of Listening in Verbal
Communication
1. Listening for information Processing
2. Listening to Conversations
3. Listening for Taking Directions
4. Listening for Inferences
5. Listening to Narrations
6. Listening to an Arguments
7. Listening to an Advertisement
8. Listening for Note Taking
Listening in the ESL (English as Second Language)
Classroom Situation
• The listener needs to be trained to enhance his listening ability
especially in the English for Secondary Language user’s (ESL) case. The
major reason being that some sounds in the foreign language are not
present in our languages, using Nigeria learners as example. A learner
in this case tends to mistake the foreign sound he hears for the
familiar sound in his own native language.
Conclusion
• Listeners must first and foremost develop auditory discrimination
among sounds, tones, stress, intonation, words and sentences.
Auditory discrimination is an important aspect of listening. This is for
the fact that it aids general comprehension of listening types,
purposes, processes and aims. Listening is not only hearing. It goes
beyond hearing to paying attention to cogent message, information,
argument directions, instructions, etc.
 GST 111

STATUS: REQUIRED

CREDIT UNITS: 2

LECTURE DAY: THURSDAY

LECTURE TIME: 12 – 2PM

LECTURER: DR. FLORENCE CHIKA NWOSU

DEPARTMENT: LINGUISTICS AND NIGERIAN LANGUAGES,

FACULTY OF ARTS
 MODULE
This topic on GST 111 compliments the fact that languages of
the world to an extent demonstrate grammar specificity.
English language shows some exceptional characteristics
which differentiate it from what we have in Nigerian
languages for example. As a result of language specifics
existing in the linguistic backgrounds of English and Nigerian
languages, native speakers of any of the Nigerian languages
tend to encounter challenges in speaking skills in English.
Therefore, this section of the course in GST 111 is intended
to alleviate the difficulties non native speakers of English may
encounter in mastering and displaying effective speaking skills
in the use of the vocabulary and grammar of the English
language. This section concentrates on sound system of
English, stress pattern of English, intonation in English, and
guidelines for effective speaking skills.
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the teaching and learning, student should be

able to:

i. differentiate between English letters of alphabet and the

speech sounds;
ii. itemise the major classes of English speech sounds;
iii. pronounce English words with no or with less mother
tongue interference;
iv. demonstrate significant English accent in spoken texts with
minimal mother tongue interference; and
v. highlight the guidelines to effective speaking skills.
 AIM
This course aimed to:

i. explore the differences that exist between English letters

of alphabet and the speech sounds;
ii. identify the major classes of English speech sounds;
iii. determine how English words can be used by the learners
of English with no or with less mother tongue
interference;
iv. discuss measures to take by learners of English in
incorporating English accent in their spoken English with
minimal mother tongue interference.; and
v. examine the guidelines to effective speaking skills.
 TITLE

SPEAKING SKILLs
 INTRODUCTION

There is no gainsaying that languages of the world share certain similarities

such as having letters of alphabet, speech sounds, word classes, vocabulary
and grammar, and that letters of alphabet of any language is used in the
formation of its words while the speech sounds are for the pronunciation
of words. Nonetheless, every language has its phonotactics or the rules of
grammar that guide its vocabulary and grammatical construction. This
means that the way features in language are harnessed differ from
language to language. For example, unlike English language, Nigerian
languages such as Yoruba and Igbo are one to one correspondence, that is,
the way a word is spelt in Igbo and Yoruba is the way it is pronounced but
the way a word is spelt in English may not be the way it is pronounced.
Igbo has 36 letters of alphabet, so also the number of its speech sounds;
Yoruba has 25 letters of alphabet, so also its speech sounds; but English has
26 letters of Alphabet with 44 speech sounds. Igbo, Yoruba and many
other Nigerian language are tonal languages while English is stress and
intonationally patterned, These identified features made the learning and
usage of English a bit complex to the native Nigerian language speakers.
We are going to explore the sounds of English and its classification, stress
and intonation patterns in English, with the aim of lessening the level of
difficulty Nigerian learners of English encounter in the usage of English.
 PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM OF ENGLISH

The phonological system of English is divided into two broad

types. The include:
Segmental
Suprasegmental

The segmental system encompasses the sound system of

English while the suprasegmental covers the stress and
intonation aspects.
 SEGMENTAL SYSTEM

All speech sounds result from air being somehow

obstructed or modified within the vocal tract. The
obstruction or modification of the air involves three
processes working together.
These processes
iv.
are:
highlight the guidelines to effective
The Airstream process
speaking skills.

The Phonation process

The Oro-nasal process

The airstream process tells the sources of the air that is

used in producing sounds in language; phonation process
tells when a sound is voiced or voiceless; and oro-nasal
process tells if a sound is an oral or nasal sound.
Articulatory Phonetics is that branch of Phonetics that
studies the production of human sounds made with the
organs of speech.
All speech sounds are made within the human organs of
speech provided the human vocal tract is capable of
producing it and the human ear is capable of hearing it.
English speech sounds are made by manipulating air as it
is exhaled from the lungs. The air that pushes the
produced sounds may or may not encounter certain
constrictions or blockage. Vowel sounds of English are
classified as oral sounds because they are produced
without any form of constriction of the airstream in the
oral cavity, but with rigorous obstruction mounted around
the larynx (i.e. the Adam’s apple), which causes the
vibration of the vocal chords. The vibration of the vocal
folds results to the vowel sounds being voiced.
On the other hand, consonant sounds of English are
produced with obstructions which can be complete or
partial. The blockage becomes complete, when two
articulators come together to produce sound without
any available space for air to escape until the sound is
produced as in the case of stops/plosives. While the
obstruction can iv. be partial
highlight if air can
the guidelines escape while two
to effective
speaking skills.
organs of speech meet to produce sounds as in the
case of fricatives and affricates and some others.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS OF ENGLISH

Sounds of English are 44 in number. They are divided into two,

which are;

Vowel
Consonant
iv. highlight the guidelines to effective
Vowel sounds are 20speaking
whileskills.
consonant sounds are
24 in number.
The 20 vowel sounds are divided into two; monothongs and
diphthongs. The monothongs are 12 in number while the
diphthongs are eight. The monothongs are sub-divided into
short and long vowels. The short vowels are 7 while the long
ones are 5 in number. All the vowels are voiced.
The 24 consonant sounds on the other hand, are classified as
either voiced or voiceless. They are also classified based on
their place and manner of articulations.
 The Monothongs EDWARD CARES

/i:/, /ɪ/, /ɛ/, /æ/, /a:/, /ɔ/, /ɔ:/, /ʋ/, /u:/, /ɜ:/, /ə/, /ʌ/

The Shor Vowels

/ɪ/, /ɛ/, /æ/, /ɔ/, /ʋ/, /ə/, /ʌ/

The Long Vowels

/i:/, /a:/, /ɔ:/,/u:/, /ɜ:/
In order for the non natives of English to attain EDWARD CARES
proficiency in the use of the vowels of English, the
vowels of English shall be listed and their pronunciations
be exemplified in words.
The vowels that should be pronounced as /i:/when found
in English words are:
‘ea’ as in team, cheap, stream, lead, read, leak, please,
meal, sea, mean, etc.
‘ee’ as in keep, sleep, seed, weed, week, jeep, need, see,
meet, knee, etc.
‘ei’ as in conceive, deceive, receive, perceive, etc.
‘ie’ as in belief, field etc.
‘ua’ quay, etc.
‘i’ as in police, machine, pizza, liter, meter, system, busy,
pity, sunny, key, etc.
‘e’ as in complete, me, be, eve, friend, said, etc.
/i/ are found in words like, is, sit, hit, sip, busy, big EDWARD CARES
England, myth, this, with, if, think, kiss, etc
/e/or /ɛ/ in words like head, bed, sect, shed, any, length,
leopard, etc.
/æ/ as in pan, man, lad, slab, cat, sat, etc.
/a:/ as in park, car, hard, arm, heart, hearth, clark, pass, calm,
aunt, march, etc
/ɒ/ as in dog, pot, dot, hot, holiday, what, cough, knowledge,
etc
/ɔ:/ fork, war, warm, law, court, hurt, before, etc.
/ʋ/ as in full, look, book, woman, put, foot, would, should, etc.
/u:/ as in who, food, music, you, new, boot, to, too, soup,
group, do, move, rule, chew, blue, shoe, juice etc.
/ɜ:/ as in girl, birth, heard, word, world, work, her, earth, bird,
church, journey etc.
/ə/ as in about, around, Lagos, announce, the, us, above,
famous, colour, doctor, figure, etc.
/ʌ/ as in son, sun, cut, fuck, luck, blood, rough, does, love, etc.
 Diphthongs EDWARD CARES

Diphthongs are vowel sounds that are formed by the combination of

two vowels in a syllable, in which the sound begins as one vowel and
moves towards another. They can also be defined a s gliding vowels,
which are created when a speaker glides from one vowel sound into
another.
There are eight diphthongs in English, which are:

/aʋ/ as in shout, loud, cow, town, bow, etc.

/aɪ/ as in sky, my, lie, nine, side, light, might, buy, by, rice, like, etc.
/ɔɪ/ as in soil, coin, loin, toy, joy, boy, oil, voice, etc.
/əʋ/ as in go, goat, slow, boat, home, etc.
/eɪ/ as same, game, play, cain, make, etc.
/eə/ as in air, hair, there, care, ear, bear, claire, heir, etc
/iə/ as in here, deer, fear
/ʋə/ as in poor, tour, sure, pure
 CONSONANT SOUNDS OF ENGLISH EDWARD CARES

Unlike vowels, consonant sounds are produced with either

complete or partial constriction of air in the oral and in the
nasal cavities. Consonant sounds are either voiced or
voiceless. The consonant sounds that are voiced are fifteen
(15) in number while the voiceless consonants are nine (9) in
number.
The voiced consonants are:
/b/, /d/, /g/, /v/, /ð/, /z/, /ʒ/, /ʤ/, /l/, /r/, /w/, /j/, /m/, /n/,
/ŋ/.

The voiceless ones are:

/p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, /θ/, /s/, /ʃ/, /h/, /ʧ/.
The following are the adjectival description of CARES
EDWARD the
consonant sounds and their examples in words:
/p/ voiceless bilabial stop/plosive paul, pink, pan
/b/ voiced bilabial stop/plosive back, burn, ball
/t/ voiceless alveolar stop/plosive tin, truck, tap
/d/ voiced alveolar stop/plosive dog, dine, day
/k/ voiceless velar stop/plosive king, sack, care
/g/ voiced velar stop/plosive gun, guy, group
EDWARD CARES

/ʧ/ voiceless palato-alveolar affricate chin, chalk,

/ʤ/ voiced palato-alveolar affricate joy, George
/f/ voiceless alveolar fricative fan, five, fun
/v/ voiced s alveolar fricative vow, van, volvo
/θ/ voiceless dental fricative thing, think
/ð/ voiced dental fricative mother, father
/s/ voiceless alveolar fricative sin, sake, socks
/z/ voiced alveolar fricative zinc, zion, songs
/ʃ/ voiceless palato-alveolar fricative sure, should,
chalet, champagne
/ʒ/ voiced palato-alveolar fricative pleasure, measure,
genre, vision, garage
/h/ voiceless glottal fricative hope, rehearsal
EDWARD CARES

/m/ voiced bilabial nasal might, make, must

/n/ voiced alveolar nasal noise, name, snake
/ŋ/ voiced velar nasal sing, king, crying
/l/ voice alveolar lateral long, last, like
/r/ voiced post-alveolar continuant rice, grace
/w/ voiced bilabial approximant work, week
/j/ voiced palatal you, university urine
 AUTOSEGMENTAL SYSTEMEDWARD CARES

The autosegmental aspects to consider

include:

 Stress
Intonation
 STRESS EDWARD CARES

When producing a word, a part of the word is usually heard to be

louder than the other and a part is spoken with greater energy
than the rest. It is the loudness and greater force applied to a part
of a word that is called STRESS.
Application of stress at the right place is very important in spoken
English because, stress determines the meaning of what one says.
A good knowledge of Syllable also, is prerequisite to a good
understanding and mastery of Stress in spoken English.
A syllable can be defined as a unit of pronunciation having one
vowel sound, with or without surrounding consonants, forming
the whole or a part of a word.
Stress usually coincides with chest pulse when an utterance is
made.
Every stressed part has a vowel segment as its nucleus. EDWARD CARES

TYPES OF STRESS IN ENGLISH

They are three, namely

 Primary stress
Secondary stress
Weak stress/unstressed syllable

Primary stress is the syllable with the most emphasis in a word.

Its pitch is usually louder, longer and higher.

Secondary stress is the syllable with lesser emphasis than primary

stress. It is usually quiet and short.

Weak/Unstressed syllable is usually shorter and lower than

primary and secondary stress syllables. It is marked by the absence
of any type of prominence.
Examples: EDWARD CARES

One word syllables: ˈcome, ˈman, ˈsick, go, ˈdance,

ˈland.
Two syllable words: ˈleader, ˈstudent, ˈpower, ˈ ˈ
ˈjourney, ˈmadam, aˈbout, ˈtable,
aˈcross.
Three word syllable: inˈfection, aˈttention, ˈlimited, ˈ
ˈhappily, ˈcelebrate, ˈsilently
Four syllable words: examiˈnation, inauguˈration,
acaˈdemy, aˈgility, achieˈvable
Five word syllable: elecˈtricity, globaliˈzation
When more than one syllable is stressed in one word,
EDWARD CARES

then it means that one is primary stress and the other

secondary stress.

Examples:
ˌindeˈpendence
ˌeduˈcation
Stress is also used to differentiate words EDWARD
with CARES
the
same spelling but different grammatical functions.
For instance, stress placement at a particular part of
the word determines the correct pronunciation of the
word as well as the intended meaning of the word.
For example:
Noun Verb
ˈconvert conˈvert
ˈimport imˈport
ˈexport exˈport
ˈextract exˈtract
ˈincrease inˈcrease
 INTONATION EDWARD CARES

Intonation is used to describe the fall and rise of pitch in

speech. It can also be referred to as variation in speech.

There are tow basic tunes in English. These tunes include

Falling tune [↘]
Rising tune [↗]
Wale (2001, p. 221) says that “intonation is used to convey
attitudinal meaning, illocutionary force, grammatical
structure and information value”. This means that intonation
conveys the mood of the speaker to his audience.
 EDWARD CARES
USES OF THE BASIC TUNES IN ENGLISH

Falling Tune:

Falling tune is used to mark declaratives/statement.

For instance,
 We will have lecture in the morning↘
 They are dancing↘

Falling tune also accompanies imperative and exclamation.

Example,
Come out!↘
Eat your food now!↘
 RISING TUNE EDWARD CARES

Among the functions of rising tune include:

Rising tune is used to make polite requests

Examples:
Give me that cup please.↗
Could you stand in in class for me today please?↗

Rising tune is also used to ask questions that demand Yes/No

responses.
Examples:
Is that your house?↗
Are you going to school tomorrow?↗
You don’t like beans. Do you?↗
 Guidelines to Effective Speaking Skills
EDWARD CARES

In view of the subject matters discussed above, there is need

to inculcate the following but not the least habits for
effective performance in English usage:

appropriate use of the English past tense marker ‘–ed’;

appropriate use of the English plural maker ‘s’;
avoidance of mother-tongue interference in the use of
sound /h/. For instance, the omission of ‘h’ in words
like hospital, hope, happy, hot, etc;
appropriate use of article ‘a’ and ‘an’. For instance, we
should focus on the sound the letter represents
instead of on the initial letter of the word. Example, ‘a
European’ instead of ‘an European’
er/or are pronounced as an unstressed or weak EDWARD CARES

vowel /ə/ in words like sister, doctor, designer,

player, sailor, etc.;
 the comparative and superlative markers ‘er’ and est’
are pronounced as /ə/ and ‘ist’ respectively and not as
‘a’ and ‘ɛst’;
 some consonants are silent in certain environments.
These sounds are not pronounced in words where they
exist. For instance, the underlined sounds are not
pronounced in the following words:
debt, subtle, doubt, lamb, bomb, womb, plumber, knee,
knight, gnash, gnaw, gnat, half, should, palm, folk, yolk,
almond, walk, fasten, apostle, wrestle, listen, challet,
whistle, Christmas, hasten, handsome, wrist, wrestle,
pneumonia, cupboard, receipt; etc.;
 the pronunciation of ‘p’ is optional in words kike:
EDWARD CARES

symptom, presumption, jumped, tempt, empty;

etc.;
Sound ‘Th’ is pronounced as ‘T’ in words like:
Thomas, Thames, Thyme; etc;
 ‘c’ is pronounced as ‘s’ in ceiling, Celine; and is
pronounced as ‘k’ in comb, come, chemist,
accord, stomach, antique, cake, council, etc.
 EDWARD CARES

READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES

Unit 1: The Reading Language Skill

Introduction

Our interaction with any language we come in contact with occurs in either of four ways.
Usually, we start by listening to people speak and use the language. Then we can
speak it ourselves. We would go on to read materials and texts written in such a
langage. And finally, we write it or write with it. These are referred to as language skills.
This unit will focus on the reading skill. Reading is an important part of learning any
language. Reading either as a mental (cognitive) or vocal exercise is aimed at
understanding and interpreting written or printed words, represented by symbols
(mechanical task). it is for this reason that we can separate reading comprehension
from listening comprehension. This exercise is done with the use of eyes (following
symbols with the eyes) or fingers (tracing the symbols with the hand) or both.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

● Identify the type(s) of reading skills required in a situation for accurate

comprehension within some minutes when given a passage for an examination.

● Identify and engage in various activities that would encourage reading for
comprehension with 80% accuracy within 10 minutes when given a topic in a
recommended textbook for GNS.
● State the factors that will determine the appropriate reading type within ten
minutes with 70% accuracy when given a material to read.

Main Content

Let us first establish the fact that there are factors to consider in determining what
reading type one is engaging in before we go on to look at reading types.
 EDWARD CARES

Factors Determining Appropriate Reading Types

They are: Reading purpose, Reading environment and time; and Reading posture.

Types of Reading

The following are the types of reading that we have.

