Course 6
RAINWATER HARVESTING
Teacher
Saroj Sharma
1
[Link]@[Link]
Contents
This Course is built up from 5 parts:
1. Introduction
2. Uses, advantages and limitations of RWH system
3. System components and design considerations for roof RWH
system
4. Quality aspects of RWH system
5. Examples of RWH systems
2
3
4
5
6
Part 1
INTRODUCTION INTO
RAINWATER HARVESTING
7
Introduction (1)
▪Rainwater harvesting (RWH): technology used for collecting and
storing rainwater for human use from rooftops, land surfaces or
rock catchments.
▪One of the world’s most important ancient water supply
techniques (practiced for more than 4,000 years), is beginning to
enjoy a resurgence in popularity.
▪Rainwater is an important water source in many areas with
significant rainfall but lacking any kind of conventional,
centralised supply system.
8
Sigiriya, Sri Lanka.
9
Sigiriya, Sri Lanka. This reservoir cut into the rock was used
centuries ago to hold harvested rainwater.
[Link]
10
Cistern of the Maya people,
called Chultun
Capacity: 45 000 Litres
Diameter: 5 m,
Catchment area: 150 m²
Source: [Link]
11
Introduction (2)
▪Rainwater is also a good option in areas where good quality
fresh surface water or groundwater is lacking.
▪It could be used as a supplement to piped water supply e.g. for
toilet flushing, washing and garden spraying
▪RWH is a decentralised, environmentally sound solution, which
can avoid many environmental problems often caused in
centralised conventional large-scale water supply projects.
12
Types of Rainwater Harvesting Systems
1. Roof catchments
• Simple roofwater collection system for households
• Larger systems for educational institutions, stadiums, airports, and
other facilities
• Roofwater collection systems for high-rise buildings in urbanised
areas
2. Ground catchments (man-made)
3. Rock catchments (natural, impervious outcrops)
4. Collection of storm water in urbanized catchments for
recharge
13
Typical Domestic Rainwater Harvesting
System
14
Source: [Link]
Ground Catchment System
Source: ENSIC (1991) 15
Ground
Catchment
System
16
Rock Catchment System
Source: ENSIC (1991)
17
Part 2
USES, ADVANTAGES &
LIMITATIONS
18
Use of Harvested Rainwater
∙ Non-potable purposes (mainly in urban areas)
- Gardening
- Flushing
- Washing clothes/cars
∙ Potable purpose after ensuring quality
(mainly in rural and peri-urban areas)
19
Small-scale rainwater harvesting systems and
uses
20
RWH in Urban Areas
▪In view of increasing migration to urban area and the emergence of
mega-cities in the next millennium, it is imperative that water supply
systems should be evolved to cater for such a development.
▪In areas with relatively high rainfall spread throughout the year, where
other water resources are scarce, RWH is an important option, for
example parts of Sri Lanka, Philippines, Indonesia, Nepal and Uganda.
▪Installation RWH system is mandatory for the construction of buildings in
some towns in India and on the Virgin Islands, USA.
▪Many government agencies and municipalities worldwide provide
grants/subsidies and technical know-how to promote RWH system.
21
RWH in Urban Areas (2)
▪ In case of roof catchment systems, there is sufficient flexibility
to utilize systems that will be adaptable to suit all
socio-economic levels of population including the urban poor.
▪ Examples of typical options in urban area
- Rainwater use in households as a supplement
- Public institutions
- High rise building in high density urban areas
- Collection of rainwater in industrial areas
- Use of runoff in airports
- Collection of rainfall from public open spaces for
recharging
22
Advantages of RWH
▪ RWH systems provide water at or near the point where water is
needed or used.
▪ Rainwater is relatively clean and the quality is usually
acceptable for many purposes with little or even no treatment.
▪ System is independent and therefore suitable for scattered
settlements.
▪ Local materials and craftsmanship can be used in construction of
rainwater system.
▪ Ease in maintenance by the owner/user
▪ Provides a water supply buffer for use in times of emergency or
breakdown of the public water supply systems
23
Advantages of RWH in Urban Areas
∙ Flood control - by greatly reducing urban runoff;
∙ Stormwater drainage - by reducing the size and scale of
infrastructure requirements;
∙ Firefighting and disaster relief - by providing independent
household reservoirs;
∙ Water conservation - as less water is required from other
sources;
∙ Reduced groundwater exploitation and subsidence - as
less groundwater is required;
∙ Financial savings – where rainwater can be used in place of
water purchased from water vendors.