Intensive reading: The word intensive literally means thorough reading or a rigorous
one. Mechanically, it refers to a reading exercise in which energy is directed to a single
area or subject for the purpose of examination of any sort. Thus, intensive reading is a
reading deliberately done to enrich oneself academically and/or professionally. This is a
type of reading that demands that adequate attention is paid to every statement without
having to waste much time in doing so.

Extensive reading: Extensive reading, on the other hand, covers a larger area or wider
scope, with the sole intention of indulging in reading for enjoyment, general knowledge,
information on current affairs, material survey, and so on.

Approaches to Intensive Reading

Reading skill 1 (Skimming): This is a process of searching for relevant materials based
on one's area of study or a particular topic through selective reading.

Reading skill 2 (Scanning): The next activity after skimming is scanning. This activity
consists of reading through parts of relevant pages already identified during skimming.
This reading skill enables you to decide whether the material is worth being read further
or not.

Reading skill 3 (Speed reading): Speed reading has to do with flexibility of a reader's
movement of his/her eyes. A good reader is expected to take in several words and
comprehend them with fewer eye movements. This flexibility must match the purpose
and available time for the reader. Habits like sub-vocalizing (silent pronunciation of
 EDWARD CARES

words), regression, (going over a line more than once) constitute big constraints to
speed reading.

Approaching Extensive Reading

Preparatory Activities to Extensive Reading

Note that, as general as extensive reading is, you still have to approach it prepared.
You have to be selective from the abundant materials available for extensive reading,
since what makes every individual relax or gives him pleasure differs. For example, the
materials to be selected for these purposes will vary. In this case, the skills of skimming
and scanning as discussed earlier are still relevant to extensive reading.

Summary

In this unit, you have learnt that reading is a mental or vocal reproduction of printed
words. Reading can either be intensive or extensive. Intensive reading demands a
detailed comprehension of the written material while extensive reading serves the
purpose of speed, preparatory or informative reading. The choice of a type of reading is
determined by the purpose of reading and environmental factors.

Self –Assessment Questions

● List three activities that will encourage reading for comprehension.

● List three factors that determine appropriate reading type.
● List and explain two types of reading taught in this topic.

References

Abubakar, A. S. (2008). Historicism and political dialectics in Osofisan’s Nkurma ni….

Africa ni and Rotimi’s Ovonramwen Nogbaisi. In the Parnassus Journal of
Cultural Research, 4, 59- 60.
 EDWARD CARES

Nuttal, C. (1982). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language. London: Heinemann.

Obah, T. Y. (1981). Teaching for faster reading. In B. O. Oliukpe (Ed.) The use of
English for higher education. Onitsha: Africana FEP Publishers Ltd.

Williams, R. (1982). Panorama: An advanced course of English for study and

examinations. Essex: Longman.

Zimmerman, M., & Beth, S. (2012). An introduction to nutrition Vol. 1. (http:

[Link]/pdfs/[Link]).

Further Reading:

Adegbija, E. E. (ed) (1987) Effective Study Skills and Use of English. Ilorin: University of
Ilorin.

Alabi, V. A., & S. T. Babatunde (eds.) (2005) Basic Communication Skills for Students
and Humanities. Ilorin: University of Ilorin, Ilorin.

Unit 2: Comprehension of Written Passages/Texts

Introduction

The essence of any language use, whether written or spoken, is to achieve

communication. At the receiving end, whatever message is sent or encoded at the
productive end should be passed through the milling process of meaning-making. This
process is a complex one. It involves series of operations depending on the form and
function of the channel/medium through which the message is dispatched.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 EDWARD CARES

● list two activities that culminate in reading comprehension,

● explain two approaches to reading activity

● validate the choice of any of the approaches in a reading task with reasons, and
● apply the study skills strategies in answering questions your lecturers have
formulated or the ones from comprehension passages.

Main Content

I need you to note that, comprehension is defined as the act or capacity of

understanding a text or a passage in order to be able to react and give correct answers
to questions asked on the contents of the text/passage irrespective of the discipline
(Ofuya, 1996, p.72). Comprehension represents the cornerstones of erecting the
podium of effective communication; as it is only when the receiving end satisfactorily
understands the intention of a speaker or a writer, as the case may be, that we say
effective communication has taken place.

Approaches to Reading Activity

The two major approaches to reading are intensive and extensive. The choice of each
in an attempt to comprehend a written passage would be dictated by the purpose, the
environment, the volume of what is to be read and even the time factor, as hinted
earlier. The implication here is that each of them, being a deliberate choice to achieve
desired goals, has its place in the learning process.

Intensive Reading

This is a more demanding activity of ‘surfing’ and ‘combing’ to the last strand every
aspect of a passage in an attempt to dig out and unravel information which is not
necessarily displayed in the grammatical structures of the discourse. An ‘intensive
reader’ is supposed to deploy certain skills to their fullest in gaining access to
embellished bits of information wrapped in not-too-accessible discourse. Skimming,
scanning and speed reading constitute major reading skills in this category.
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Skimming denotes selective reading. In a situation where one has many information
materials to ‘browse’ just for certain technical facts; and in view of the limited time and
resources, the reader goes straight to selected sections of the volumes. This is a
deliberate effort on the part of the reader to determine the suitability of the materials for
one’s endeavour. This method is called skimming. For example, a reader may be able
to determine the appropriateness of a particular written work in his search by making a
quick glance through the table of contents or index.

Scanning involves reading of chunks or portions already identified as relevant at the

skimming level. A reader at this stage is expected to give some attention to a closer
study of selected paragraphs and sub-topics to determine the worth of their contents.
This would enable him to be acquainted with the major thrust of the entire text.

Speed reading pertains to the ability of a reader to capture and comprehend many
words, sentences and passages within the shortest possible time. Certain personal
habits like sub-vocalisation (lip-reading every word), finger-tracing, and oscillation of
head (instead of eye movement) have been established as detrimental factors against
speed reading. So, as much as possible, a good reader is expected to do away with any
personal attitude or habit that would constitute detractors to concentration. Logically,
when one achieves full concentration while reading, it is hoped that more information is
processed, digested and diffused within a given time limit.

Reasons for Intensive Reading

As suggested earlier, rapt attention and unwavering devotion should be given to

intensive reading as a meaning-making process. The essence of reading for
comprehension may be to achieve any of the following targets:

1. Reading for the purpose of arriving at both explicit and embellished meanings
engendered in the text.
2. Reading in order to identify the salient points in the passage and how they have
been developed into a unified whole;
3. Reading for coherent assimilation of organised body of knowledge in one’s area
of specialization;
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4. Reading in order to clarify knotty ideas or ambiguous expressions;

5. Reading to update and expand the frontiers of one’s view or knowledge about a
particular phenomenon, etc.

Imperative of Context in Comprehension Task

As we have stated earlier, reading is a conscious and demanding activity that involves
dissecting and appreciating the information engendered in a written discourse to its
fullest. Since it is a general truth that a language corpus may be used to achieve
different communicative goals; and that a given structure may mean differently in
different occasions, it becomes necessary to situate the reading process within the
immediate and wider contexts or social circumstance in which the text is originally
rendered. This endeavour would automatically require the reader’s ability to
intermittently jostle between the outside world of reality and its graphical representation
in writing. Also, the theme, subject or central idea which underlies the composition
should be focused on in the light of the contributions and role relation of interaction set
between/among the characters or subjects involved. The reading process should not be
made too passive to avoid recession in comprehension.

Note that in certain texts, information is not explicitly stated; in which case, the
messages borne by the texts are not readily packaged to be understood easily by
average minds. Thus, recourse to shared understanding and common frontiers of
situating meaning in certain subjects would be necessary for the reader to grasp the
implied meanings. Here lies the importance of setting in the comprehension activity.

Other Skills that can Enhance Effective Comprehension

More often than not, a major challenge for a university undergraduate like yourself is
how to cope with the ever-increasing volumes of materials to be read, understood and
applied at one point in time or the other. When a student is asked: “What’s your stress?”

The most likely response you will get would be similar to:
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“I have so much to read in too many courses I’m offering, in preparation for my choking
C.A. tests, deluge of assignments and fast-approaching exams.”

Hence, some students embark on a ceaseless tour of reading, non-stop sessions of

night classes and ineffectual ‘cramming’ in order to wade through these different levels
of assessment. Little do they know that reading for comprehension is not necessarily a
question of longevity of hours spent in actual reading but the best one makes out of the
reading, as an activity, is what matters. Reading is not just a string of passive moments.
A good reader should also imbibe a culture of exercising his brain and hand while
reading. Note-taking and summary writing are therefore good reading accompaniment
which would be examined briefly.

Note-taking: This is an important skill that an ‘intensive’ or ‘extensive’ reader requires in

documenting salient facts which run through the volume(s) being read. To be able to do
this successfully, one should learn to differentiate important details from not-too-
important information so that the end product is not rendered a bunch of burdensome
experience. Outlining proves to be a better alternative here. Outlining is a well-
established strategy for generating highlights from extensive passages. Note-taking aids
recall of what has been read and it can also give good background and guidelines for
writing comments, critiques, arguments, etc on what has been read.

In order to write logical and clear notes, the reader/writer should focus on the main
points as relayed by topic sentences of paragraphs involved in successive order under
highlighted headings and subheadings. One should avoid use of vague, ambiguous or
conspicuous words and expressions which may militate against easy recall. To cap it
up, it is equally important to be as brief as possible.

Summary Writing: This is another process which actively engages the reader in the
reading task. It is a proven fact by educational psychologists that when one is actively
involved in the course of imbibing a learning experience, motivation is higher and this
stands the learner a better chance of understanding and easy recall. Summary is a
synthesis of important details of a passage. It should be rendered in clear expressions
with strict avoidance of undue repetition or mindless elaboration. Information in a
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summarised form should be tightened and succinct. Direct lifting of chunks from the
original text which may foment redundancy should be avoided as much as possible.
Redundancy has been identified as a major problem of achieving easy recall.

In written comprehension, summary technique aids memorability. It has a peculiar way

of highlighting the focal points of the entire text through recapitulation and reverberation.
The major difference between note-taking and summary writing, thus, lies in their
structures. In note-taking, outlining (which may involve numbering) is the major strategy
used while in summary-writing, the salient ideas being re-focused are written in an
essay form – numbering is not allowed.

The SQ3R Reading/Study Strategy

The SQ3R strategy is a reading comprehension method named for its five steps:
survey, question, read, recite, and review. Remember: The information you gain from
reading is important. If you just “do it,” without learning something, you’re wasting a lot
of your time. Train your mind to learn while reading with SQ3R.

SURVEY

Survey involves going through the textbook or material to identify the sections relevant
for your purpose of study. In the process, you reduce the volume of reading you would
do, and stand the chance to preserve your energy for the actual mental processing of
the facts you will encounter in print. The appropriate reading skill for surveying a text is
skimming.

Gather the information necessary to focus and formulate goals

● Read the title – Help your mind prepare to receive the subject at hand.

● Read the introduction and/or summary – Orient yourself to how each chapter fits
the author's purposes, and focus on the author's statement of most important
points.
● Notice each boldface heading and subheading – Organize your mind before you
begin to read and build a structure for the thoughts and details to come.
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● Notice any graphics – Charts, maps, diagrams, etc. are there to make a point.
Don't overlook them.
● Notice reading aids – Italics, bold face print, chapter objective, and end-of -
chapter questions are all included to help you sort, comprehend, and remember.

QUESTION

Help your mind engage and concentrate

Turn the boldface heading for each section into as many questions as you think will be
answered in that section. The better the questions, the better your comprehension is
likely to be. You may always add further questions as you proceed. When your mind is
actively searching for answers to questions it becomes engaged in learning. This stage
is somewhat still preparatory for the actual study which begins in the next stage of
SQ3R.

READ

Fill in the information around the mental structures you've been building

Now, you should read the material with concentration. See if you can locate where
answers to specific questions may be found and underline the places cautiously. As you
read sections, pause to add questions where necessary, and attempt to answer the
questions relying on the knowledge just gained. The more correctly you answer the
questions, the more efficiently you’re reading. While reading, you may:

● Make short notes in the margins on pages to summarize points.

● Build an outline of the ideas that you have imbibed from the textbook.

Whatever you do, read one section at a time with your questions in mind and look for
the answers. Recognize when you need to make up some new questions.

RECITE

Retrain your mind to concentrate and learn as it reads

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After each section, stop and recall your questions and see if you can answer them from
memory. If not, look back at the text again (as often as necessary), but don't move to
the next section until you can recite the answers from the previous one.

REVIEW

Here is the last leg of SQ3R. Its goal is to recall.

Refine your mental organization and begin building memory

Once you've finished the entire chapter using the preceding steps, go back over the
questions you created for every heading. See if you can still answer them. If not, look
back and refresh your memory and then continue.

So, whichever technique you choose to employ to facilitate comprehension and

aid recall, you should know that reading is a complex activity; a melting point of many
skills and techniques. And in order to accomplish adequate mastery of a written
passage, most especially, the idea surrounding context of the passage should not,
equally, be underestimated.

Summary

In this unit, you have learnt that, comprehension is a process that is applicable to both
oral and written modes of language use. Just as we have listening comprehension as
the envisaged response to speaking, we equally have reading comprehension as a
direct consequence of effective writing. This implies that adequate understanding of a
written passage can only be achieved by deploying commensurate reading skill. In
order to achieve this feat, the strategies to be employed have been discussed as well.

Self-Assessment Questions

● Mention two approaches to reading activity.

● State three reasons for Intensive reading.

● What is an extensive reading?
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● List the five steps involved in SQ3R reading method.

● Briefly highlight the tasks for each step.

References

Adeyanju, D., & Egwuogwu, C. (2003). Vital aspects of English usage for tertiary
institutions. Ibadan: Stirling-Horden Publishers.

Babatunde, S. T. (2005). Note-making, outlining and summary skills. In V. A.

Alabi, & S. T. Babatunde (Eds.) Basic communication skill for students of science
and humanities (pp. 125 – 137). Ilorin: Department of English, University of Ilorin.

Balogun, P. O. (2005). The mastery of comprehensions skills. In V. A. Alabi, & S.

T. Babatunde (Eds.) Basic communication skill for students of science and humanities
(pp. 110 – 124). Ilorin: Department of English, University of Ilorin.

Manuh, B. M. (1975). Combined principles and applied economics for G.C.E. ‘O’
and ‘A’ levels (Volume I). Kumasi: University Press.

Further Reading

Noble, R. W. (1989). English composition and summary. London: Longman.

Nuttal, C. (1982). Teaching reading as a foreign language. London: Heinemann.

Ofuya, A. (1996). Comprehension, note-making, outlining and summary skills for

MESTA students. In E. Adegbija, & A. Ofuya (Eds.) English language and
communication skills for MESTA students (pp. 72 – 86). Ilorin: The Outer English
Language Circle.
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Oloruntoba-Oju, O. O. (1998). Meaning in reading: Encoding and decoding

techniques. In E. E. Adegbija (Ed.) Effective communication in higher education: Use
of English (pp. 146 – 156). Ilorin: The GNS Unit, University of Ilorin.

Owolabi, H. O. (2003). Foundations of Western education: Role of the Jews, the

Greeks and the Romans. In J. O. O. Abiri (Ed.) Perspectives on history of
education in Nigeria (pp.17 – 28). Ibadan: Emola-Jay Communications Inc.
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READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson the students should be able to
i. Explain what comprehension is.
ii. Explain what reading comprehension means.
iii. Identify reading comprehension strategies.
Introduction:
The term reading has various possible interpretations. Some say it is reading aloud as against
reading silently. Reading aloud is itself mediated by meaning identification because it is the only
way in which information about the appropriate intonation pattern, articulation etc. is shown.
Reading aloud is primarily an oral matter and requires a familiar text, detailed explication,
practice of specific pronunciation problems in the text and group practice technique. Reading
aloud is often restricted to teaching and learning situations. Reading can also mean silent
reading. But the purposes of silent reading skill vary according to the use to which it is being put.
The uses to which silent reading is put are:
(a) Surveying of material to be studied;
(b) Skimming for an item from a mass of information, and
(c) gaining superficial comprehension as is obtainable in reading for pleasure or preparing to
read aloud others are
(d) Studying in detail the content of a subject e.g. History, Economics for purposes of
examination;
(e) studying the language in which the text is written – as is the case in literary criticism

What is Reading Comprehension?