24
Limitations of RWH
▪ The initial cost (mainly of storage tank) may prevent a
family from installing a RWH system.
▪ The water availability is limited by the rainfall intensity and
available roof area.
▪ Mineral-free rainwater has a flat taste, which may not be
liked by many.
▪ The poorer segment of the population may not have a
roof suitable for rainwater harvesting.
▪ Domestic RWH will always remain a supplement and not a
complete replacement for city-level piped supply or supply
from more ‘reliable’ sources.
25
Part 3
USES, ADVANTAGES &
LIMITATIONS
26
Part 3
SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
27
RWH System Components
∙ Catchment Area/Roof
- the surface upon which the rain falls
∙ Gutters and Downpipes
- the transport channels from catchment surface to storage
∙ Leaf Screens and Roofwashers
- the systems that remove contaminants and debris
∙ Cisterns or Storage Tanks
- where collected rainwater is stored
∙ Conveying
- the delivery system for the treated rainwater, either by
gravity or pump
∙ Water Treatment
- filters and equipment, and additives to settle, filter, and
disinfect 28
Design considerations for rooftop catchment
systems (1)
∙ The material of the catchment surfaces must be non-toxic
and not contain substances which impair water quality.
∙ Roof surfaces should be smooth, hard and dense since they
are easy to clean and are less likely to be damaged and shed
materials into water
∙ Precautions are required to prevent the entry of
contaminants into the storage tanks.
- No overhanging tree should be left near the roof
- The nesting of the birds on the roof should be
prevented
- A first flush bypass such as detachable downpipe
should be installed
29
Design considerations for rooftop catchment
systems (2)
∙ All gutter ends should be fitted with a wire mesh screen to
keep out leaves, etc.
∙ The storage tank should have a tight-fitting roof that
excludes light, a manhole cover and a flushing pipe at the base
of the tank.
∙ The design of the tank should allow for thorough scrubbing
of the inner walls and floor or tank bottom. A sloped bottom and
a provision of a sump and a drain are useful for collection and
discharge of settled grit and sediment.
∙ Taps/faucets should be installed at 10 cm above the base of
the tank as this allows any derbis entering the tank to settle on
the bottom where it remains undisturbed, will not affect the
quality of water.
30
Factors affecting RWH system design
∙ Rainfall quantity (mm/year)
∙ Rainfall pattern
∙ Collection surface area (m2)
∙ Runoff coefficient of collection (-)
∙ Storage capacity (m3)
∙ Daily consumption rate (litres/capita /day)
∙ Number of users
∙ Cost
∙ Alternative water sources
31
Feasibility of Rainwater Harvesting
∙ The technical feasibility of roof RWH as a primary
source of water is determined by the potential of a rainwater
to meet the demand more effectively than other
alternatives.
∙ Often the attraction of RWH may be as a
supplementary water source to reduce the pressure on a
finite primary source or as a backup during the time of
drought or breakdown.
∙ The total amount of water that is received in the form
of rainfall over an area is called the rainwater endowment
of that area.
∙ The collection efficiency accounts for the fact that all
the rainwater falling over an area cannot be effectively
harvested. 32
Feasibility of Rainwater Harvesting
∙ The size of supply of rainwater depends on the amount
of rainfall (R), the area of the catchment (A) and its runoff
coefficient (C).
∙ An estimate of mean annual runoff from a given
catchment can be obtained using the equation:
S =R*A*C
Where S = Rainwater supply per annum
R = mean annual rainfall
A = Area of the catchment
C = Runoff coefficient
∙ The actual amount of rainwater supplied will ultimately
depend on the volume of the storage tank or reservoir.
33
Catchment Area Size
∙ The size of roof catchment is the
projected area of the roof or the
building’s footprint under the roof.
∙ To calculate the catchment area (A),
multiply the length (L) and width
(B) of the guttered area. It is not
necessary to measure the sloping
edge of the roof.
∙ Note that it does not matter
whether the roof is flat or peaked. It is
the “footprint” of the roof drip line that
matters.
34
35
Characteristics of Roof Types
Type Runoff Notes
coefficient
GI sheets > 0.9 Excellent quality water. Surface is smooth and high
temperatures help to sterilise bacteria
Tile 0.6 – 0.9 Good quality water from glazed tiles.
(glazed) Unglazed can harbour mould
Contamination can exist in tile joins
Asbestos 0.8 – 0.9 New sheets give good quality water
Sheets Slightly porous so reduced runoff coefficient and
older roofs harbour moulds and even moss
Organic 0.2 Poor quality water (>200 FC/100ml)
(Thatch) Little first flush effect; High turbidity due to
dissolved organic material which does not settle
Source: [Link]
36
Example 1:
For a building with a flat roof of size 10 m x 12 m in a city with the
average annual rainfall of 800 mm
Roof Area (A) = 10 x 12 = 120 m2
Average annual rainfall (R) = 800 mm = 0.80 m
Total annual volume of rainfall over the roof
= A * R = 120 m2 x 0.80 m = 96 m3 = 96,000 litres
If 70% of the total rainfall is effectively harvested,
Volume of water harvested = 96,000 x 0.7 = 67,200 litres
Average water availability = 67,200 / 365 ~ 184 litres/ day
37
Storage System
∙ There are several options available for the storage of
rainwater. A variety of materials and different shapes of the
vessels have been used.
∙ In general, there can be two basic types of storage system:
- Underground tank or storage vessel
- Ground tank or storage vessel
∙ The choice of the system will depend on several
technical and economic considerations like, space availability,
materials and skill available, costs of buying a new tank or
construction on site, ground conditions, local traditions for
water storage etc.
38
Storage System
∙ The storage tank is the most expensive part of any RWH
system and the most appropriate capacity for any given
locality is affected by its cost and amount of water it is able
to supply.
∙ In general, larger tanks are required in area with
marked wet and dry seasons, while relatively small tanks
may suffice in areas where rainfall is relatively evenly
spread throughout the year.
∙ Field experiences show that a universal ideal tank
design does not exist. Local materials, skills and costs,
personal preference and other external factors may favour
one design over another.
39
Requirements for Storage System
∙ A solid secure cover to keep out insects, dirt and
sunshine
∙ A coarse inlet filter to catch leaves etc.
∙ A overflow pipe
∙ A manhole, sump and drain for cleaning
∙ An extraction system that does not contaminate the
water e.g. tap/pump
∙ A soakaway to prevent split water forming puddles near
the tank.
∙ Additionally features
- sediment trap or other foul flush mechanism
- device to inside water level in the tank
40
41
42
43
RWH Brick Jars - Uganda
Source: Rees and Whitehead (2000), DTU, University of Warwick, UK
44
Rainwater Harvesting - Kenya
Source: John
45 Gould (Waterlines, January 2000)
Ferro-cement jar
for rainwater
collection -
Uganda
Source: DTU, University of
Warwick (September 2000)
46
Underground lime and bricks cistern
47
Rainwater Harvesting – Sri Lanka
48
49
50
[Link]
51
A wooden water tank in Hawaii, USA
Source: Rainwater Harvesting And Utilisation. An Environmentally Sound Approach for
Sustainable Urban Water Management: An Introductory Guide for Decision-Makers. ITEC,
UNEP, Japan 52
53
[Link]
54
Rainwater Tanks
Source: [Link]
55
Storage capacity
∙ When using rainwater, it is important to recognize
that the rainfall is not constant through out the year;
therefore, planning the storage system with an adequate
capacity is required for constant use of rainwater, even
during the dry period.
∙ Knowledge of the rainfall quantity and seasonality,
the area of the catchment surface and volume of the
storage tank, and quantity and period of use required for
water supply purposes is critical.
∙ There are two commonly used method to estimate
storage requirements.
56
Storage capacity
Method 1 – Storage required for dry period
∙ A rough estimate of the maximum storage
requirement can be made based on the (i) per capita
consumption (ii) no of users and (iii) length of the longest
dry period
∙ For a household with a 5 people, assuming water use
of 20 lpcd and if longest dry period is 30 days and
rainwater is the only water source, storage required = 5
x 20 x 30 = 3000 litres
57
Storage capacity
Method 1 – Storage required for dry period
∙ This simple method assumes sufficient rainfall and
catchment area which is adequate, and is therefore only
applicable in areas where this is the situation.
∙ It is a method for acquiring rough estimates of tank
size.
58
Storage capacity
Method 2 – Based on rainfall and water demand pattern
∙ A better estimate of storage requirement can be made
using the mass curve technique based on rainfall and
water demand pattern.