Comprehend means “get meaning out of”, therefore reading comprehension means “getting
meaning out of what is read”. Any reading that does not lead to an understanding cannot be said
to be a success. Note, however, that getting the said meaning involves a complex process which
is highly dependent on both the teacher (you) and your learners. But you may be asking what
are the skills to develop and how do I teach these skills. Let us look at the skills.
Reading Skills
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Reading is concerned with the development of certain abilities such as translation, interpretation
and extrapolation. When one interprets; one is giving the same information in another form e.g.
if a learner is able to say “The hand that rocks the cradle rules the world” so points at the
important role of women in the society he has done an acceptable translation. This ability is
lacking in many learners today. Interpretation calls for an understanding of major ideas, idiom,
clichés etc. and inter-relationships. A learner who says “Those living in a glass house must not
throw stones” literally means “Owners of houses built of glass must not throw stones” has not
interpreted rightly. Extrapolation is the ability to use, determine the use, consequences and
effects of a piece of writing. When your learner gives meaning to symbols effectively, he has
comprehended. When he transforms meanings into visual representation of language, he has
comprehended.
Let us now look at the specific reading comprehension skills that must be developed through
training your learners.
These skills are
(a) Reading for exact or surface meaning;
(b) Reading for implied meaning;
(c) Reading for relationship of thoughts;
(d) Reading to get the gist of a story;
(e) Reading for required information to do assignments, examinations and reports. In addition
you want to develop the habit of reading for pleasure – this though not a skill is an important
aim.
Intensive Reading
Intensive reading involves different objectives and different skills. In intensive reading we
examine the text very closely and carefully to get the full meaning. We can do the following
when we do intensive reading:
1. Reading for exact meaning (factual, exact, surface meaning) deal with the plain sense of
words and sentences, and enables the pupils to see exactly what the printed marks on the page
mean.
2. Reading for implied meaning deals with the implications behind words and sentences, and
enables the pupil to draw conclusions form what he has read. (inferential reading )
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3. Reading for relationships of thought deals with the connections between sentences, and
between paragraphs. This helps greatly the process of summarizing. These skills are necessary
for reading all the school subjects where books are used to find out facts, draw conclusions, and
relate information. Your learners must be able to understand information in letters, reports,
regulations, instruction and so on as well as anything that may probably be implied from
contexts. This is true of any efficient reader too. These are the specific aims of the reading
programme. To achieve them you need conscious skill – training approaches. You need to know
when these skills may be instructed and the levels at which they any be taught.
Extensive Reading:
The purposes of reading enumerated earlier, namely, survey reading, skimming and superficial
readings etc. are grouped under extensive reading. The aim of these is covering the greatest
possible amount of the text in the shortest possible time. A low degree of comprehension is
adequate here. Extensive Reading is used mainly to facilitate familiarity with a large body of
reading materials. These skills are used in reading newspapers, tables of content and even
literature/literacy works. Through extensive reading, speed reading is trained and vice versa
Intensive Reading:
Content study reading for exact surface meaning, for implied meaning and reading for
relationship of thoughts require intensive reading skills. Intensive Reading is concerned with the
understanding of the features of language – (syntactical and lexical) which your learners will
draw on in order to decode messages in print. The focus is on recognition rather than production
of language features. To help your learners achieve this, train them in logical argument,
arrangement pattern contained in your choice of texts, its emotional and social overtones and
attitudes. Study however, involves other kinds of intellectual activities or skills and efficient
study technique may call for different kinds of reading skills. To develop high reading speed in
your learners, you must be aware that there may be some problems calling for your attention.
Some of these problems may be physical such as eye movement which may be ‘jerky’ translated
from French “saccade”.
Saccades normally proceed from left to right across the page instead of moving from one
fixation/position to another to pick up information. Another type of saccade is a regression;
meaning that a saccade that goes in the opposite direction e.g. from right to left. The more the
saccade, the slower the speed. Eye span – number of words or symbols the eye can take in at
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each fixation is another source of problem. The greater the span the fewer the number of stops
required and the faster the reading. Psychological factors such as actual perception of the text;
inability to grasp linguistic patterns in a text and sub-vocalizing – saying the words in the mind,
and intellectual ability are all sources of problems. The solution to all these is practice.
Understanding the nature of the reading skill is important but the essential thing thereafter is still
regular practice.
Strategies for Reading Comprehension
Sub-vocalization

Subvocalization, or silent speech, is the internal speech typically made when reading; it provides
the sound of the word as it is read. This is a natural process when reading, and it helps
the mind to access meanings to comprehend and remember what is read. This inner speech is
characterized by tiny movements in the larynx and other muscles involved in the articulation of
speech. Most of these movements are undetectable (without the aid of machines) by the person
who is reading.

Techniques for studying sub-vocalization

Subvocalization is commonly studied using electromyography (EMG) recordings, concurrent

speaking tasks, shadowing, and other techniques. Subvocalization plays a large role in
memory encoding. Subvocalization appears to facilitate the translating of visual linguistic
information into acoustic information and vice versa

Eye Regression
Regression is the behavior we engage when reading a book and we go back to re-read something
we already read in order to be sure if we really understood the message we read. Regression is
the process of re-reading text that you’ve already read. It goes by other names including back-
skipping, re-reading, and going back over what you’ve read. Whatever you call it, regression is
like taking two steps forward with your eyes and one step back – and sometimes, a lot more than
one step back; like when you go back and re-read an entire page or worse, an entire chapter!

Regression is just a mechanism of laziness. Our brain relies in the fact that you can go back
and re-read at any time, so it relaxes and does not concentrate properly. Why should it
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concentrate on the reading if you can check it later at any time? The brain is sure that it can
check the text again at any moment so does not give its best at the time of reading. The result is
that you have to go and read again the text, with a huge decrease in your reading speed.
Additionally, it may happen that you lose concentration and start thinking about whatever. Your
brain is now lost in space. Again, the brain doesn’t really care about what you are reading, since
you can perform regression and re-read later. Then it decides to daydream.
Another cause of regression is to doubt about the skills of oneself. In those cases, you do not
trust yourself and what you have read. Since you want to be sure that you understood what you
read you go back and read again the text in order to confirm to yourself that you were right (or
not). This behavior is actually a lack of confidence in oneself.
As earlier said, regression is a habit that can seriously slow your reading speed. And not only
that, regression disrupts your concentration. You’ve probably never thought about it, but reading
isn’t all that matters. You also have to comprehend what you read. Without comprehension,
reading is a wasted effort.

A lack of concentration, whether real or perceived, is one reason you might regress when you
read. For some reason you don’t trust your brain’s ability to comprehend the material, so just to
be sure you go back and read the information again. What you don’t realize is that re-reading is
the more likely cause of reduced comprehension because it interferes with the proper flow and
meaning of the words. Subvocalization can also cause regression for the simple reason that your
eyes usually move faster than the mouth. When the difference between what your eyes see and
your mouth reads becomes too much, comprehension falters. Regression might also be a form of
compulsive behavior.

The Techniques of Avoiding Eye Regression

The technique to remove regression in your reading is very simple. The technique consists of
reading for a given amount of time while following the next two principles.

1. First you must set yourself in a state of trying to concentrate and read for a given time. You
must commit to the activity of reading. It does not matter if finally you do not achieve it, but you
must try your best. The exercise is just a matter of trying, but trying with all your heart.
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2. Second, you will need a white paper to cover the text. I recommend you to have a sheet of
paper folded by the middle. Take the folded sheet and put it on top of the book, on top of the line
you just read, covering it completely. As you read one line, push the sheet down to cover that
line. Keep reading and pushing the sheet until it covers the whole page. Then switch to the next
page and do the same. Having the paper covering the text prevents you from having a look to
your previous read text. Of course, you will have the urge to do it, but you should never remove
the paper to re-read. Yes, it may happen that you lose concentration and miss some lines. Do not
worry. Keep reading and forget about that part. You will discover that you actually understood
more than you thought.

Word Recognition

Is "the ability of a reader to recognize written words correctly and virtually effortlessly". It is
sometimes referred to as "isolated word recognition" because it involves a reader's ability to
recognize words individually from a list without needing similar words for contextual help.
Word recognition is a manner of reading based upon the immediate perception of what word a
familiar grouping of letters represents. This process exists in opposition to phonetics and word
analysis, as a different method of recognizing and verbalizing visual language (i.e. reading).

Word recognition functions primarily on automaticity. On the other hand, phonetics and word
analysis rely on the basis of cognitively applying learned grammatical rules for the blending of
letters, sounds, graphemes, and morphemes.

Word recognition is measured as a matter of speed, such that a word with a high level of
recognition is read faster than a novel one. This manner of testing suggests that comprehension
of the meaning of the words being read is not required, but rather the ability to recognize them in
a way that allows proper pronunciation. Therefore, context is unimportant, and word recognition
is often assessed with words presented in isolation in formats such as flash cards Nevertheless,
ease in word recognition, as in fluency, enables proficiency that fosters comprehension of the
text being read.

Causes of Problems in Reading Comprehension

1. Failure to recognize letters properly. This is called letter recognition and is a problem of
physical perception. An example is when ‘b’ is seen as ‘p’ “ban” becomes “pan”; “but”
becomes “put”.
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2. Inability to recognize a particular lexical item is another source of breakdown due to

faulty association e.g. associating “concerted effort” with a concert or music.
3. Failure to recognize the grammatical relations which exist between lexical unit or even
the failure to grasp the meaning of a particular grammatical item in a particular context. An
example is “slow men at work” when spoken it is clearer than when written. Is slow an
adjective or a verb giving instruction? Only the context will determine which is appropriate.
4. Inability to grasp the author’s attitude to his own writing. In order to overcome this, some
knowledge of a number of different styles of writing and sensitivity to linguistic cues to indicate
the status of the passage – irony, humorous, deadly serious or light-hearted is essential. Your
learners require some instructions on stylistic effects. How to do this will be shown to you later.
The other cause of breakdown in comprehension that you need to be aware of is your learner’s
inability to apply logical principles adequately. Unjustified assumptions or reading more than is
necessary into a text or may be properly deduced is done. Sometimes sheer carelessness in
thinking may be responsible for this problem.
Self-Assessment Questions
1. What is reading comprehension?
Tutor Marked Questions
1. Explain the importance of comprehension when reading.
2. list the strategies for reading comprehensively

REFERENCES

Buller, D. J. (2005). Adapting Minds: Evolutionary Psychology and the Persistent Quest for
Human Nature. Massachusetts: The MIT Press

Charlotte Emigh (2011), "Subvocalization", Accelerated Reading, University of Puget Sound

Center for Writing, Learning & Teaching
Curtin, S. & Graham, S. (2014). Early word learning. In Brooks, P.J. & Kempe, V. (eds.)
Encyclopedia of Language Development, 183-186.
[Link]
[Link]

Eiter, B., & Inhoff, A. (2010). Visual Word Recognition During Reading by Subvocal
Articulation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 35(2), 457-470.
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Girbau, D. (2007). A Neurocognitive Approach to the Study of Private Speech. The Spanish
Journal of Psychology, 10(1), 41-51

Hubbard, T.L. (2010). Auditory imagery: empirical findings. Psychological Bulletin, 136(2),
302-329.

Perea, M; Gomez, P (2012). "Subtle Increases in Inter letter Spacing Facilitate the Encoding of
Words during Normal Reading". PLoS ONE. 7 (10):
Rick T. (2014) Speed Reading; Avoid Regression When Speed Reading
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CLAUSE AND CLAUSE TYPES

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A clause is a group of words which forms a

part of a sentence and contains a
subject and a predicate.
Examples of clause are:
1. When I was walking on the street
2. That honesty is the best policy
3. How to speak English correctly
4. Why she left her parents
5. How to answer the questions
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It is very important to know that a clause

can be turned into a sentence.
For examples:
1. I saw Bayo when I was walking on the
street.
2. Everyone knows that honesty is the best
policy.
3. I can teach you how to speak English
correctly.
4. We can’t understand why she left her
parents.
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5. Does Nike know how to answer the

questions?
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Kinds of Clauses
Clauses are divided into two classes,
namely:
1. Principal clause or main clause or
independent clause and
2. Subordinate clause dependent clause
1. Principal clause is a clause which
makes complete sense standing by itself,
e.g.
a. I tried my best.
2. Subordinate clause is a clause which
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relies on another clause for its
meaning to be realised.
Examples are:
a. If you are a postgraduate
b. After she had left home
Note that, subordinate clauses can be
turned into meaningful sentences with
the help of other clauses.
For example:
a. If you are a postgraduate, you are
eligible for the scholarship
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Subordinate clause can further be

divided into three, namely:
1. Noun clause
2. Adjective clause
3. Adverb clause
1. Noun clause is a group of words
which contains a subject and predicate
of its own and does the work of a
noun.
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Examples are:
a. I know that she is a teacher in the
school.
b. What I like most in her is her
modesty.
c. I know when to apply for admission.
Note that a noun clause can be used
as:
1. The subject of the verb
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2. The object of a transitive verb

3. The object of a preposition
4. In apposition to a noun or pronoun
5. The complement of a verb of
incomplete predication
1. Examples of the subject of the verb:
a. What I like in Bayo is his modesty
b. Whether to apply for the post is a
problem to me
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2. Examples of the object of a
transitive verb:
a. I know that she is a teacher in the
school.
b. I know when to apply for admission.
3. Examples of the object of a
preposition
a. She did not pay attention to what I
explained to her.
b. I have confidence in what I do.
a. I accept the theory that man is a
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social animal.
b. We believe the principle that all
men are bore free.
5. Examples of the complement of a
verb of incomplete predication
a. My belief is that hard work brings
success
b. The question is where to find the
money for the project.
 which contains a subject and a
EDWARD CARES

predicate on its own and does the

work of an adjective
It very important to note that an
adjective clause is usually introduced
by relative pronouns such as
who/which/that/but/as, and relative
adverbs like where/when/why.
Examples are:
a. The girl whom you saw at the car
pack is my sister
 EDWARD CARES

b. The beautiful girl whose father is the

Accountant in the bank is preparing for
her final exam
c. The man who invited you to dinner is
my uncle
d. This is the book that/which I told
you about
e. This is the place where I met Janet
 EDWARD CARES

3. Adverb Clause is a group of

words which contains a subject
and a predicate of its own and
does the work of an adverb.
Examples are:
a. I shall wait here till you return.
b. If you know her, please tell me.
c. I stopped the work because I was
very tired.
 Kinds of Adverb Clauses EDWARD CARES

Adverb clauses are classified into

eight kinds, and they are:
1. Adverb clause of Time
2. Adverb clause of Place
3. Adverb clause of Purpose
4. Adverb clause of Cause
5. Adverb clause of Condition
6. Adverb clause of Result
7. Adverb clause of Comparison
 8. Adverb clause of Supposition or
EDWARD CARES

Concession
a. Adverb clause of Time is used to
indication time. Adverb clause of time
is introduced by words like
when/whenever/before/after/as/since
/till/once/now.
Examples are:
i. I felt happy when I saw my brother.
ii. Whenever you want to eat, please
pray.
 iii. I had never thought of marriage
EDWARD CARES

before I saw Josephine.

iv. He found his way home after he lost
the money.
v. As he began to sing, we stopped
talking.
vi. I haven’t seen Sulaiman since he
was married.
vii. I shall wait for you until you have
written the letter.
 EDWARD CARES

viii. Don’t talk while I am teaching.

b. Adverb clause of Place is used to
indication the place of an event. A
clause of place is introduced by where
or wherever.
Examples are:
i. Where there is a will, there is a way.
ii. Wherever you go, I will go with you.
iii. I visited the place where she built
the house for the poor
 EDWARD CARES

c. Adverb clause of Purpose is

used to indicate the purpose of
something. It is usually introduced by
words like that/in order that/so
that/lest.
Examples are:
i. We read that we may understand
the world
 EDWARD CARES

ii. He worked hard to earn enough

money in order that he might make his
wife happy.
iii. He went to Ghana in order to marry
a Ghanaian girl.
iv. She left very early lest she be
delayed
v. He filled the petrol thank so that he
might avoid any hitch in his journey.
 EDWARD CARES
d. Adverb Clause of Reason is used to
indicate cause or reason for
something. It is introduced by words
like because/since/as/in as much
as/that.
Examples are:
i. I slept early because I was tired.
ii. Since she has a desire for marriage,
she terminated her studies.
 EDWARD CARES

iii. As I love you, I can do anything for

you.
iv. We happy that he bought a new car.

e. Adverb Clause of Condition is used

to indicate condition. It is introduced
by words like
if/unless/whether/provided that/so
long as.
 Examples are:
i. If you help me, I shall be happy.
ii. Unless you tell her about your job,
she wont know it.
iii. I can help you provided that you
follow my advice.
iv. So long as you work hard, you have
no problem with me.
v. You must do the work whether you
like it or not.
 f. Adverb Clause of Result or
Consequence is used to indicate result
or consequence. It is introduced by
words like so that/such that.
Examples are:
i. Omotayo is so brilliant that I loved
him at first sight.
ii. He has such ability in Mathematics
that all were amazed.
 g. Adverb Clause of Comparison is
used to indicate comparison. It is
introduced by words like
as/as__as/so___as/than.
Examples are:
i. Omolara is as beautiful as Nike.
ii. Our country is as rich as America.
iii. He speaks better than his sister.
iv. He disguised so as to deceive
everybody.
 h. Adverb Clause of Supposition or
Concession is used to indicate
supposition or concession. It is usually
introduced by words like
though/although/even if/even
though/while/where as.
Examples are:
i. Though she is clever, she is not proud.
ii. Although he tried hard, he did not
succeed in his attempt.
 iii. Even if you are a beautiful queen, I
can’t marry you.
iv. Even though you are my brother, I
can’t allow you to do such a cruel act.
v. Where as Jamiu is friendly, his friend
is impolite.
SOUND PATTERN IN ENGLISH LANGAUGE (PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY)