∙ Cumulative rainfall runoff and cumulative water
demand in year is calculated and plotted on the same
curve.
∙ The sum of the maximum differences, on the either
side, between the rainfall curve and water demand curve
gives the size of the storage required
59
Storage capacity
Example 2:
Calculate the size of the storage tank required for a school
with 65 students and 5 staff, assuming average water
consumption of 5 litres/day.
Roof area = 200 m2.
Assume runoff coefficient of 0.9.
The rainfall pattern in the area is given in the table below
Average daily demand = 70 x 5 = 350 litres
Yearly demand = 350 * 365 = 127750 litres = 127.75 m3
Average monthly demand = 127.75/12 ~ 10.65 m3
60
Storage capacity calculations
(a) Rainfall pattern - 1
61
Calculation of required storage capacity (1)
Required storage capacity = 29.4 m3 say 30 m3
62
Mass curve for calculation of required
storage capacity
63
Mass curve for calculation of required
storage capacity
64
Storage capacity calculations
(b) Rainfall pattern - 2
65
Calculation of required storage capacity (2)
Required storage capacity = 35.7 + 18.3 = 54 m3
66
Gutters
∙ Gutters are channels all around the edge of a sloping
roof to collect and transport rainwater to the storage tank.
∙ A carefully designed and constructed gutter system is
essential for any roof catchment system to operate
effectively.
∙ When the gutters are too small considerable quantities
of runoff may be lost due to overflow during storms.
∙ The size of the gutter should be according to the flow
during the highest intensity rain. It is advisable to make
them 10 to 15 per cent oversize.
67
Gutters (2)
∙ A general rule of thumb is that 1 cm2 of guttering is
required for every m2 of roof area.
∙ Gutters can be semi-circular or rectangular and could be
made using a variety of materials:
- Locally available material such as plain galvanised
iron sheet (20 to 22 gauge), folded to required
shapes.
- Semi-circular gutters of PVC material can be
readily prepared by cutting those pipes into two equal
semi-circular channels.
- Bamboo or betel trunks cut vertically in half.
- Wood or plastic
68
Gutters (3)
∙ Gutters need to be supported so they do not sag or fall off
when loaded with water.
∙ The way in which gutters are fixed depends on the
construction of the house;
- it is possible to fix iron or timber brackets into the
walls, but for houses having wider eaves, some
method of attachment to the rafters is necessary.
∙ A properly fitted and maintained gutter-downpipe system
is capable of diverting more than 80% of all runoff into the
storage tank, the remainder being lost through evaporation,
leakage, rain splash and overflow.
69
Gutters - Shapes and Configurations
Gutter configurations
70
Gutters - Shapes and Configurations
71
Gutters and Hangers
72
Shade cloth guttering
Source: Peter Morgan (1998)
[Link]
73
Plastic sheet guttering
[Link]
74
75
Gutter sizing
Recommended gutter widths for use in humid tropics
Gutter width (mm) Roof area (m2) served by 1
gutter
55 13
60 17
65 21
70 25
75 29
80 34
85 40
90 46
95 54
100 66
Source: (Still and 76
Thomas, 2002)
Gutter sizing
Optimum roof area drainable by square gutters (considering
only conveyance)
Square Slope (%)
gutters
0.5 1 2 4
Gutter Optimum roof area served by gutter (m2)
width
33 mm 10 14 20 28
50 mm 29 42 60 85
75 mm 88 125 177 250
100 mm 190 269 380 538
Source: (Still and 77
Thomas, 2002)
Guttering for a 60 m2 roof
Square Square Half round 45o Triangle
0.5% slope 1% slope 1.0% slope 1.0% slope
Material use 214 189 150 175
(mm)
Gutter width 71 63 96 124
at top (mm)
Cross 47 39 36 38
sectional area
(cm2)
Source: [Link]
78
Guide to sizing of gutters and downpipes for
rainwater harvesting systems in tropical regions
Source: [Link]
Roof area (m2) Gutter width Minimum diameter
served by one gutter (mm) of downpipe (mm)
17 60 40
25 70 50
34 80 50
46 90 63
66 100 63
128 125 75
208 150 90
79
First flush system (1)
∙ Debris, dirt, dust and droppings will collect on the roof
of a building or other collection area.