Introduction:
Sound is a unit of speech which is produced by the human speech organs. Sound is usually
heard. Here we can compare sound to noise which is also usually heard but whereas noise is a
distraction and is also often meaningless, sound is an organised realisation from a natural
language. The International Phonetics Alphabet (IPA) comprises the symbols that are used to
represent sounds. When we write in a language, we make use of letters of the alphabet.
Letters are normally seen while, in comparison, sounds are normally heard. However, sounds
and letters are related in that letters are the symbols with which sounds are represented on
paper.
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to
i. differentiate letters from sounds
ii. explain the speech pattern of consonant sounds
iii. explain the speech pattern of vowel sounds.
Main Content:
Phonetics
Phonetics is concerned with the study of the sounds of natural language i.e. languages into
which human beings are born. Phonetics is the study of production of sounds as produced by
the organs of speech. It deals with the analysis of the sounds of languages in terms of
articulation, transmission and perception. Phonetics seeks to identify sounds that constitute
speech units which are distinct from all other possible human sounds.
There are three major braches in the study of phonetics, namely acoustic Phonetics,
articulatory Phonetics, and auditory Phonetics.
Acoustic Phonetics.
This deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air (sound waves).
Different instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.
Articulatory Phonetics.
Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are produced. Sounds are classified
according to the place of articulation in terms of the organs of speech used in their production
(bilabial, alveolar, palatal), and according to manner of articulation in terms of the how
airflow from the lungs is obstructed in their production e.g. stops, fricatives, affricates etc.
Auditory Phonetics.
Hearing, or audition, is one of the traditional five senses, and refers to the ability to detect
sounds. In human beings hearing is performed traditionally by the ears which also perform a
function of maintaining balance. For instance to indicate the consonant sounds of the
following English words: boy, saw, too, square brackets are used by convention:
[b] as in boy
[s] as in saw
as in too
Phonemes, which are the distinguished sounds, constitute the basic unit of study in Phonetics.
Phonology
Phonology, on the other hand deals with the organisation, grouping, patterning and
distribution of the basic sounds of natural languages (vowels and consonants). It studies the
restrictions and regular patterns of sound combinations. The syllable is the basic unit of
study. Symbols which are used to indicate the pronunciation of sounds syllables or words are
written within slanting lines / /, sometimes called slashes or oblique slashes following
phonological convention.
When the differences in sound combinations are as a result of non-segmental phenomena like
tone, intonation, rhythm and accentuation, it is referred to as supra-segmental phonology. For
example, when the first syllable in the word import is stressed, it constitutes a difference in
meaning in that it functions as a noun, but as a verb if the stress is on the second syllable.
In phonology, distinctive features of phonemes are determined and used to describe, compare
and contrast phonemes. The distinctive features of a phoneme refer to the group or bundle of
features which differentiate a phoneme from other phonemes. The features are derived from
the parameters for classification of sounds. Consonants are classified according to the
parameters of place and manner of articulation, and voicing. Vowels are classified according
to the parameters of tongue height, rounding of the lips, and length of production.
Below is the distinctive feature chart for consonants and vowels in English:
Phonetics and Phonology
The relationship between phonetics and phonology is such that human speech is subject
matter. However, Phonetics is the starting point while phonology takes off from where
phonetics ends. The example of aspiration in English will illustrate this relationship. Through
phonetic analysis, the consonant /p/ is a distinct speech sound in English in terms of the
parameters of classification, place and manner of articulation.
Through phonological analysis, /p/ is a distinct phoneme because it constitutes a difference in
meaning when in combination with other sounds in a syllable. Also, /p/ is produced with a
puff air when it occurs in word initial position and before a vowel as in people [pi:pl]. This
production of /p/ is a variant called an allomorph. It is aspirated and represented as [ph]. The
second /p/ in people does not meet the conditions of occurrence and so is not aspirated. Note
however, that the aspirated [ph] is not a distinct sound nor is it a distinct phoneme of English.
In other words, its occurrence does not constitute a difference in meaning.
Sound Patterns
Consonants
In their production, consonants show greater constriction of the vocal tract and are less
sonorous, less prominent than their counterpart – the vowels. In a majority of the world’s
languages, a vowel can serve as a syllable or a word, but a consonant cannot, except it is
accompanied with a vowel. Although we can produce certain sequences like mm, mmn, sh,
shr, zsr, etc. (all made up of consonants), such sequences cannot rightly be claimed to belong
to any particular language, they are simply identifiable human sounds which may express
some kinds of emotion in certain situations. In a majority of the world languages also, the
consonants are marginal or peripheral in the structure of words while the vowels are central
in such structural patterning.
In the production of sounds generally, there are three operative terms which all students of
the subject should be firmly knowledgeable about. These are the terms plosive, fricative and
nasal. Practically all natural languages have plosive consonants, fricative consonants and
nasal consonants, in varying numbers and in varying distributional patterns.
In the realization of a plosive consonant, four stages described here in sporting terms are
notable:
(i) Two articulators come together – the articulators may be the lips coming together; the
tongue moving up to be in contact with the teeth ridge (alveolar ridge) or the back part of the
tongue being in contact with the soft palate. We may refer to this as the preparatory or the
“on-your-marks” phase.
(ii) The air from the lungs is now held completely in check; the united organs prevent it from
escaping. We can call this the ‘get-set’ phase.
(iii) There follows a sudden parting of the organs, a process which allows the imprisoned air
to escape. This is the ‘go’ or the ‘plosion’ phase.
(iv) What follows immediately in the wake of the plosion may be voicing or voicelessness
depending on the action of the vocal lips: vibration or absence of it. We may call this the
post-plosion (the “pp” stage).
These four stages are applicable to the articulation of plosive consonants in practically all
natural languages. From these four stages we can also appreciate why plosive consonants are
sometimes referred to as stop consonants.
With respect to English, six consonant sounds /p, b, t, d, k, g/ are often realized following the
four stages outlined above. Of these six, /b,d,g/ are generally said to be voiced (even if they
are not equally vigorously voided in all word positions), while /p, t, k/ are generally said to be
voiceless. It has also generally been claimed that the voiceless plosives are produced with a
great exertion of energy and so the consonants are said to be strong.
On the other hand, it is generally claimed that the realization of the voiced plosives /b,d,g/
takes a comparatively less exertion of energy in their realization and so the plosives are said
to be weak or lenis. The terms fortis and lenis are however not restricted to English alone.
Indeed, any language in which the dichotomy of energy exertion is observable may employ
the terms for the description of plosive or any other consonant sounds for that matter.
The next term in our preliminary discussion of consonant is fricative. Fricative consonants
are realized when articulating organs get near to each other, leaving a small space between
them. Because of the narrowed space, the air that passes through makes some kind of hissing
sound. Such consonants are often said to be continuant consonants, and this is because of
the fact that the fricative sounds can be continued almost indefinitely so long as the
speaker has enough air to continue the pronunciation at any given time.
The last of our operative terms is nasal. Nasal consonants are those which are realized
through the nose. For this to happen, the soft palate must be lowered to cover the mouth
cavity and this allow the nasal cavity free for the air to pass through. In all natural languages,
consonants of this class exist and are explicable in terms of this kind of lowering of the soft
palate. This possibility of lowering the soft palate during sound production presupposes that
even oral sounds can be nasalized, (for illustration or for any other reasons).
The process of nasalized is a very crucial one in sound production because it makes the
important difference between two sets of sounds – oral and nasal. Ordinarily, all vowels and
all consonants produced without a lowering of the soft palate belong to one class – oral
sounds. All other sounds which pass through the nose cavity are nasal sounds. In a majority
of the world’s languages, all nasals are voiced. So, in a detailed description of a nasal, it is
superfluous to say something like. Voiced velar nasal for / /. It is enough to say: velar nasal.
A Summary of Consonant Patterning
Consonants in English may be patterned according to place of articulation. Here, from the
view point of;
(i) place of articulation, English has four bilabial consonants – those sounds realized between
the two lips: /p,b,m,w/
(ii) two labio-dental consonants – those sounds realized with the lower lip and the upper front
teeth: /f,v/
(i) two interdental (or dental) consonants – those sounds realized with the tip of the tongue
between the two rows of teeth: / ,ð/
(ii) seven alveolar consonants – those sounds realized with the tip of the tongue at the teeth
ridge (alveolar ridge): /t,d,l,n,r,s,z/
(iii) Four palato-alveolar consonants – those sounds realized with the tip of the tongue
simultaneously against the hard palate and the teeth ridge: / , , , /
(iv) one palatal consonant – the sound realized with the tongue touching the hard palate /j/
(v) three velar consonants – those sounds realized with the tongue touching the soft palate:
/k,g, /
(vi) one glottal consonant – the sound realized in the glottis: /h/

VOWELS
The English language has a total of twenty vowels, twelve pure vowels and eight diphthongs.
Pure vowels, also called monothongs, are those vowels which are produced by the movement
of the tongue in one direction only. Pure vowels are also described as simple vocalic sounds
that are said to have ‘a steady state articulation’, implying that the tongue, lips and jaw
achieve, however briefly, a stable configuration, commonly called Target Configuration, if
produced in isolation (Clark & Yallop,1990:73). It is common knowledge that the tongue and
lips undergo transitions in anticipation of a sound that follows or was produced before
another sound but these transitions notwithstanding, a vowel sound which appears to have a
stable auditory quality qualifies to be called a pure vowel. The diphthongs are often
characterised by a glide from one vowel position to another. In such vocalic sounds,
according to (Clark & Yallop, 1990: 73), ‘the glide component
is so prominent even though it is still heard as a single sound.’ Unlike the pure vowels, they
are not tied to conventional numbers. The word diphthong comes from Greek. It means
‘double sound.’ The first vowel in diphthong marks the starting point while the second sound
marks the direction of tongue movement. The first vowel is often longer and louder than the
second. Diphthongs are often transcribed, using diagraphs made up of two vowel symbols,
which represent the starting point and the direction of movement of the tongue during
articulation. The eight English diphthongs are thus:
[ei] as in day, make, great, late
[ai] as in time, light, try, buy
[ i] as in boy, noise, joy, buoy
[ u] as in both, soap, know, sold
[ u] as in sound, town, owl, cow
[i ] as in dear, idea, hero, here
[u ] as in poor, sure, tour, truant
[e ] as in share, pair, wear, Mary
In addition to eight diphthongs, we also have five triphthongs. In careful and slow
pronunciation, it is often possible to distinguish three vowel sounds articulated together.
These are called triphthongs. For example, a careful pronunciation of the vowel in the word
‘tower’ shows three vowels in one sound thus: [t u ]. In English, there are five triphthongs
made up of the five closing diphthongs with
schwa [ ] added to them. Thus we have
[ei] + [ ] – [ei ] as in player, layer
[ i] + [ ] – [ i ] as in fire, tyre
[ i] + [ ] – [ i ] as in royal, loyal
[ u] + [ ] – [ u ] as in sower, lower
[ u] + [ ] – [ u ] as in flower, tower
In each case, the glide is from the first sound to the sound and to the third. As already noted,
it is only the slow and careful English speaker whose speech can feature these complex
vowels. In rapid or normal speech, triphthongs are often reduced to long vowels and
diphthongs with the middle vowel heard only slightly or not at all.
Grouping of the Vowel Sounds of English
The vowel sounds of English may be grouped, first, following the relative duration of the
sounds. Here, four subgroups are generally recognised. These are:
i) Long monothongs (pure vowels): [i:, :, :, u:, :]
ii) Diphthongs (glides): [ei, i, i, u, u, i , e , u ]
iii) Trigpthongs [ei , i , i , u , u ]
As you already know, the above are all long vowels.
iv) Short monothongs (pure vowels): [ , e, æ, u, , ]
Secondly, the vowel phonemes of English may be grouped according to the part of the tongue
raised. There are three subgroups of vowels here:
i) Front [i:, , e, æ]
ii) Back [ , :, u, u:]
iii) Central [ , , :]
There is a vowel that does not neatly fit into any of these three subgroups. It is [ :] usually
grouped as nearer back than front.
Thirdly, the vowel phonemes of English may be grouped according to the extent of raising of
the tongue towards the roof of the mouth. Six subgroups are generally noted here:
i) Close [i:, u:]
ii) Half-close [ , u]
iii) Half-open [ ]
iv) Between ii) and iii) [e, :, ]
v) Open [ :]
vi) Between iii) and v) [æ]
The close vowels [i:, u:] may, alternatively, be grouped as high vowels; the half-close and
half-open [ , u, ] may be said to be mid vowels while the open vowel [ :] may be said to be
low vowels.
With regard to the position of the lips at the time of pronunciation,
i) [u:, :]
ii) [u, ]
iii) [i:, , e, æ, , :, , :] are realised with spread or neutral lips.
Self-Assessment Questions
1. What is the relationship between Phonetics and phonology?
2. Examine the sound patters of vowel and consonant sounds.

Tutor Marked Assignment

Attempt a brief grouping of vowels sounds of English according to the part of the tongue
raised to the roof of the mouth and the extent of such a raising.

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Eka, D. & Inyang, U. (1996). Aspects of spoken language. Calabar: BON Universal
Eka, D. (1996). Phonological foundations of English. Uyo: Scholars Press (Nig.) Ltd.
Clark, J & C. Yallop (1990): An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology; Oxford; Basil
Blackwell.
Yule, George (2002): The Study of Language. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
Courseware for GNS 111

Professor Abdullahi Kadir Ayinde

Topic: Writing Skills

Introduction

This chapter concentrates on the techniques for writing all form of essays, letters, reports and

other academic course works requiring a step-by-step method of pre-writing, writing and re-

writing. Of all the skills of communication, writing is the most difficult because it demands

meticulous effort and painstaking commitment to accomplish. Writing essays does not mean

using long words and lofty phrases. Matthew Arnold cited in Collinson (1986, p.144) advises

that “Have something to say and say it as clearly as you can”. There is no single, universal and

exclusive set in which an essay should be written, but certainly, writing requires a form or shape

for it to be meaningful.

Writing is of various categories. Its dominant characteristics are the audience, subject matter, and

purpose. The different kinds of writing include essays namely: (Narrative, Descriptive,

Argumentative, and Expository), letters (Formal and Informal), creative writing, business

correspondence, news reports, feature articles, editorials, advertisements, press release, technical

and research reports among others. For effective communication, all learners must be adequately

familiar with the skills of writing already enumerated above.

The purpose of this chapter is to deal with some of the main conventions and techniques for the

scholarly presentation of written work. The chapter provides a working knowledge of the main

conventions for effective written communication.

Basic Form

The basic form of writing may nearly be derived from the kind of the discourse in question. The

basic form must be developed into a coherent plan that can be given content. Writing, according

to linguists, is a dual interaction and interface between the writer and audience. A good writer

must, therefore, have a firm grasp of the various steps required for presenting a good piece of

essay. These steps have been simplified into pre-writing, writing and post-writing.

Pre-Writing

Pre-writing is the first major stage of presenting a good essay. It is the preliminary stage where

the writer assembles relevant ideas that could serve the purpose of developing a coherent

discourse. The activity at this stage is brain-storming. The writer prods his thought to generate

cogent ideas that can support the essay. The writer also reads widely to gather materials needed

for content development. At this era of information and communication advancement in

technology, the writer can also take advantage of the internet and emerging artificial intelligence

platform to research ideas that can concretely help to develop a meaningful report. The golden

advice is that when you read through an essay question for the first time, you may immediately

find ideas about the topic crowding into your head or you may have to do quite a lot of reading

and thinking before you start writing. Preparatory reading for gathering ideas and brain- storming

is what the linguists referred to as the pre-writing stage. The recommendations for preparing an

essay at this stage include:

1. Assemble the materials you will need for the writing

2. Develop an outline plan that will deal systematically with the essay
 3. Read the topic carefully to see exactly what it requires you to do. Devise a basic form for

the writing, noting key words in the topic

4. Jot down the main points that you think should be included in the essay and fit them into

the plan

5. Refer back to the topic to check that you are actually doing what is required of you

6. Write a short opening paragraph to the essay embodying your main idea, conclusion,

argument or claim

A word of warning at this stage is that one must be aware of the danger of assembling a

large number of books and notes at the same time. The writer may find him or she

bogged down in reading and searching for materials and so confused in starting the essay.

Resist spending a disproportionate amount of time on this stage.

Writing

Writing is the second stage that launches the writer into the real business. This is also the

segment where the writer arranges ideas in logical paragraphs. Essay must be developed

coherently in such a way that there is a free flow of thought from one level to another. The stage

requires the writer to prepare a meaningful draft that follows the order of the beginning, body

and conclusion.

The beginning is the introductory paragraph where the writer sets the tone of the essay in a way

that is highly captivating for the reader to develop a strong interest in reading the content.

The body is where the writer communicates the rest of the ideas systematically in a stream of

coherent paragraphs. Writing involves combining a sequence of ideas until they form a cohesive

whole. The advice is that the writer must avoid an haphazardly combined string of sentences
with disjointed paragraphs and ungrammatical expressions that make mutual intelligibility

difficult to achieve. Writing requires the rules of meaningful expression be carefully done. It also

involves an avoidance of the pitfalls that typify bad writing. The basic rules is that the writer

must be guided by the following signposts to make the writing reader-centred:

1. What am I trying to communicate to my audience?

2. What is the better way to achieve mutual intelligibility?

3. What image or word choices will make the communication have the desired effect?

4. Is the general expression good enough to have an effect?

5. Have I avoided unnecessary digression?

6. Are there superfluous preambles to be removed?

In the words of Collinson (1986, p.157), the good writer is someone

who has paragraphs varied in length, development and organization. He lets me

know where he is going, moves quickly through the simple materials, and explain

and illustrates more difficult points. His paragraphs are carefully connected, and

when there is a marked change in thought, there are enough indications to help me

follow the shift. He does not repeat unnecessarily or digress; instead, he covers

his subject thoroughly and briefly. While I am still interested, he completes his

work in a satisfactory final paragraph and leaves me wishing that there were more

writers like him.

Post-Writing

The post-writing stage is where the writer carefully edits, reviews and proof readings the

draft generated at the writing stage. The idea is that since the mind travels faster than the

pen while writing, the possibility of mistakes, omissions and grammatical infelicities are
 inevitable. This stage requires two levels of editing namely: structural and stylistic.

Structural editing involves the overhauling of the entire structure of the paragraphs to

achieve an effective organization of ideas and adequate logical and coherent forms.

Stylistic editing involves paying attention to grammatical expressiveness, mechanical

accuracy and relevance. Basic rule here is that:

1. Check back the topic to be convince of appropriateness of the ideas

2. Mark and remove any words, phrases and sentences that do not relate directly to the

argument

3. Remember to make sure you edit, review and proof read

4. Improve the sentence structure

5. Have an eagle eye to spot mistake and effect corrections

6. A careful editing and revising reduces mistakes of grammar, lexical choices, bad

organization and several other inappropriateness

References

Collinson, D.J.(1986) Writing English: A Working Guide to the skills of written English,
England: Wildwood House
 PARTS OF SPEECH
Sub Topic: Modifiers and Qualifiers

Introduction: In English language, there are some words or phrases that give
additional information. Modifiers and qualifiers are in the category of those
parts of speech that give details (more information) in sentences.

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
i. identify part of speech that can be classified as modifiers
ii. identify the part of speech that can be classified as qualifiers
iii. identify the functions of both modifiers and qualifiers in any given
sentence.

Main Content:
Modifiers
Modifiers generally mean any part of speech that describes or adds detail.
Modifiers provide additional information about other words or phrases in a
sentence. A modifier can just be a word, a phrase, or an entire dependent clause.

Adjectives and adverbs are parts of speech commonly called modifiers. An

adjective modifies (or describes) a noun or pronoun, and an adverb modifies (or
describes) a verb, adjective, or another adverb.

Types of Modifiers
Right from the definition above, the main types of modifiers can be deduced as
Adjectives and adverbs.
Adjectival:
 these are words that describe nouns
Examples: beautiful, tall, brilliant, dull, smart etc.)
  adjective phrases
Examples:
i. that’s a melodious song,
ii. a delicious cake
iii. that’s a brilliant performance……
Adverbial

 adverbs (words that describe verbs, , adjectives, or other adverbs)

Examples: beautifully, very , smartly, brilliantly etc.
 adverb phrases

Examples:

a very tall girl

beautifully made dress…..

How do you identify a modifier in a sentence?
A modifier that gives some information such as size or color of a noun, is an
adjective while a modifier answers questions such as why? when? or how is an
adverb.

Qualifier
What are qualifiers in writing?