∙ When the first rains arrive, this unwanted matter will
be washed into the tank. This will cause contamination of the
water and the quality will be deteriorated.
∙ Many RWH systems therefore incorporate a system
for diverting this ‘first flush’ or ‘foul flush” water so that it
does not enter the storage tank.
∙ Several first flush system are in use. The simplest one
is a manually operated arrangement whereby the inlet pipe
is moved away from the tank inlet and then replaced again
once the initial first flush has been diverted.
80
First flush system (2)
∙ For an average roof catchment it is suggested that the
first 20–25 L could be diverted or discarded.
∙ First flush devices should be regarded as an additional
barrier to reduce contamination and should not be used to
replace normal maintenance activities designed to keep roof
catchments reasonably clean.
∙ The inlet pipe to all rainwater tanks should be easily
detachable so that, when necessary, the tank can be
bypassed. Manual detachment could be used as an
alternative to an engineered first flush device, although the
level of control will not be as good.
81
First flush system (3)
Developed by Khon Kaen
82 University, Thailand
First flush system (4)
83
First flush system (5)
84
First flush
system (6)
85
Device for separating rainwater from
roof-accumulated impurities
86
Roof catchment system with filter and
storage tank
87
Storage tank & first flush - Malaysia
88
Part 4
QUALITY ASPECTS OF RWH
89
Quality of Rainwater (1)
∙ The quality of rainwater is relatively good but it is not
free from all impurities.
∙ Analysis of stored rainwater has shown some
bacteriological contamination.
∙ The rainwater is essentially lacking in minerals, the
presence of which is considered essential in appropriate
proportions.
∙ Cleanliness of roof and storage tank is critical in
maintaining good quality of rainwater.
∙ The storage tank requires cleaning and disinfection
when the tank is empty or at least once in a year.
90
Quality of Rainwater (2)
▪ The extraction system (e.g. taps/faucets, pumps) must not
contaminate the stored water.
▪ The first run off from the roof should be discarded to
prevent entry of impurities from the roof.
▪ Some devices and good practices have been suggested
to store or divert the first foul flush away from the storage
tank.
▪ In case of difficulties in the rejection of first flow, cleaning
of the roof and gutter at the beginning of the rainy season
and their regular maintenance are very important to
ensure better quality of rainwater.
91
Quality of Rainwater - Bacteriological
▪ Dust from the soil, and droppings of birds and animals could
be the source of contamination by the bacteria.
▪ When first flush eliminating devices are absent, all the
indicator bacteria are generally present in water samples in
numbers beyond what is acceptable by any standards.
▪ Tree hanging in the vicinity, definitely enhances the
possibility of contamination due to increased access of the
roof to birds and animals. Also leaves contribute to organic
loading of the water samples, which in turn act as nutrient for
bacterial growth.
92
Disinfecting rainwater
• Rainwater is generally of very good chemical quality. However, it
may not meet WHO drinking water quality standards, specifically
microbiological quality standards, hence some disinfection is
recommended.
• Rainwater can be used for drinking, if it is clear, has no or very
little taste or smell and is from well maintained system.
• Disinfection can be done by:
• boiling the water in before consumption
• adding chlorine compounds/bleaching powder in required quantity
to the water stored in the tank
• using slow sand filtration
• solar disinfection (SODIS)
93
Disinfecting rainwater (2)
∙ For disinfection using bleaching powder, the general
dosage recommended is 10 mg of bleaching powder
containing 25% of free chlorine per litre of water. This meets
the required standard of 2.5 mg of chlorine per litre of water.
∙ After adding the bleaching powder, the water should be
stirred thoroughly for even distribution of the disinfectant
agent. The water should be kept without use for about 30
minutes after adding bleaching powder.
94
Operation and maintenance
∙ The simple operation and maintenance of RWH systems
is one of the most attractive aspects of the technology.
∙ The extent of maintenance required by a basic privately
owned household RWH system includes
- Regular cleaning of the roof tops and gutters
- Frequent cleaning of storage tanks
- Inspection of gutters and feeder pipes and valve
chambers to detect and repair leaks
∙ When ground catchment is used for collection and/or
ground tank is used for storage, proper fencing of both is
recommended to keep the children and animals away, thus
avoiding contamination and risks of falling into the tank.
95
96
One example of a flat screen
over the gutter to keep large
debris out of the tank.
A problem with gutter screens is
that they require a lot of
maintenance to keep leaves and
debris from piling up and blocking
the screens.
Also, dirt on the leaves can still
be washed into the storage tank.
Source: Guidelines on Rainwater
Catchment Systems for Hawaii
97
Leaf Eater®/Leaf Beater®/Leaf Catcha®
Source: [Link]
98
Tank desludging and cleaning (1)
∙ Accumulated sediments can be a source of chemical
contamination and off-tastes and odours. All tanks should be
examined for accumulation of sediments every 2–3 years.
∙ Sludge can be removed by siphoning without emptying the
tank. Sludge may also be pumped from the tank with minimum loss
of water by using a suitable motor-operated pump and
attachments.
∙ Sludge can also be removed by draining and cleaning the
tank. If a drain plug is provided at the base of the tank, water can be
run to waste to discharge the sludge. Once the tank is empty, the
remaining sludge can be scooped up and removed through the
access opening.
99
Tank desludging and cleaning (2)
∙ It is important to check the structural condition of the tank before
choosing a method of cleaning.
∙ Cleaning should generally be limited to removing accumulated
sediments, leaf litter etc. Harsh (chemical) cleaning methods may
accelerate deterioration, for example, removing the protective layer
on the inside walls of a steel tank will lead to tank corrosion.
∙ After cleaning, it is recommended that the internal walls and floor
of the tank be rinsed with clean water. Rinse water and sediment
should be run to waste.
∙ Where cleaning necessitates entering the tank, take care to
ensure adequate ventilation is provided and an additional person is
in attendance.
100
The Thai Rainwater Jar Programme
∙ Nationwide rainwater harvesting programme which dramatically
improved the rural water supply coverage, especially in North eastern
Thailand
• 10 million rainwater jars constructed in 5 years
(1985-1990).
∙ Factors favouring rapid development RWH programme
• a real felt need for water
• a preference for the taste of rainwater
• the availability of cheap cement and skilled artisans
• a pool of indigenous engineers, technicians and administrators
committed to rural development programme
101
Thai Jar
Khon Kaen, Thailand
102
Source: [Link]
Rainwater Harvesting - Australia
More than one million
people in Australia rely on
rainwater as their primary
source of water supply
103
Rainwater Harvesting - Australia
∙ In Australia the use of domestic rainwater tanks is an
established and relatively common practice, particularly in rural
and remote areas.
∙ Between 1994 and 2001, 16% of Australian households
used rainwater tanks, with 13% of households using tanks as
their main source of drinking water.
∙ 7% of the capital city households and 34% of non-capital
city households have rainwater tanks.
∙ In a 1996 South Australian survey, 28% of Adelaide
households used rainwater tanks as the primary source of
drinking water compared to 82% households in the rest of the
State.
Source: Guidance on use of rainwater tank. En Health, Australian Government 2004
104
105
Rainwater
harvesting system,
in Patan,
Nepal
1 - Overhead tank
2 - Downtake PVC pipe from roof
3 - First phase storage drum
4 - Overflow goes into underwater
tank
5 - Pump to lift water to overhead
tank
6 - Sediment discharge tap
7 - 50,000 litre underground
ferrocement tank
106
Source: Nepali Times (16-22 August 2002)
Rainwater Harvesting in Tokyo
107
Rainwater Harvesting from Domed Stadium
in Japan
108
Source: Zaizen et al. (1999)
Rainwater Harvesting from Domed Stadium
in Japan
_________________________________________________________
Stadium Tokyo Fukuoka Nagoya
_________________________________________________________
Catchment area
for storage (m2) 16,000 25,900 35,000
Capacity of
detention tank (m3) 1000 1800 1500
Utilization Flush toilets Flush toilets, Flush toilets
watering plants watering plants
__________________________________________________________
Source: Zaizen et al. (1999)
109
Rainwater Harvesting at Changi Airport -
Singapore
∙ Rainfall from the runways and the surrounding green
areas is diverted to two impounding reservoirs.
∙ One of the reservoirs is designed to balance the flows
during the coincident high runoffs and incoming tides, and the
other reservoir is used to collect the runoff.
∙ The water is used primarily for non-potable functions such
as fire-fighting drills and toilet flushing.
∙ Such collected and treated water accounts for 28 to 33% of
the total water used, resulting in savings of approximately S$
390,000 per annum.