A qualifier in English grammar, is a word, or phrase, (such as very) that

precedes an adverbs or adjectives increasing or decreasing the quality signified
by the word it modifies. Qualifier is a type of word that is used to add extra
meaning to another word. Qualifiers could also come before a verb and noun, -
depending on the type of qualifier used. One common use of a qualifier is to
either enhance or limit the meaning of the following word.
Examples of common qualifiers:

very, quite, rather, somewhat, more, most, less, least, too, so, just, enough,
indeed, still, almost, fairly, really, pretty, even, a bit, a little, a (whole) lot, a
good deal, a great deal, kind of, sort of.

i. she is extremely happy

ii. the cake is absolutely delicious
iii. the classroom is fairy peaceful.

Self-Assessment Questions:

1. Define modifiers.
2. Which classes of words are classed as modifiers?
3. List 10 examples of quantifiers.

Tutor Marked Assignment

How can identify Modifiers and Quantifiers in sentences?

References
Babatunde, S.T (2019) Basic Syntactic Classes in Courseware on Fundamentals
of Use of English, (pp 33-41). General Studies Division, University of Ilorin,.
Nordquist, Richard. (2024). Qualifier Words in English Grammar. Retrieved
from [Link]
Rodney, H., & Geoffrey, K. (2005). A Student’s Introduction to English
Grammar . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Grammatical Words
Words can be categorised along various parameters. Using one of such parameters
dichotomises words into (i) Content Words and (ii) Grammatical Words.
Content Words, also known as Lexical Words, are the carriers of specific meanings that are
germane or integral to the overall meaning of a sentence. The removal of a content word makes
the intended meaning of a sentence collapse. For example,
John is going to Lagos.
If someone who speaks poor English says, “John going Lagos”, this ungrammatical
statement is meaningful because the content words necessary to convey the intended meaning
have been retained after deleting the words “is” and “to”. Therefore, it is obvious that the
content words in the sentence “John is going to Lagos” are “John”, “going”, and “Lagos”.
The foregoing means that “is” and “to” are not content words. They are, therefore, examples
of grammatical words.
Now that we have an idea of what content words are, let us delve into the necessary
details about grammatical words.
Grammatical words, also known as function words, are those that merely help to make
sentences adhere to the rules and structures of grammar in a language. They do not contribute
significant or specific meaning to sentences. They only show grammatical relationships among
the meaning-giving words in sentences.
From our earlier example, we must have found that “is” and “to” are grammatical
words. Without them, the sentence is ungrammatical but it still gives us the essential meaning.
While we can liken content words to the blocks that give structure to a building, grammatical
words can be likened to the cement mixture that joins the blocks firmly together. We can
achieve the shape of a room by placing blocks on top of one another but the blocks can be put
in disarray if not joined with the proper quantity of cement and sand mixture. However, the
cement mixture cannot be used alone to build a room.
The classes of words that constitute the grammatical words are:
 Prepositions: “to”, “from”, "in", "on", "at"
 Conjunctions: "and", "but", "or"
 Articles: "a", "an", "the"
 Auxiliary verbs: "is", "are", "have", "will"
 Pronouns: "He", "She", "They", “It”, “him”, “her”, “them”, “it”

1
Prepositions
Prepositions link nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other words within a sentence. They
indicate how content words are related to one another in terms of time, purpose, direction,
manner or instrumentality, or place.

Types of Prepositions
The types of prepositions are:
Prepositions of Time (specifying time or duration):
They have been friends for fifty years.
The environmental sanitation exercise is on Thursday.
The meeting started at noon.
The plane will take off in the evening.
The celebrations have started since last Sunday.

Prepositions of Place (indicating a static location or position):

Daddy is in the bathroom.
Your food is on the table.
He is at the door.
The bag is under the table.
The man sat between his wives.

Prepositions of Direction/Movement (depicting movement toward or away from something):

Daddy ran to the bathroom.
The rat jumped into the food.
The thief escaped through the window.
They headed toward the accident scene.

Prepositions of Manner or Instrument (depicting how something is done or with what):

She traveled by air.
We always do that on purpose.
She ate the meat with a fork and a knife.

Prepositions of Cause, Reason, or Purpose (showing reason or purpose):

The drinks are for you.

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The banks’ early closure was because of the rampant armed robbery cases.
The boy’s abysmal failure was due to his gross irresponsibility.

Conjunctions
Conjunctions are words that join or link words to one another in sentences. Examples
are:
Conjunctions joining two words: James and John; Come and sit; speaking or listening; tea
with sugar, etc.
Conjunctions joining two phrases: by fire or by force; coming together or going in disarray;
under the sun or in the rain; going about and doing good; helping the poor while going through
life, etc.
There are three major types of conjunctions, namely coordinating conjunctions,
subordinating conjunctions, and correlative conjunctions.

Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions join to items (words, phrases, clauses) of equal grammatical
status without subjugating one to another. The following examples would suffice:
Clause 1: He came.
Clause 2: They arrested him.
Joined: He came and they arrested him.
If we decide to break the last sentence again into two, we shall have:
Clause 1: He came.
Clause 2: And they arrested him.
Note that in English Grammar, And they arrested him remains a complete and
grammatically correct sentence. This means the clause they arrested him maintains its
independent status even when the conjunction “and” is used to join it to an earlier clause. This
is because “and” coordinates the equal clauses rather than subordinate one to another. This is
going to get clearer as we look at subordination conjunctions.
Other examples of coordinating conjunctions are but and or.
Clause 1: Go to London.
Clause 2: Come to Nigeria.
Joined: Go to London or come to Nigeria. (Note that Or come to Nigeria is still a complete and
independent sentence/clause).
Clause 1: He paid his school fees.

3
Clause 2: He was disallowed from writing the examination.
Joined: He paid his school fees but he was disallowed from writing the examination. (Note that
But he was disallowed from writing the examination is a grammatically complete sentence in
English language).

Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction reduces or lowers the status of a clause which it joins to
another. It subordinates the concerned clause to the one to which it is joined. If the joined
clauses are separated, the one that goes with the conjunction will no longer be a grammatically
complete sentence though it was before the joining.

Clause 1: He loved her.

Clause 2: She was beautiful.
Joined: She loved her because she was beautiful.
Separated: He loved her. (This remains independent and complete)
Because she was beautiful (This is no longer a complete sentence because it
begins with the subordinating conjunction “because”. Because is thus a
subordinating conjunction).

Other subordinating conjunctions are while, when, although, though, unless.

Clause 1: He was well served (Complete, independent clause).

Clause 2: He did not pay (Complete, independent clause).
Joined: He was well served though he did not pay.
Separated: He was well served (Complete and independent)
Though he did not pay (rendered incomplete and grammatically dependent on He was
well served. Evidence of subordination)

Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to connect elements of equal grammatical status
in a sentence.
The common pairs are:
 Both...and: Both good and evil attract corresponding rewards.
 Either...or: You can either participate onsite, or you join online.
 Neither...nor: Neither the leaders nor the led are ready for a genuine change.

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  Not only...but also: She is not only beautiful but also brilliant.
 Whether...or: You need to be sure whether to continue fighting or run away.

Articles
Articles are words that are used before a noun to define it as specific or unspecific. In
English, there are two types of articles: definite articles and indefinite articles.

Definite Article: "The"

The definite article "the" is used to refer to a specific noun that is known to both the
encoder (speaker/writer) and the decoder (listener/reader). It can be used with singular or plural
nouns and with both count (countable) and non-count (uncountable) nouns.

The man in the mirror must change his ways (The particular man is known to both the speaker
and the listener).
The boy we saw yesterday is looking for you (The particular boy is known to both speaker and
listener).

When to Use the Definite Article

i. When something has already been mentioned or is clearly understood, e.g.
A man came into town this morning. The man looked so scary that people fled from
him.
ii. When there is only one of the noun that the article pre-qualifies (e.g., the sky, the
earth, the sun, the moon).
The sky is beautiful.
iii. When referring to something unique (e.g., the president, the Internet).
The Internet never forgets.

Indefinite Articles: "A" and "An"

"A" and "an" are indefinite articles used before a non-specific noun. They are used when the
noun is being mentioned for the first time or when it is one of many of its type.
"A" is used before nouns that begin with a consonant sound.
I saw a car in the village (The car is not specific.)
He is a carpenter (Refers to any carpenter, not a specific one.)

"An" is used before nouns that begin with a vowel sound.

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An apple every day will significantly improve your health (The apple is not specific.)
An angel may appear in human form to help a man (any angel, not a particular one, and any
man, not a specific one.)

When to Use an Indefinite Article

i. When the noun is mentioned for the first time or is non-specific.
ii. When referring to one item with many of its type.
iii. When used before a noun denoting professions, nationalities, and religions.
iv. When the exact identity of the noun is unknown or unspecified.

Auxiliary verbs
Auxiliary verbs constitute another category of grammatical words. You will understand
the concept of auxiliary verbs when you think of auxiliary nurses in hospitals or auxiliary
teachers in pre-nursery schools. They are helping nurses and helping teachers respectively.
Auxiliary verbs are also simply known as helping verbs because their usefulness is to
help their main verbs to attain grammatical correctness. Auxiliary verbs are not the carriers of
the verbal meaning. They help their main verbs with additional grammatical meaning along the
line of tenses, moods, voices, or questions in English sentences. Without them, their sentences
will still convey meaning as long as there is a main verb. Examples:

1a. Kunle will go to Lagos tomorrow (with the auxiliary verb will).
2a. Taye has done his homework (with the auxiliary verb has).

1b. Kunle go to Lagos tomorrow (without the auxiliary verb will).

2b. Taye done his homework (with the auxiliary verb has)

You would agree that Sentences 1b and 2b are still meaningful without the auxiliary
verbs because the verbs that contain the meaning of what happened (main verbs) are “go” and
“done”. However, though meaningful, the sentences became grammatically deficient in the
absence of “will” and “has” respectively. This is because auxiliary verbs, being grammatical
words constitute the cement that put the content words into shape for grammaticality.

6
Pronouns
Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns in a sentence to avoid annoying
repetition and make sentences more concise. They help to refer to people, objects, or ideas
without constantly repeating the noun.
There are several types of pronouns, each serving a different function. Here's a
breakdown of the main types of pronouns:

1. Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns refer to specific people or things and change form based on their
role in a sentence (subject, object, possessive).

 Subject pronouns (used as the subject of a sentence):

I, You, He, She, It, We, They

Examples:
I write legibly always.
She makes beautiful dresses.
They are always fighting.

 Object pronouns (used as the object of a verb or preposition):

o me, you, him, her, it, us, them
o Examples:
 Ade helped me greatly today.
 The woman gave him a golden ring.
 The bank lent us N1.5m.

 Possessive pronouns (signify ownership):
o mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs
o Examples:
 The pleasure is mine.
 That car is theirs.

2. Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are used when the subject and the object of the sentence are the
same person or thing. This means the doer is also the bearer of the consequence of the action.
So, the verb must be transitive. They are formed by adding -self (singular) or -selves (plural)
to personal pronouns.

 Reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,

themselves
o Examples:
 I made the dress myself.
 She mistakenly hurt herself in the kitchen.
 They took good care of themselves at the party.

3. Emphatic Pronouns
Emphatic pronouns are used for emphasis on the fact that a particular entity but not any
other performed an action. Note that the same morphological items (words) that function as

7
reflexive pronouns are also employed to function as emphatic pronouns. So, it is not the form
but the functions that differentiate reflexive pronouns from emphatic pronouns.

Example:
* I did the work myself.
* She killed the snake herself.
* We caught the armed robbers ourselves.

Note that while reflexive pronouns cannot be moved to another syntactic position in
their sentences, emphatic pronouns are very mobile; they can be moved to different positions
and still be correct, e.g.
*I did the work myself.
* I myself did the work.
* She killed the snake herself.
*She herself killed the snake.
* We caught the armed robbers ourselves.
* We ourselves caught the armed robbers.
Another way you can differentiate emphatic pronouns from the reflexive ones is that
the former can be removed from their sentences and the sentences will still remain complete
but the deletion of the latter will destroy their sentences.

4. Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns are used to point to specific things or people, often in relation
to their proximity (near or far).

 Demonstrative pronouns: this (singular and nearby), these (plural and nearby), that
(singular and far), those (plural and far)
o Examples:
 This is my beloved son. (refers to something close)
 Those are my closest friends. (refers to plural entities far away)
 These are the pens she gave me. (plural, near)
 That is the who sent you the money. (singular, far)

5. Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions about unknown persons or things.
 Interrogative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, what
o Examples:
 Who is your father?
 What did you give him?
 Which house is yours?

6. Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns are used to connect a clause or phrase to a noun or pronoun. They
introduce relative clauses, providing more information about the noun.
 Relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that
o Examples:

8
  The boy who stole your bicycle yesterday died this morning.
 The food that you bought for me is delicious.
 The clothes which she bought yesterday are not new.

7. Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific persons or things. They do not point to any
specific object or person but are used to refer to people or things in a general sense.
 Indefinite pronouns: anyone, everybody, someone, nobody, all, some, many, few, etc.
o Examples:
 Someone asked after you this morning.
 Everybody is has a fault or another to correct.
 Nothing can make a truly bold man afraid

8. Reciprocal Pronouns
Reciprocal pronouns are used to express mutual actions or relationships between two
or more people or things.
 Reciprocal pronouns: each other (between two entities), one another (among three or
more entities)
o Examples:
 The two children love each other.
 All the five children love one another.

Caveat: Do not go about labelling any of the words named in this section until you have seen
it used in a context. This will be a classic example of the fallacy of overgeneralisation. The
example of emphatic pronouns and reflexive pronouns clearly exemplify this crucial rule.

9
 TOPIC: ICT IN MODERN LANGUAGE LEARNING
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 ICT, Education and Language Learning
3.0 Types and usage of ICT Tools in language Learning
4.0 The Key Features of ICT
5.0 Why is ICT necessary in modern education and Language Learning?
6.0 ICT Tools Usage in Language Learning
7.0 Issues and challenges in learning with ICT tools
8.0 Advantages and disadvantages of ICT in language learning
9.0 Conclusion
10.0 References

1.0 Introduction:
The ever increasing explosion of highly attractive multimedia resources on offer has boosted the
use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) in teaching and learning of modern
languages. In today’s digital age, the world is rapidly shifting towards the online realm. From
shopping and entertainment to employment and education, almost every aspect of our lives is
influenced by the internet. First and foremost ICT is very essential for both teachers and student
alike because it aligns with the current trend. Traditional method of learning is gradually
becoming obsolete as more learning method move online using virtual teaching and language
learning system.

2.0 ICT, Education and Language Learning

ICT in education point of view refers to technology such as computers, communication facilities
and features that variously support teaching, learning and a range of activities in education. ICT
has become essential in the language learning because it gives a chance to the users to increase
their language as well as skills (e.g. learners) and to provide interesting materials (e.g. teachers).
ICT has become essential tool for educational change and reform as it leads us from “traditional”
to “modern” learning process. The key features of ICT include but not limited to Speed, capacity,
automation, communicability, replication, provisionality, interactivity, non-linearity and
modality.

Historically, computers have been used for language teaching since the 1960s’ however,
widespread use of (ICT) in language teaching and learning has only really occurred over the past
decade with the development of multimedia resources and the Internet. With the greater
emphasis currently placed on an e-learning culture, developments are now taking place to find
ways of learning electronically and effectively.
ICT as a support for classroom teaching, and as a part of it, has the obvious benefits of easy
access whenever and wherever one wishes, it dematerialization enabling us to use modern
methodologies as well as individualization serving different interests, levels and needs. Also, it
enables contacts beyond our university, state, and continent. Students have an overview of
topical issues, their context and background easy access for quickly finding inspiration for
(continuing) the conversation developing the skills for finding the right information, analyse,
present and discuss it, developing the skills for using the e-environment and new technologies,
developing responsibility for the learning process, forming one´s own opinion and learning to
(dare to) express it.

In this twenty-first century, we are all living in the age of digital technology. Information and
communication technology (ICT) is a force that has changed many aspects of the way we live.
ICT has been used world-wide to help people such as in business, trade, marketing, science,
education and others. Now, ICT is currently being used in education to assist students to learn
more effectively and help teachers to do administrative tasks more efficiently. In other words,
ICT in education has made it possible for students, teachers, specialists and researchers to
collaborate with each other in diverse ways

3.0 The Key Features of ICT are Speed, capacity, automation, communicability, replication,
provisionality, interactivity, non-linearity and multi-modality.

4.0 Why is ICT necessary in modern education and Language Learning? ICT from
educational point of view refers technology such as computers, communications facilities and
features that variously support teaching, learning and a range of activities in education. ICT has
also become essential in the language learning because it gives a chance to the users to increase
their language knowledge as well as skills (e.g. learners) and to provide interesting materials
(e.g. lecturers). In fact, ICT has become essential tool for educational change and reform as it
leads us from “traditional” to “modern” learning process. ICT is very essential in modern
education and language learning for several reasons as follows:

a. Enhance Learning Opportunities: ICT provides access to a wealth of information and

resources beyond traditional textbooks. Students can explore online databases,
educational videos and e-books which enrich their learning experience.
b. Interactive Learning: Tools like interactive whiteboards, educational software and
online platforms facilitate more engaging and interactive learning environments. This can
lead to improved student motivation and participation.
c. Collaboration and Communication: ICT enables seamless communication among
students and teachers, regardless of their physical location. Tools such as discussion
boards, video conferencing and collaborative documents allow for group work and peer
learning.
 d. Personalized Learning: Technology allows for tailored educational experiences.
Adaptive learning technologies can adjust the curriculum based on individual student
needs, helping them learn at their own pace.
e. Skill Development: Proficiency in ICT is crucial for students’ future careers. Integrating
technology in education helps students develop essential skills such as digital literacy,
critical thinking and problem-solving.
f. Accessibility: ICT can make language learning more accessible to diverse learners,
including those with disabilities. Adaptive technologies support various learning styles
and needs.
g. Efficient Administration: Educational institutions can use ICT for administrative tasks
such as managing student records, scheduling and communication with parents leading to
improved efficiency and organization.
h. Global Learning Environment: ICT connects students and educators worldwide,
fostering a global perspective. Students can engage with peers from different cultures and
backgrounds, enhancing their understanding of global issues.
In summary, ICT is integral to modern education and language learning as it enhances learning,
promotes collaboration, supports diverse learning needs and prepares students for a technology-
driven world.

5.0 ICT tools usage in language learning

A. Communication Tools
Video Conferencing: Tools like Zoom, Google Meet, and Microsoft Teams enable real-
time language instruction and conversation practice. It can also be used for online language
classes, even in low-bandwidth conditions by adjusting video quality.
Chat Platforms: WhatsApp, Telegram, and Slack allow for written language practice and
quick feedback.
Messaging Apps: WhatsApp and Telegram are widely accessible and affordable, enable
group chats, voice notes, and file sharing for language practice.

B. Multimedia Tools
Audio/Video Content: YouTube, podcasts, audiobooks, and language learning videos
provide listening and speaking practice.
Interactive Presentations: Tools like Prezi or Microsoft Sway help teachers create
engaging, multimedia-rich lessons.
Radio & Podcasts: With a strong radio culture in Nigeria, language-learning radio
programs and podcasts in Pidgin English, Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo can supplement traditional
learning.
Local Content on YouTube: Teachers can create or recommend YouTube channels that
focus on Nigerian languages or English learning with local accents.
C. Language Learning Software and Apps
Interactive Platforms: Duolingo, Babbel, and Rosetta Stone provide structured language
courses with interactive exercises.
Digital Flashcards: Anki and Quizlet offer vocabulary practice with customizable,
multimedia flashcards.
Localized Apps: Apps like Duolingo and Babbel can be complemented by apps tailored
for African languages, e.g., Yoruba101, Igbo101, or Hausa language apps.
Offline Modes: Apps with offline access are critical in areas with limited internet,
ensuring learning continuity.

D. Online Learning Platforms

Learning Management Systems (LMS): Platforms like Moodle, Blackboard, and Canvas
host language courses, resources, assignments, and assessments.
Platforms like Moodle and Google Classroom are already used in many Nigerian
universities and can support both English and indigenous language courses.
MOOCs: Websites like Coursera and edX offer language courses with video lectures,
exercises, and peer interaction.
Open Educational Resources (OER): Free resources from platforms like Alison and
Khan Academy can be integrated for language learning.

E. Collaborative Tools
Online Forums and Discussion Boards: Students can discuss language concepts, ask
questions, and receive peer support on platforms like Reddit and language-specific forums.
Document Collaboration: Tools like Google Docs and Microsoft OneDrive enable
collaborative writing and peer editing.
WhatsApp Groups & Facebook Groups: Affordable and familiar tools for group
discussions, peer support, and collaborative writing in different languages.
Google Docs: Suitable for collaborative writing tasks and can work even with slow
internet, encouraging group assignments in English or local languages.

F. Assessment and Feedback Tools

Online Quizzes and Tests: Kahoot!, Quizizz, and Google Forms allow for interactive
assessments with instant feedback.
Speech Recognition: AI-driven tools like Google Translate’s voice feature or Microsoft’s
Immersive Reader help learners improve pronunciation.
Kahoot! and Quizizz: Teachers can create fun, competitive quizzes that work well in
classrooms with smartphones or computer labs.
Voice Notes for Pronunciation Practice: Students can submit voice notes via WhatsApp
for teachers to provide personalized feedback on pronunciation.
G. Digital Resources and Repositories
E-books and Online Libraries: Websites like Project Gutenberg and digital libraries offer
access to multilingual texts and learning materials.
Dictionaries and Translation Tools: Platforms like Linguee and WordReference provide
definitions, translations, and examples.
E-Libraries and E-books: Access to resources like the National Virtual Library of
Nigeria and free e-book platforms like Worldreader helps students to access language materials.
Dictionaries and Translation Tools: African Storybook Project and WordReference offer
contextually relevant language resources.

H. Gamification Tools
Language Games: Interactive games, such as Wordwall or Kahoot!, make vocabulary and
grammar learning engaging.
Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR): Immersive language environments
allow learners to practice real-life scenarios.
Language Games for Local Contexts: Tools like Wordwall and Plickers can be adapted
for Nigerian language learning by incorporating local proverbs, folktales, and cultural references.
Offline Games: Interactive, culturally relevant language games designed for offline use
can reach rural areas.

I. Social Media Platforms

Language Learning Communities: Facebook groups, Instagram, Twitter, and TikTok are
used for informal learning, sharing tips, and practicing with native speakers.
Instagram, Twitter & TikTok: Nigerian students can follow language-learning hashtags,
join challenges, and participate in interactive language communities with content tailored to their
culture and languages.

J. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Adaptive Learning

Personalized Learning Platforms: AI tools like ScribeSense or adaptive learning software
adjust content based on a learner's progress and needs.
Chatbots: Language practice chatbots offer conversational practice and vocabulary
reinforcement. AI Chatbots could be programmed to understand Pidgin English and other
Nigerian languages, offering conversational practice for both English and indigenous languages.
Speech Recognition Tools: AI-powered tools like Google Assistant can help students
practice pronunciation with Nigerian accents and dialects.

The under listed are other specific examples of ICT usage in language learning. They include but
not limited to the following:
 YouTube: a website where learners can find all sorts of videos which people have made
by themselves, others, of TV shows, etc. and have put on the web for everyone to see.
  WhatsApp Messenger: allows the users to exchange messages by creating groups and
sending each other unlimited images, video and audio media messages over an internet
connection.
 Facebook: closed Facebook groups can be a great way of communicating between
teachers and their learners. Learners can share ideas, opinions and homework projects
using Facebook group.
 INSTAGRAM: can be a valuable tool for the teachers because they can use innovative
ways to boost students’ engagement in the classroom.
 Blog: This is a great educational tool and it gives learners complete freedom to publish
content on the web. Blog not only displays written form but also photos and some people
also post in which it contains audio and even video.
 Sounds Right: Provides pronunciation chart that helps the users practice their
pronunciation in speaking.
 EnglishCentral: This site provides the users with videos with subtitles and can also
improve their speaking and pronunciation. Users watch the videos, practice vocabulary
used in the video, record themselves repeating what they hear and then get feedback on
their pronunciation.
 Learn English Audio and Video: This app helps the users improve their listening skill
by making them listen to and watch most popular English learning podcasts and videos in
LearnEnglish Audio and video.
 Zimmer Twins: The users can create short cartoon animations, add subtitles and voice-
overs.
 TooNDco: This website allows the users to create their own comics, make toon books,
characters, doodles and upload their work.
 JPThe Jakarta Pos: offers English news sources divided into some themes such as
lifestyle, travel, opinion, community and multimedia to the users that might improve their
reading skill.

Each type of ICT tool plays a role in making language learning more interactive and
engaging. These ICT adaptations can also make language learning more accessible and culturally
relevant for both teachers and students, regardless of their location or access to technology.

7.0 Issues and challenges in Learning with ICT Tools

With changes in modern technologies, learners need to be equipped with updated knowledge that
will help them adapt to the changing world. Such knowledge leads to better communication and
increased 21st century skills. Up‐to‐date technology offers many methods of enhancing
classroom teaching and learning. In this digital era, ICT use in the classroom is important for
giving students opportunities to learn and apply the required 21st century skills. Hence studying
the issues and challenges related to ICT use in teaching and learning can assist teachers in
overcoming the obstacles and become successful technology users. Due to ICT’s importance in
society as well as in the future of education, identifying the possible challenges to integrating
these technologies in schools would be an important step in improving the quality of teaching
and learning modern languages.

Challenges in integrating ICT into teaching and learning are enormous. Several research studies
indicate that lack of access to resources, including home access, is a complex challenge that
prevents teachers from integrating new technologies into education. Another impediment to
technology integration in the classroom is lack of technical support .Technical problems generate
barriers to the smooth lesson delivery by teachers. However, researches have shown that the
level of this barrier differs from country to country. In the developing countries, research
reported that teachers’ lack of technological competence is a main barrier to their acceptance and
adoption of ICT. Hence, lack of teacher competence may be one of the strong barriers to
integration of technology into education. It may also be one of the factors involved in resistance
to change. Implementing ICT in education presents several challenges for schools. These
challenges are as follows:

a. Infrastructural Issues: Institutions struggle with inadequate technological infrastructure,

including insufficient internet bandwidth, outdated hardware and lack of reliable power
sources.
b. Cost: The financial investment required for purchasing equipment, software licenses and
ongoing maintenance can be substantial. Budget constraints often limit institutions’
ability to implement and sustain ICT initiatives.
c. Training and Professional Development: Teachers may lack the necessary skills or
confidence to effectively integrate ICT into teaching. Continuous professional
development is essential, but it can be challenging to provide adequate training.
d. Curriculum Integration: Integrating ICT into existing curriculum can be complex.
Educators may find it difficult to align technology use with learning objectives and
ensure that that it enhances rather than distracts from educational goals.
e. Equity and Access: Disparities in access to technology can create inequalities among
students. Not all students may have the same opportunities to engage with ICT at home,
which can widen the achievement gap.
f. Resistance to change: Some educators and stakeholders may be resistant to adopting
new technologies due to comfort with traditional teaching methods or skepticism about
the effectiveness of ICT in education.
g. Technical Support: Institutions often lack sufficient technical support for
troubleshooting and maintaining technology, leading to frustrations and interruptions in
the learning process.
h. Privacy and Security Concerns: The use of digital tools raises issues related to student
data privacy and cybersecurity. Institutions must implement measures to protect sensitive
information.
 i. Over dependency on Technology: There is a risk that both teachers and students may
become overly reliant on technology, potentially undermining critical thinking and
problem-solving skills.
j. Continuous Evolution: The rapid pace of technological change means that institutions
must constantly adapt which can be overwhelming and resource-intensive.
Addressing these challenges requires careful planning, adequate funding and a commitment to
continuous professional development and support.

8.0 Advantages and Disadvantages of ICT in Language Learning

The following points highlight some of the advantages of ICT in language learning

1. ICT provides language learners to use the authentic materials

a. The internet provides an easy and fast access to the use of current and authentic
materials in the language being studied. Such materials include online newspapers,
webcasts, podcast, newsroom video clips and video sharing websites such as such as
YouTube.
b. Learners become more innovative with the help of ICT. The use of ICT motivates the
learners enabling them do better in their pursuit of knowledge and skill in a new
learning environment and experience. This helps learners engage in using authentic
language and linguistic resources.
c. ICT provides information to the learners which will be useful for them to compete
with the competitive world.
d. ICT facilitates student centered autonomous learning in the absence of face-to-face
teaching and learning. Students can study anytime and anywhere according to their
needs. This facilitates independent use of language learning process.
2. The opportunities to cooperate and collaborate with others
a. Learners are motivated to communicate and collaborate with peers around the world.
b. Using ICT, they can use Skype or online chatting to write to each other in real-time,
see and speak to one another online.
c. Learners are able to write, read, speak, listen and react to a conversation using ICT as
part of language learning process. In other words learners can use it for pleasure in
terms of enhancing language skills such as listening, speaking, reading and writing to
supplement their classroom language use.
d. The language learning through ICT not only enhances the linguistic skills, but also
the learner`s competence in using technology, which is essential for future
employment, higher education, personal development and their role in the modern
society. English language proficiency with technical skills increases employability of
the graduates.
e. ICT eliminates geographical barriers to learning. Students can access information and
resources from all parts of the world resulting in increased learning. ICT tools such as
 Chats, Online Forum Discussions (OFDs), etc. would open opportunities for cross-
cultural and continental interaction in the target language.
3. Language teachers can tutor their learners more effectively
a. Teachers are able to give individual and personalized guidance to the learners that
might lead them to be independent learners.
b. The language teachers can use different approaches for the learners and accommodate
their different learning styles needs and characteristics (fast, slow or handicapped).
c. The teacher can exert powerful motivation and provide bored learners with exciting
new ways to learn such as providing pictorial description in the materials.
d. The use of several media like audio, video, authentic contexts and real-world
experiences help language learners with different learning styles to assimilate the
content according to their needs.

Disadvantages
1. Learners get short span of attention because of the ICT in language learning
2. Online learning cannot offer human interaction: ICT often encourages passive
learning without being actively involved with others in the learning process. The learners
spend most of the time in a virtual learning environment resulting in limited personal
socio-cultural interaction. This limits the learners‟ interpersonal relationships and
interactions. Some scholars believe that children study better from real-life experiences
than from the learning through ICT. The use of ICT limits the learners only to a virtual
learning platform away from classroom learning with their peers.
3. Learners may open or log on to the unnecessary websites: Young learners are
vulnerable and they might be negatively influenced by the numerous contents that they
are exposed through ICT. They can log on to unnecessary websites to play games or to
watch movies etc.
4. Requirement for intense self-discipline and self-direction: The matured adults or
parents have no control over the vast amount of information available to the learners
through ICT. Practitioners should exercise discretion in involving learners in ICT
mediated language learning.
5. Good infrastructure and trained man power is required for the ICT tools in teaching and
learning
6. The teacher is only a mediator
7. ICT can cause „digital gap‟ among the learners: The learners who have more
accessibility to ICT would out-do other learners who have less exposure to ICT.
Similarly, the learners‟ familiarity with the ICT tools also affects their learning that the
learners who are more skilled in the use of ICT tools tend to take better advantage of
learning target language than the learners who are not equally skilled.
8. Learners may focus more on technical skills than the learning that is the primary
goal of ICT usage. Learners therefore may not be able to utilize the language learning
time and effort as they might be distracted by the technical elements in the ICT usage.
 9. Teachers may not be well equipped and updated with the use of ICT tools resulting in
slow teaching

9.0 Conclusion

With the development of more ICT tools used for language learning, there are still endless
opportunities for novelties, development and change. Students are becoming more and more
engaged, the communication and learning are less and less teacher-centred. In these
developments the role of teachers, students, and learning itself are continuously changing to offer
exiting possibilities for further development. Many of these developments are to be discovered in
the work process together with the students and colleagues from all over the globe.

10.0 References:

1. Bahodirovich, B. U. (2023). The Importance of ICT in Modern Language Learning, Horizon:

Journal of Humanity and Artificial Intelligence, 02(05), 600-602. Available at:
[Link]

2. Marilyn, H., Sean, N. & Ann, B. (2007). The use of ICT in the Assessment of Modern
Languages: the English Context and European Viewpoints, Educational Review, Available at:
[Link]

3. Mullama, K. (2010). ICT in Language Learning - Benefits and Methodological Implications,

International Education Studies. 3(1). Available at: [Link]/ies

4. Rahmani, L. A. & Hanafi, R. E. W. (2016). ICT and Language Learning, MDELT. Available
at: C:\Users\DELL\Downloads\Pengguna Internet Indonesia 2016 Dalam Angka.mp4.

5. Yunus, M. M., Lubis, M. A. & Lin, C. P. (2009). Language Learning via ICT: Uses,
Challenges and Issues. WSEAS Transactions on Information Science and Applications, 9(6).
Available at: [Link]

6. Ghavifekr, S., Kunjappan, T., Ramasamy, L. & Anthony, A. (2011). Teaching and Learning
with ICT Tools: Issues and Challenges from Teachers’ Perceptions, Malaysian Online Journal of
Educational Technology (MOJET), 4(2), 38-57. Available at: [Link].
Logical Reasoning and Thinking – GST 111

Logical reasoning is the process of analyzing information, identifying patterns, and making
conclusions based on given premises. It is a fundamental aspect of critical thinking and problem-
solving.

1. What is Logical Reasoning?

Logical reasoning refers to the ability to evaluate arguments, identify valid conclusions, and
distinguish between strong and weak reasoning. It involves structured thinking based on logic,
rather than emotions or assumptions.

2. Types of Logical Reasoning

There are several types of logical reasoning, including:

A. Deductive Reasoning

• Involves drawing specific conclusions from general premises.

• If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
• Example:
o Premise 1: All humans are mortal.
o Premise 2: Socrates is a human.
o Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

B. Inductive Reasoning

• Moves from specific observations to general conclusions.

• The conclusion is probable but not guaranteed.
• Example:
o Premise 1: The sun has risen in the east every day so far.
 o Conclusion: The sun will rise in the east tomorrow.

C. Abductive Reasoning

• Involves making the best possible guess based on incomplete information.

• Often used in scientific hypotheses and medical diagnoses.
• Example:
o Premise 1: The grass is wet.
o Premise 2: It might have rained overnight.
o Conclusion: It likely rained overnight.

D. Analogical Reasoning

• Involves comparing two similar cases and inferring that what applies to one applies to the
other.
• Example:
o Premise 1: The heart pumps blood in the human body.
o Premise 2: A pump moves fluid in a machine.
o Conclusion: The heart functions like a pump.

3. Syllogism

Syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning where a conclusion is drawn from two premises.

Types of Syllogism

1. Categorical Syllogism
o Uses statements that categorize things.
o Example:
▪ Premise 1: All birds have wings.
▪ Premise 2: A sparrow is a bird.
▪ Conclusion: A sparrow has wings.
 2. Hypothetical Syllogism
o Uses "if-then" statements.
o Example:
▪ Premise 1: If it rains, the ground will be wet.
▪ Premise 2: It is raining.
▪ Conclusion: The ground is wet.
3. Disjunctive Syllogism
o Uses "either-or" statements.
o Example:
▪ Premise 1: Either John is at home or at the market.
▪ Premise 2: John is not at home.
▪ Conclusion: John is at the market.

4. Other Types of Logical Reasoning

1. Propositional Logic (Sentential Logic)

o Deals with statements (propositions) and their logical connections (AND, OR,
NOT, IF-THEN).
o Example:
▪ Statement: If it is raining, then I will take an umbrella.
2. Predicate Logic (First-Order Logic)
o Extends propositional logic by using variables and quantifiers.
o Example:
▪ Statement: "All humans are mortal" → ∀x (Human(x) → Mortal(x))
3. Non-Monotonic Reasoning
o Involves reasoning where conclusions can change when new information is
added.
o Example:
▪ "Birds can fly." (But later you learn that penguins are birds that cannot
fly.)
 4. Fuzzy Logic
o Deals with reasoning that is approximate rather than exact.
o Example:
▪ "The weather is hot." (Hot is a subjective term that depends on
perception.)
5. Modal Logic
o Involves reasoning about possibility and necessity.
o Example:
▪ "It is possible that it will rain tomorrow."