110
Rainwater Harvesting in Presidential Estate,
New Delhi, India
- About 7000 residing in the estate and about 3000 visitors
every day. There is also famous “The Mughal Garden”.
- Total water demand 2 million litres per day
- 30% of demand met by Groundwater wells in the estate and
groundwater level is going down111
rapidly)
Rainwater Harvesting in Presidential Estate,
New Delhi, India
∙ Rainwater from the northern side of the roof and
paved areas surrounding the presidential palace is diverted
to an underground storage tank of 100,000 litres capacity
for low quality use (5%).
∙ Overflow the rainwater storage tank is diverted to two
dug wells for recharging.
∙ Rainwater from southern side of the roof is diverted
for recharging a dry open well. Rainfall runoff from the staff
residential area is also diverted to dry wells.
∙ 15 m deep recharge shafts have been constructed for
recharging. 112
Water Supply at Millennium Dome, London
∙ Water Supply Plant, installed at the UK's Millennium Dome
can supply around 500 m3 per day of reclaimed water to flush
all of the toilets and urinals on the site.
∙ Water is reclaimed from greywater produced by the hand
wash basins, rainwater from the dome's roof, and groundwater
from the chalk aquifer which is located below the site.
113
Water Supply at Millennium Dome, London
∙ Rainwater is collected from dome roof and adjacent
areas (100,000 m2)
∙ Size of collection tank is 800 m3
∙ Reed beds are used for treatment
114
Socio-cultural Considerations (1)
∙ The success of any rain water harvesting system or
programme ultimately depends on the interest, enthusiasm
and active support of the user community for the technology.
∙ RWH system, even if technically appropriate and justified
based water resources condition, it is not likely to be
successful if it is socially unacceptable or inappropriate in
anyway.
∙ Local customs, perceptions and preferences must be
given high priority when considering the feasibility of the
technology and possible implementation strategies.
115
Socio-cultural Considerations (2)
∙ It is always vital to be sensitive to local perceptions
regarding quality and suitability of rainwater.
∙ Although some people regard rainwater as sweet and tasty
(especially those used to drinking somewhat saline
groundwater), others consider it to be flat and tasteless
(particularly when compared to water with high mineral
content).
∙ Local customs, perceptions and preferences must be
given high priority when considering the feasibility of the
technology and possible implementation strategies.
116
Public Awareness and Demonstration
∙ Public awareness and education are essential in order to
improve acceptance of rainwater collection and utilisation.
∙ Efforts should be made to change public perception of
rainwater from being viewed as a nuisance to being viewed
as an asset.
∙ Demonstration projects are key for improving public
acceptance and assisting in the removal of institutional barriers.
∙ To promote rainwater utilisation, basic policies,
implementation strategies, technology development and
networking are required.
117
118
Bibliography
∙ Rainwater Harvesting and Utilization. An Environmentally Sound
Approach for Sustainable Urban Water Management: An Introductory Guide
for Decision-Makers. IETC-UNEP, Japan.
∙ Rainwater catchment systems for Household Water Supply (1991).
Environmental Sanitation Reviews No No 32. ENSIC, Bangkok, Thailand.
∙ UNEP-IETC (1999) Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Efficient Water Use in Urban Areas - Innovative Ways of Finding Water for
Cities. (8 to 10 June 1999), Kobe, Japan.
∙ Gould, J. and Nissen-Petersen, E. (1999) Rainwater Catchment
Systems for Domestic Supply. IT Publications, London
∙ Hasse, R. (1989) Rainwater Reservoirs- Above Ground Structures for
Roof Catchment. GTZ.
∙ NGO Forum and SDC (2001) Rain Water Harvesting System. NGO
Forum for Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation and SDC, Bangladesh.
119
Web Resources on RWH
∙ International Rainwater Catchment Systems Association
[Link]
∙ American Rainwater Catchment Association
[Link]
∙ Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), India
[Link]
∙ Development Technology Unit, School of Engineering,
University of Warwick, UK
[Link]
∙ Chennai Metrowater, India
[Link]
∙ Rainwater Partnership
[Link]
120
Web Resources on RWH (2)
∙ Lanka Rainwater Harvesting Forum
[Link]
∙ Intenational Rainwater Harvesting Alliance
[Link]
∙ Greater Horn of Africa Rainwater Partnership (GHARP)
[Link]
∙ The Web of Rain
[Link]
121