5. Logical Fallacies (Errors in Reasoning)

Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that weaken arguments.

1. Ad Hominem – Attacking the person instead of the argument.

o Example: "You're too young to understand this topic."
2. Straw Man – Misrepresenting an argument to make it easier to attack.
o Example: "Person A: We should have stricter gun laws.
Person B: So you want to ban all guns and leave us defenseless?"
3. False Dilemma – Presenting only two options when more exist.
o Example: "Either you support our policy or you hate the country."
4. Circular Reasoning – Using the conclusion as evidence.
o Example: "I'm always right because I never make mistakes."
5. Hasty Generalization – Making a conclusion based on insufficient evidence.
o Example: "All programmers are introverts because I know one who is."

6. Importance of Logical Reasoning

• Helps in critical thinking and decision-making.

 • Enhances problem-solving skills.
• Used in mathematics, computer science, law, and philosophy.
• Improves academic and professional reasoning ability.

Conclusion

Logical reasoning is essential for academic success and real-world problem-solving.

Understanding deductive, inductive, and other forms of reasoning, as well as avoiding logical
fallacies, will improve your ability to think critically and argue effectively.
Argument Basics

Copyright 2022 by Dr. Michael LaBossiere

Argument Basics premises are intended to provide complete
support for the conclusion.
While people have a general idea of what
A third “type” of argument is a fallacy. A
“argument” means, the term does have a
fallacy is an argument in which the premises fail
technical meaning in the context of philosophy
to provide adequate support for the conclusion.
that is well worth considering.
There are inductive fallacies and deductive
fallacies.
“Argument” Defined
While people generally think of an argument
as a fight, perhaps involving the hurling of small Examples of Arguments
appliances, this is not the case-at least as the
term is used in philosophy. In philosophy, an An Inductive Argument
argument is a set of claims, one of which is Premise 1: Most Siberian huskies enjoy running.
supposed to be supported by the others. There Premise 2: Isis is a Siberian husky.
are two types of claims in an argument. The first Conclusion: Isis enjoys running.
type of claim is the conclusion. This is the claim
that is supposed to be supported by the A Deductive Argument
premises. A single argument has one and only Premise 1: If pornography has a detrimental
one conclusion, although the conclusion of one effect on one’s character, it would be best to
argument can be used as a premise in another avoid it.
argument (thus forming an extended argument). Premise 2: Pornography has a detrimental effect
To find a conclusion, ask “what is the point?” If on one’s character.
there is no point being made, then there is no Conclusion: It would be best to avoid
argument. If a point is being made, then there pornography.
can be an argument.
The second type of claim is the premise. A An Extended Deductive Argument
premise is a claim given as evidence or a reason
for accepting the conclusion. Aside from Argument1, Premise 1: If pornography has a
practical concerns, there is no limit to the detrimental effect on one’s character, it would be
number of premises in a single argument. To best to regard it as harmful.
find a premise ask, “what evidence or reasons Argument 1, Premise 2: Pornography has a
are given for the point being made?” If there is detrimental effect on one’s character.
no evidence or reason being offered, then there Argument 1, Conclusion: It would be best to
is no argument. regard pornography as harmful.
As such, to make an argument requires Argument 2, Premise 1: If it is best to regard
making a point (conclusion) and backing it up something as harmful, then the government
with evidence or reasons (premises). should protect people from it.
Argument 2, Premise 2: It would be best to
Varieties regard pornography as harmful.
There are two main categories of arguments Argument 2, Conclusion: The government
(three if bad arguments are considered a should protect people from pornography.
category). The first type is the inductive
argument. An inductive argument is an A Fallacy (Circumstantial ad hominem)
argument in which the premises are intended to Premise 1: Dave supports the tax reduction for
provide some degree of support but less than businesses and says it will be good for everyone,
complete support for the conclusion. but he owns a business.
The second type is the deductive argument. A Conclusion: Dave must be wrong about the tax
deductive argument is an argument in which the reduction.
 then the conclusion must be true. An invalid
General Assessment argument is such that all the premises could be
Just like almost everything else, arguments are true and the conclusion false at the same time.
subject to assessment. When creating an Validity is tested by formal means, such as truth
argument, the usual goal is to make a good one. tables, Venn diagrams and proofs. If an
When assessing an argument, the goal is to argument is valid and has all true premises, then
determine whether it is good or not. it is sound. Naturally, a sound deductive
When assessing any argument there are two argument also has a true conclusion. If a
main factors to consider: the quality of the deductive argument is invalid, has one or more
premises and the quality of the reasoning. false premises (or both) it is unsound.
While people often blend the two together, the While deductive arguments are assessed in
quality of the reasoning is quite distinct from the strict “black and white” terms (valid or invalid,
quality of the premises. Just as it is possible to sound or unsound), inductive arguments are
build poorly using excellent materials, it is assessed in terms of varying degrees of strength.
possible to reason badly using good premises. A strong inductive argument is an argument
Also, just as it is possible for a skilled builder to such that if the premises are true, then the
assemble crappy material with great skill, it is conclusion is likely to be true. A weak inductive
possible to reason well using poor premises. As argument is an argument such that even if the
another analogy, consider a check book. Doing premises are true, the conclusion is not likely to
the math is the same thing as reasoning. The be true. There are various degrees of strength
math can be done correctly (good reasoning) but and weakness which express a somewhat
the information entered for the checks (the subjective opinion of how well the argument’s
premises) can be mistaken (for example, premises logically support the conclusion. Such
entering $5.00 instead of $50). It is also possible assessments are based on the standards for
to enter all the checks correctly, but for there to assessing the specific type of argument and the
be errors in the mathematics. better the argument succeeds at meeting the
standards, the stronger the argument. The worse
Reasoning it fails, the weaker the argument. A strong
When assessing the quality of reasoning, the inductive argument with true premises is often
question to ask is: Do the premises logically called cogent.
support the conclusion? If the premises do not
logically support the conclusion, then the Premises
argument is flawed, and the conclusion should When assessing the quality of the premises,
not be accepted based on the premises provided. the question to ask is: are the premises true (or
The conclusion may, in fact, be true, but a at least plausible)? While the testing of premises
flawed argument gives you no logical reason to can be a rather extensive matter, it is reasonable
believe the conclusion because of the argument to accept a premise as plausible if it meets three
in question. Hence, it would be a mistake to conditions. First, the premise is consistent with
accept it for those reasons. If the premises do your own observations. Second, the premise is
logically support the conclusion, then you consistent with your background beliefs and
would have a good reason to accept the experience. Third, the premise is consistent with
conclusion, on the assumption that the premises credible sources, such as experts, standard
are true or at least plausible. references and textbooks. It should be noted that
The way the reasoning is assessed depends on thoroughly and rigorously examining premises
whether the argument is deductive or inductive. generally involves going far beyond the three
If the argument is deductive, it is assessed in basic standards presented here.
terms of being valid or invalid. A valid
argument is such that if the premises were true
Good and Bad Faith Arguing principle of charity. Following this principle
Philosophical argumentation aims at requires interpreting claims in the best possible
establishing the truth of a claim. The goal of light and reconstructing (or constructing)
persuasion is to get the audience to believe a arguments to make them as strong as possible.
claim whether it is true or false. Philosophical There are three reasons to follow the principle.
argumentation requires that one argues in good The first is that the use of this principle is the right
faith; persuasion does not. This is not to say that thing to do. The second is that doing so helps
persuasive techniques are forbidden when avoid committing the straw person fallacy. In
arguing philosophically. You can and should use this context, this is a fallacy in which one presents
persuasive techniques to make your arguments a distorted or exaggerated version of an
more interesting, but you should not use them as argument and then takes criticism of that version
substitutes for arguments. to refute the real argument. The third is practical:
Arguing in good faith is not the same thing as criticism of the best and strongest version of an
making a good argument: a person could make a argument also addresses the lesser versions.
terrible argument or use false premises in good The principle of charity should be tempered by
faith. This is because arguing in good or bad faith the principle of plausibility. If you are
is primarily a matter of intention. That said, considering another person’s argument, then the
arguments made in bad faith will tend to be bad claims must be interpreted, and the argument
arguments. To use an analogy, a person can reconstructed in a way that matches what is
prepare a turkey in good faith with the intention known about the source and the context. For
of making it safe and delicious. But the turkey example, reconstructing an argument by
could turn out badly or could even give the Descartes and including premises from quantum
guests food poisoning. Preparing food in bad physics would violate the principle of
faith, to continue the analogy, would aim at plausibility. Now, on to arguing in bad faith.
deceiving guests about what they are really Arguing in bad faith is not the same thing as
eating or even aim at intentionally poisoning arguing badly, but it usually involves making
them. As the analogy suggests, just as you would bad arguments with dubious premises. As with
want to avoid bad faith cooks you would want to good faith, bad faith is a matter of intention.
avoid those who argue in bad faith. They will not When a person argues in bad faith, they intend to
be serving up anything you should consume. deceive and mislead when engaged in argument.
When a person argues in good faith, they A person can engage in bad faith arguing in
intend to argue that a claim is true by using good many ways.
logic and true (or at least plausible) evidence and One way to argue in bad faith is to knowingly
reasons. Arguing in good faith does not require use fallacies (errors in logic) to try to get the
that a person believes the claim they are arguing audience to accept a claim as true (or reject one as
for, but they do need to be honest about this. A false). To illustrate, a person arguing in bad faith
person can advance an argument they disagree might make a straw person (a distorted version)
with as part of a good faith discussion. For out of their opponent’s view or launch an ad
example, philosophical argumentation often Hominen attack against them to “refute” them.
includes considering objections against one’s Another way to argue in bad faith is to
position and these objections can (and should) be knowingly use persuasive devices (rhetoric) in
made in good faith. As another example, when a place of evidence and reasons to get the audience
philosophy presents the views of a philosopher to believe a claim. As noted above, you can use
they disagree with, they should present the persuasive devices in good faith when making an
arguments in good faith. argument. For example, a person skilled at both
When considering arguments against your argumentation and comedy might make a
view (be they objections you raise yourself or hilarious but good argument.
not), arguing in good faith means using the
 A third way to argue in bad faith is to use lies Example
as premises or the conclusion of an argument. If reality is just a dream, it should seem
This is different from unintentionally using claims incoherent.
that are not true—a person can make a false claim Reality does not seem incoherent.
and not be lying, since lying is a matter not just of Reality is not just a dream.
truth but also intention. A person can also make
a true claim and still be lying; this could occur Hypothetical Syllogism
because the person incorrectly believes the claim Form
is false and is trying to deceive the audience into Premise 1: If P, then Q.
accepting the claim as true. Premise 2: If Q, then R.
Like sorting out when someone is lying, Conclusion: If P, then R.
determining when someone is arguing in bad
faith can be challenging. A person who is arguing Example
in good faith might seem to be arguing in bad If cheating is wrong, then cheating in a class is
faith if they unintentionally use bad logic or make wrong.
false claims. Someone who is skilled at arguing in If cheating in a class is wrong, cheating on this
bad faith might be utterly convincing and seem test is wrong.
to be advancing incredible arguments. If cheating is wrong, then cheating on this test is
Fortunately, when assessing arguments and wrong.
claims you can cut through bad faith by focusing
on using the methods of logic and critical Disjunctive Syllogism
thinking to sort things out. Form
Premise 1: P V Q
Some Common Valid Deductive Premise 2: Not P
Conclusion: Q
Arguments
Example
Modus Ponens (Affirming the Antecedent) Bill can lose weight through surgery or diet and
Form exercise.
Premise 1: If P, then Q Bill decided not to diet or exercise.
Premise 2: P Bill has decided to lose weight through surgery.
Conclusion: Q
Dilemma
Form 1
Example
Premise 1: If P, then Q
If killing in war is like murder, it is Premise 2: If R, then S
immoral. Premise 3: P or R
Killing in war is like murder. Conclusion: Q or S
Killing in war is immoral.
Form 2
Modus Tollens (Denying the Consequent) Premise 1: If P, then Q
Form Premise 2: If R, then S
Premise 1: If P, then Q. Premise 3: Not Q or not S
Premise 2: Not Q. Conclusion: Not P or not R
Conclusion: Not P.
Form 3
Premise 1: If P, then Q.
Premise 2: If not P, then not Q.
Premise 3: P or not P. presenting a comparison is not the same thing as
Conclusion: Q or not Q. making an argument.
An analogical argument is an argument in
Example which one concludes that two things are alike in
If lying is wrong, then people should not lie. a certain respect because they are alike in other
If lying is not wrong, then it is okay for people respects.
to lie. As might be imagined, analogies are often
Lying is either wrong or it is not. used in ways other than in arguments. One
So people should not lie or it is acceptable. common non-argument use of analogies is to
explain something. These sorts of analogies are
Reductio Ad Absurdum (Reducing to often called explanatory comparisons or
Absurdity) explanatory analogies. For example, a person
Form #1 might attempt to explain the working of the
Premise 1: Assume that a claim, P, is true. heart in terms of a pump. Non-argumentative
Premise 2: Prove that this assumption leads to analogies are often also used for humorous
something false, absurd, or contradictory. purposes or in other artistic contexts.
Premise 3: Conclude that the claim that P is true Analogical arguments are extremely common.
is itself false. In addition to being used in everyday life, they
Conclusion: Conclude that P is false. are commonly used in law and medicine. For
example, when a lawyer argues from precedent,
Form #2 they are most likely using an analogical
Assume that a claim, P, is false. argument. Doctors also make extensive use of
Prove that this assumption leads to something analogical arguments. For example, they draw
false, absurd, or contradictory. analogies between what they observed in
Conclude that the claim that P is false is itself medical school and what they are observing in a
false. specific patient. For example, a doctor might
Conclude that P is true. reason that because this patient’s condition
closely resembles the case of poison ivy they
Example saw in medical school, the patient has been
1. Oppression is best defined as the exposed to poison ivy.
mistreatment of a minority by a majority.
2. In the case of sexism, a majority (women) is Form
mistreated by a minority (men). An analogy will typically have three premises
3. Therefore, sexism is not oppression. and a conclusion. The first premise two
4. This is absurd, so the definition is flawed. premises establish the analogy by showing that
the things (X and Y) in question are similar in
Inductive Arguments certain respects (properties P, Q, R, etc.). The
third premise establishes that X has an
additional quality, Z. The conclusion asserts that
Analogical Argument Y has property or feature Z as well. Although
An analogy is a comparison between two (or people generally present analogical arguments
more things). For example, if a person says in an informal manner, they have the following
“congress is like an really old car: it costs a lot of logical form:
money to keep going and it makes a lot of noise,
but really doesn’t get you anywhere fast”, then Premise 1: X has properties P,Q, and R.
she is making an analogy. Of course, merely Premise 2: Y has properties P,Q, and R.
Premise 3: X has property Z.
Conclusion: Y has property Z.
 Conclusion: Y is morally good (or morally
A more concise two premise version is also wrong).
common:
A more concise two premise version is also
Premise 1: X and Y have properties P,Q,R. common:
Premise 2: X has property Z.
Conclusion: Y has property Z. Premise 1: X and Y have properties P,Q,R.
Premise 2: X is morally good (or morally
X and Y are variables that stand for whatever wrong).
is being compared, such as chimpanzees and Conclusion: Y is morally good (or morally
humans or apples and oranges. P, Q, R, and are wrong).
also variables, but they stand for properties or
features that X and Y are known to possess, such
as having a heart. Z is also a variable and it Examples of Analogical Arguments
stands for the property or feature that X is
known to possess. The use of P, Q, and R is just Example #1
for the sake of the illustration-the things being Premise 1: Attacking your next-door neighbors,
compared might have many more properties in killing them, and taking their property is
common. morally wrong.
An example of an analogy presented in strict Premise 2: War involves going into a
form is as follows: neighboring country, killing people and taking
their property.
Premise 1: Rats are mammals and possess a Conclusion: So, war is morally wrong.
nervous system that includes a developed brain.
Premise 2: Humans are mammals possess a Example #2
nervous system that includes a developed brain. Premise 1: Animals and humans are both
Premise 3: When exposed to the neurotoxin capable of suffering and experiencing pain.
being tested, 90% of the rats died. Premise 2: Killing humans is morally wrong.
Conclusion: If exposed to the neurotoxin, 90% Conclusion: So, killing animals is morally
of all humans will die. wrong.

Moral Argument from Analogy Standards of Assessment

It is very easy to make a moral argument The strength of an analogical argument
using an argument from analogy. To argue that depends on three factors. To the degree that an
Y is morally wrong, find an X that is already analogical argument meets these standards it is
accepted as being wrong and show how Y is like a strong argument.
X. To argue that Y is morally good (or at least First, the more properties X and Y have in
morally acceptable), find an X that is already common, the better the argument. For example,
accepted as morally good (or at least morally in the example given above rats and humans
acceptable) and show how Y is like X. To be a bit have many properties in common. This standard
more formal, here is how the argument would is based on the commonsense notion that the
look: more two things are alike in other ways, the
more likely it is that they will be alike in some
Premise 1: X has properties P,Q, and R. other way. It should be noted that even if the
Premise 2: Y has properties P,Q, and R. two things are very much alike in many
Premise 3: X is morally good (or morally respects, there is still the possibility that they are
wrong). not alike regarding Z. This is why analogical
arguments are inductive.
 Second, the more relevant the shared this is to argue that there is a relevant difference
properties are to property Z, the stronger the (or differences) between humans and animals
argument. A specific property, for example P, is that weakens the analogy enough to make the
relevant to property Z if the presence or absence argument fail. As a specific example, the French
of P affects the likelihood that Z will be present. philosopher Descartes argued that humans have
Using the example, above, the shared properties minds and animals do not, thus (as he saw it)
are relevant. After all, since neurotoxins work killing a human is rather different from killing
on the nervous system, the presence of a an animal.
nervous system makes it more likely that The premises can, of course, also be
something will be killed by such agents. It questioned. In this example, it could be argued
should be kept in mind that it is possible for X that killing humans is not morally wrong and
and Y to share relevant properties while Y does this would undercut the support for the
not actually have property Z. Again, this is part conclusion.
of the reason why analogical arguments are Such responses can be responded to in turn, so
inductive. that a dispute over an argument from analogy
Third, it must be determined whether X and Y might go through many rounds of response and
have relevant dissimilarities as well as counter response. For example, if someone
similarities. The more dissimilarities and the presents an argument supporting the claim that
more relevant they are, the weaker the killing humans is not wrong, the defender of the
argument. In the example above, humans and analogy could counter with an argument aimed
rats do have dissimilarities, but most of them are at showing that killing humans is morally
probably not particularly relevant to the effects wrong.
of neurotoxins. However, it would be worth
considering that the size difference might be Argument from/by Example
relevant and thus a difference worth
considering.
Introduction
Not surprisingly, an argument by example is
Responding to an Argument from Analogy
an argument in which a claim is supported by
When arguing against an argument by
analogy, the overall goal is to show that the two providing examples.
While they are used in academic contexts
things being compared are not enough alike to
justify the conclusion. To be more specific, this is quite often, arguments by example are also
commonly used in “real life.” For example,
done by showing that the argument in question
fails to adequately meet the standards for suppose someone wants to show that another
person always mooches pizza without offering
assessing an argument from analogy. Naturally,
to help pay for it. The case could be made by
an argument from analogy can also be criticized
by calling the premises into question. listing examples in which the “pizza mooch” ate
pizza but did not contribute any money.
For example, consider the second example
given above. In this argument it is claimed that
Strict Form
humans and animals are both capable of
suffering and experiencing pain. Given that Strictly presented, an analogy will have at
killing humans is morally wrong, it would seem least one premise and a conclusion. Each
premise is used to support the conclusion by
to follow that killing animals is also morally
wrong. providing an example. The general idea is that
the weight of the examples establishes the claim
One way to respond to this argument is to try
to show that humans and animals are not in question.
similar enough in relevant ways for the
conclusion to follow. Another way to approach
 Although people generally present arguments that would support the claim that stem cell
by example in a fairly informal manner, they research would be harmful.
have the following logical form: Because of its usefulness is arguing that
something is beneficial or harmful, arguments
Premise 1: Example 1 is an example that by/from example are often used in conjunction
supports claim P. with the appeal to consequence (see below).
Premise n: Example n is an example that
supports claim P. Example
Conclusion: Claim P is true.
Premise 1: Stem cell research could allow
In this case n is a variable standing for the doctors to regrow replacement limbs and
number of the premise in question and P is a organs, which would be beneficial.
variable standing for the claim under Premise 2: Stem cell research could allow the
consideration. development of new treatments for disease
An example of an argument by example ranging from diabetes to Parkinson’s disease,
presented in strict form is as follows: which would be beneficial.
Premise 3: Stem cell research could allow more
Premise 1: Lena ate pizza two months ago and effective testing of drugs without using animal
did not contribute any money. or human subjects, which would be beneficial.
Premise 2: Lena ate pizza a month ago and did Conclusion: Stem cell research could have
not contribute any money. significant benefits.
Premise 3: Lena ate pizza two weeks ago and
did not contribute any money.
Premise 4: Lena ate pizza a week ago and did Standards of Assessment
not contribute any money. The strength of an analogical argument
Conclusion: Lena is a pizza mooch who eats but depends on four factors. First, the more
does not contribute. examples, the stronger the argument. For
example, if Lena only failed to pay for the pizza
Moral Argument by/from Example she ate once, then the claim that she is a mooch
Arguments by/from example are generally not who does not contribute would not be well
used to directly argue that something is right or supported-the argument would be very weak.
wrong. They are most used to argue for a claim Second, the more relevant the examples, the
that will itself be used in an explicitly moral stronger the argument. For example, if it were
argument. That is, they are generally used to concluded that Lena was a pizza mooch because
settle a factual issue. she regularly failed to pay for her share of gas
For example, suppose that someone is arguing money, then the argument would be weak. After
about stem cell research. A person in favor of all, her failure to pay gas money does not
the research might want to argue that it is strongly support the claim that she will not help
morally acceptable because of all the benefits. In pay for pizza (although it would provide
order to do this, she would most likely want to grounds for suspecting she might not pay).
argue that it has numerous significant benefits Third, the examples must be specific and
by giving examples of these benefits in an clearly identified. Vague and unidentified
argument by/from example. A person who is examples do not provide much in the way of
opposed to stem cell research might, in contrast, support. For example, if someone claimed that
want to argue that it is immoral because of the Lena was a pizza mooch because “you know,
harms it would generate. As such, he might she didn’t pay and stuff on some days…like
present various examples of significant harms some time a month or maybe a couple months
ago”, then the argument would be extremely presenting reasons or evidence showing that the
weak. research is not likely to have the alleged
Fourth, counterexamples must be considered. benefits.
A counterexample is an example that counts Such responses can be responded to in turn
against the claim. One way to look at a counter and these can also be countered. For example, if
example is that it is an example that supports it were argued that stem cell research most
the denial of the conclusion being argued for. likely will not lead to the ability to grow limbs
The more counterexamples and the more and organs, another argument could be given to
relevant they are, the weaker the argument. For try to show that it is likely that it will have the
example, if someone accuses Lena of being a alleged benefits. This process can go on for quite
pizza mooch, but other people have examples of some time, especially in very controversial
times which she did contribute, then these matters-such as stem cell research.
examples would serve as counterexamples
against the claim that she is a pizza mooch. As Examples
such, counterexamples can be used to build an
argument by example that has as its conclusion Example #1
the claim that the conclusion it counters is false. Premise 1: The painting Oath of the Horatii
shows three brothers ready to take action, while
the women are painted as passive observers.
Responding to an Argument by/from Example Premise 2: In action films, such as typical
Responding to an argument by/from example Westerns, women are cast as victims that must
in a critical manner involves assessing it based be protected and saved by men.
on the standards presented above and showing Conclusion: Art reinforces gender stereotypes.
how it fails to meet one or more of them (in the
case of counter examples, this involves Assessment of Example #1
presenting counter examples). The overall goal While art is full of stereotypes, more examples
is to show that the examples do not adequately should be used. The examples are relevant, but
support the conclusion. Naturally, an argument specific Westerns should be named and
by/from example can also be criticized by described. Finally, there are counterexamples,
questioning the truth of the premises. especially in modern films and TV, that need to
In the example given above, the gist is that be considered.
stem cell research could have significant benefits
because of the numerous examples of potential Example #2
benefits. The benefits do seem to be relevant and Premise 1: The Egyptians believed in an afterlife
adequately numerous, so the most likely as shown by their funeral preparations.
avenues of criticism would involve the other Premise 2: Plato’s writings indicate that the
two standards. First, it might be argued that the ancient Greeks believed in an afterlife.
examples need to provide more details (such as Premise 3: The Chinese practice of ancestor
the likelihood of the positive results) before the worship indicates they believed in an afterlife.
conclusion can be considered adequately Conclusion: People of ancient cultures believed
supported. Second, perhaps the best way to in an afterlife.
counter this argument is by presenting counter
examples to show that such research would be Assessment of Example #2
harmful rather than beneficial (one common More examples should be used, but the mix of
argument is that such research would devalue diverse cultures strengthens the argument. The
human life). examples are relevant. They could be more
As with any argument, the premises can be detailed but are reasonably specific. There are
challenged. In this example it would involve
some limited counterexamples, such as periods censorship of violence might cite an authority
of doubt about the afterlife in ancient Egypt. who claims that watching violent television
makes children violent.
It should be noted that an argument from
Argument from Authority authority is not an exceptionally strong
argument. After all, in such cases a claim is
being accepted as true simply because a person
Introduction is asserting that it is true. The person may be an
This is an argument in which the conclusion is expert, but her expertise does not really bear on
supported by citing an authority. Since the the actual truth (or falsity) of the claim. This is
argument is based on an appeal to the authority, because the expertise of a person does not
the strength of the support depends on the actually determine whether the claim is true or
quality of the authority in question. Given that false. Hence, arguments that deal directly with
no one can be an expert on everything and the evidence relating to the claim itself will tend to
fact that people regularly need reliable be stronger.
information, these arguments are very common. Despite the inherent weakness in this
In fact, they are used so often that people argument, a person who is a legitimate expert is
generally do not even realize they are being more likely to be right than wrong when making
used. For example, when a politician cites an considered claims within her area of expertise.
economist to justify her policies, she is making In a sense, the claim is being accepted because it
an argument from authority. As another is reasonable to believe that the expert has tested
example, when a student cites a source stating the claim and found it to be reliable. So, if the
that a historic event took place, he is using an expert has found it to be reliable, then it is
argument from authority. As a final example, reasonable to accept it as being true. Thus, the
when people trust a news source (such as CNN, listener is accepting a claim based on the
The Daily Show, or Fox News) they are probably testimony of the expert. Naturally, the main
relying on an argument from authority-they challenge is determining whether the person in
assume the news source should be trusted question is a legitimate expert or not.
because the people involved are supposed to be
experts. Strict Form
Not surprisingly, this argument is used when Strictly presented, an argument from
a person lacks the required knowledge and authority will have two premises and a
expertise and therefore needs to rely on another conclusion. The first premise claims the person
source of information. For example, most is an authority on a particular subject. The
lawyers are not experts on DNA testing or second presents the claim made by the authority
ballistics, so they hire experts to testify in court. in the subject in question and the conclusion
In effect they are saying that what the expert asserts that because an authority made the claim
says about the DNA or gun is true because the in her area of expertise, it is true.
expert is an expert. This sort of argument is also Although people generally present arguments
used when a person wants to add extra weight from authority in an informal manner, they have
to his/her position. For example, an author of a the following logical form:
book on dieting might cite other doctors and
nutritional experts that agree with her views on Premise 1: Person A is (claimed to be) an
dieting. authority on subject S.
Like other arguments, an argument from Premise 2: Person A makes claim C about
authority can be used to establish its conclusion subject S.
for use as a premise in another argument. For Premise 3: Therefore, C is true.
example, a person who is arguing for the
 A is a variable that is replaced with the require having a university degree. Many
authority’s name, S is a variable that is replaced people have high degrees of expertise in
with the subject and C is a variable that is sophisticated subjects without having ever
replaced with the actual claim. For example: attended a university. Further, it should not be
simply assumed that a person with a degree is
Premise 1: Dr. Michael LaBossiere is an an expert.
authority on arguments. Of course, what is required to be an expert is
Premise 2: Dr. Michael LaBossiere clams in the often a matter of great debate. For example,
subject area of arguments, that an argument by some people have (and do) claim expertise in
example has two premises. certain (even all) areas because of a divine
Conclusion: Therefore, it is true that an inspiration or a special gift. The followers of
argument by example has two premises. such people accept such credentials as
establishing the person’s expertise while others
Standards of Assessment often see these self-proclaimed experts as
An argument from authority is assessed in deluded or even as charlatans. In other
terms of six standards. If an argument meets situations, people debate over what sort of
these standards, then it is an acceptable education and experience is needed to be an
argument from authority and it is reasonable to expert. Thus, what one person may take to be a
accept the conclusion based on the premises. If fallacious appeal another person might take to
the argument fails to meet the standards, then it be a well-supported line of reasoning.
would not be reasonable to accept the Fortunately, many cases do not involve such
conclusion based on the premises. Bad debate.
arguments from authority are relatively
common and are known as fallacious appeals to 2. The claim being made by the person is within her
authority. area(s) of expertise.
If a person makes a claim about some subject
1. The person has sufficient expertise in the subject outside of his area(s) of expertise, then the
matter in question. person is not an expert in that context. Hence,
Claims made by a person who lacks the the claim in question is not backed by the
needed degree of expertise to make a reliable required degree of expertise and is not reliable.
claim will, obviously, not be well supported. In It is very important to remember that because
contrast, claims made by a person with the of the vast scope of human knowledge and skill
needed degree of expertise will be supported by it is simply not possible for one person to be an
the person’s reliability in the area. expert on everything. Hence, experts will only
Determining whether or not a person has the be true experts in respect to certain subject areas.
needed degree of expertise can often be very In most other areas they will have little or no
difficult. In academic fields (such as philosophy, expertise. Thus, it is important to determine
engineering, history, etc.), the person’s formal what subject area a claim falls under.
education, academic performance, publications, It is also very important to note that expertise
membership in professional societies, papers in one area does not automatically confer
presented, awards won and so forth can all be expertise in another. For example, being an
reliable indicators of expertise. Outside of expert physicist does not automatically make a
academic fields, other standards will apply. For person an expert on morality or politics.
example, having sufficient expertise to make a Unfortunately, this is often overlooked or
reliable claim about how to tie a shoelace only intentionally ignored. In fact, a great deal of
requires the ability to tie the shoe lace and advertising rests on a violation of this condition.
impart that information to others. It should be As anyone who watches television knows, it is
noted that being an expert does not always extremely common to get famous actors and
sports heroes to endorse products that they are important to keep in mind that even a field with
not qualified to assess. For example, a person a great deal of internal dispute might contain
may be a great actor, but that does not areas of significant agreement. In such cases, an
automatically make him an expert on cars or Appeal to Authority could be legitimate.
shaving or underwear or diets or politics.
4. The person in question is not significantly biased.
3. There is an adequate degree of agreement among If an expert is significantly biased, then the
the other experts in the subject in question. claims he makes within his are of bias will be
If there is a significant amount of legitimate less reliable. Since a biased expert will not be
dispute among the experts within a subject, then reliable, an Argument from Authority based on
it will fallacious to make an Appeal to Authority a biased expert will be fallacious. This is because
using the disputing experts. This is because for the evidence will not justify accepting the claim.
almost any claim being made and “supported” Experts, being people, are vulnerable to biases
by one expert there will be a counterclaim that is and prejudices. If there is evidence that a person
made and “supported” by another expert. In is biased in some manner that would affect the
such cases an Appeal to Authority would tend reliability of her claims, then an Argument from
to be futile. In such cases, the dispute has to be Authority based on that person is likely to be
settled by consideration of the actual issues fallacious. Even if the claim is true, the fact that
under dispute. Since either side in such a the expert is biased weakens the argument. This
dispute can invoke experts, the dispute cannot is because there would be reason to believe that
be rationally settled by Appeals to Authority. the expert might not be making the claim
There are many fields in which there is a because he has carefully considered it using his
significant amount of legitimate dispute. expertise. Rather, there would be reason to
Economics is a good example of such a disputed believe that the claim is being made because of
field. Anyone who is familiar with economics the expert’s bias or prejudice.
knows that there are many plausible theories It is important to remember that no person is
that are incompatible with one another. Because completely objective. At the very least, a person
of this, one expert economist could sincerely will be favorable towards her own views
claim that the deficit is the key factor while (otherwise she would probably not hold them).
another equally qualified individual could assert Because of this, some degree of bias must be
the exact opposite. Another area where dispute accepted, provided that the bias is not
is very common (and well known) is in the area significant. What counts as a significant degree
of psychology and psychiatry. As has been of bias is open to dispute and can vary a great
demonstrated in various trials, it is possible to deal from case to case. For example, many
find one expert that will assert that an people would probably suspect that doctors
individual is insane and not competent to stand who were paid by tobacco companies to
trial and to find another equally qualified expert research the effects of smoking would be biased
who will testify, under oath, that the same while other people might believe (or claim) that
individual is both sane and competent to stand they would be able to remain objective.
trial. Obviously, one cannot rely on an Appeal to
Authority in such a situation without making a 5. The area of expertise is a legitimate area or
fallacious argument. Such an argument would discipline.
be fallacious since the evidence would not Certain areas in which a person may claim
warrant accepting the conclusion. expertise may have no legitimacy or validity as
It is important to keep in mind that no field areas of knowledge or study. Obviously, claims
has complete agreement, so some degree of made in such areas will not be very reliable.
dispute is acceptable. How much is acceptable What counts as a legitimate area of expertise is
is, of course, a matter of serious debate. It is also sometimes difficult to determine. However,
there are cases which are clear cut. For example, This sort of reasoning is not unusual.
if a person claimed to be an expert at something Typically, the person making the argument will
he called “chromabullet therapy” and asserted say things like “I have a book that says…” , or
that firing colorfully painted rifle bullets at a “they say…”, or “the experts say…”, or
person would cure cancer, it would not be very “scientists believe that…”, or “I read in the
reasonable to accept his claim based on his paper..” or “I saw on TV…” or some similar
“expertise.” After all, his expertise is in an area statement. In such cases the person is often
which is devoid of legitimate content. The hoping that the listener(s) will simply accept the
general idea is that to be a legitimate expert a unidentified source as a legitimate authority and
person must have mastery over a real field or believe the claim being made. If a person accepts
area of knowledge. the claim simply because they accept the
As noted above, determining the legitimacy of unidentified source as an expert (without good
a field can often be difficult. In European reason to do so), he has fallen prey to this
history, various scientists had to struggle with fallacy.
the Church and established traditions to
establish the validity of their disciplines. For Examples
example, experts on evolution faced an uphill
battle in getting the legitimacy of their area Example#1
accepted. Premise 1: If violent art has a harmful
A modern example involves psychic psychological effect on people, then it should be
phenomenon. Some people claim that they are censored.
certified “master psychics” and are experts in Premise 2: However, the study by Loeb and
the field. Other people contend that their claims Wombat shows that violent art has little, if any
of being certified “master psychics” are simply psychological effect on people.
absurd since there is no real content to such an Conclusion: Hence, there is no need to censor
area of expertise. If these people are right, then violent art to protect people from harm.
anyone who accepts the claims of these “master
psychics” as true are victims of a fallacious Example of Assessment
appeal to authority. The source needs to be properly identified.
Further, there is a great deal of disagreement
6. The authority in question must be identified. among the experts within the field of
A common variation of the typical fallacious psychology, especially over the matter of the
appeal to authority fallacy is an appeal to an effects of violent art.
unnamed authority. This fallacy is also known
as an appeal to an unidentified authority. Example # 2
This fallacy is committed when a person Premise 1: According to medical science, there is
asserts that a claim is true because an expert or no life after death.
authority makes the claim and the person does Premise 2: Medical science is well established.
not actually identify the expert. Since the expert Conclusion: It is clear there is no life after
is not named or identified, there is no way to tell death.
if the person is an expert. Unless the person is
identified and has his expertise established, Example of Assessment
there is no reason to accept the claim. More information is needed about medical
science, such as the exact source of the claim.