MEANING AND NATURE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Information is a vital component of any organization which must be processed and maintained
for easy retrieval and future use. The non-electronic means of managing information has a lot
of setback and does not guaranty flexibility in information handlings. The only efficient means
of processing, storing and transmitting information is by the use of computers, networking tools
and other related equipment. This is IT transformation – a complete overhaul of an
organization’s information technology system which involves changes to network architecture,
hardware, software and how data is stored and accessed.

Information technology (IT) is the use of any computers, storage, networking and other physical
devices, infrastructure and processes to create, process, store, secure and exchange all forms of
electronic data.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Any communication system must consist of a sender, a channel and a receiver. In addition,
when data is to be transmitted over the system it must be coded in some specific manner and
there must be some kind of error control built into the system. However, when computer
networks are involved another important factor which must be considered is the methods which
have to be employed to ensure that information is transmitted to the correct station. In this
context networks can be divided up into two broad areas:

 BROADCAST SYSTEMS - Since transmitted messages are available to all stations the
receiver must distinguish being those messages addressed to it and those that are not
 DIRECTED SYSTEMS - A transmitted message is only available to the intended
receiver

The features of any particular network depend largely on the way in which the components of
the network are connected to one another - the topology.

Network Topology refers to layout of a network and how different nodes in a network are
connected to each other and how they communicate. Topologies are either physical (the
physical layout of devices on a network) or logical (the way that the signals act on the network
media, or the way that the data passes through the network from one device to the next).

TYPES OF TOPOLOGY

Star Networks

Again this topology is generally used for Wide Area Networks, however, some LANS have a
Star structure. Usually the central node has the peripherals that are to be shared across the
network attached to it, and often it acts as a file and printer server to the rest of the stations on
the network. The diagram below shows this:

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Characteristics

 Easy to set up and relatively simple architecture

 Software requirements are straightforward and thus there are no complex routing
problems
 All traffic must pass through the central node and hence if this node is disabled the
network is useless
 Shared resources can only be attached to the central node

Main Advantage: In a star network, one malfunctioning node doesn't affect the rest of
the network.
Main Disadvantage: If the central computer fails, the entire network becomes unusable.

Bus Networks

Bus Topology: In networking a bus is the central cable -- the main wire -- that connects all
devices on a local-area network (LAN). It is also called the backbone. This is often used to
describe the main network connections composing the Internet. Bus networks are relatively
inexpensive and easy to install for small networks. Ethernet systems use a bus topology.

In this context all the stations are connected to a single cable, as shown below:

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Characteristics

 Stations may be plugged anywhere at any time without affecting the integrity of the
network
 The cable must be terminated to avoid echoes
 Only one message can be on the bus at any one moment
 A broadcast system commonly used for Local Area Networks
 Cheap and easy to set up
 If the channel goes down the whole network is useless

The best known bus network is Ethernet - Econet is an Ethernet-type network.

Main Advantage: It's easy to connect a computer or device and typically it requires less
cable than a star topology.
Main Disadvantage: The entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main wire and
it can be difficult to identify the problem if the network shuts down.

Ring Networks

In this arrangement of components the stations are connected by point-to-point links and
consequently form an unbroken circle - all of the nodes are connected in a closed loop.
Messages travel around the ring, with each node reading those messages addressed to it –
implying that rings are unidirectional and operate by passing packets of data from one station
to the next until the correct destination is arrived at - thus rings are broadcast systems.

When a station receives a packet, it checks the address before retransmitting it. If the packet is
for that station, it is marked as having being received, before retransmission and hence when
the packet reaches the sender once more, the mark indicates that it has been received. The
diagram below shows a typical ring topology:

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Characteristics

 Each station is connected to the network via a repeater - responsible for receiving,
checking an retransmitting packets
 Most rings have a monitor station which has the task of removing corrupted or
unwanted packets from the network
 Ring networks can be extremely fast and reliable - they can continue to operate even
if one or more stations fail
 Shared resources can be attached to any station
 If the connection between any pair of stations is lost, the entire network goes down

Main Advantage: One main advantage to a ring network is that it can span larger distances
than other types of networks, such as bus networks, because each node regenerates messages
as they pass through it.

Tree Networks

This is a "hybrid" topology that combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. In a
tree network, groups of star-configured networks are connected to a linear bus backbone cable.
Earlier we saw how in physical star network topology, computers (nodes) are connected by
each other through central hub. And we also saw in bus topology, workstation devices are
connected by the common cable called Bus. After understanding these two network
configurations, we can understand tree topology better. In tree Topology, the number of Star
networks are connected using Bus. This main cable seems like a main stem of a tree, and other
star networks as the branches. It is also called Expanded Star Topology.

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Advantages:

 Expansion of network is possible and easy

 A Tree topology is a good choice for large computer networks as the tree topology
"divides" the whole network into parts that are more easily manageable.
 Error detection and correction is easy
 Each segment is provided with dedicated point-to-point wiring to the central hub.
 If one segment is damaged other segments are not affected.

Disadvantages:

 The entire network depends on a central hub and a failure of the central hub can
cripple the whole network.
 As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes difficult.
 Scalability depends on the cable used.

Mesh Networks

In a mesh network topology, each of the network node, computer and other devices are
interconnected with one another.

The Mesh layout is used in Wide Area Networks and allows multiple routes between hosts, as
shown below:

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A mesh network where every node is connected to every other node is known as a fully
connected network, and is shown below:

Characteristics

 Mesh topologies are relatively immune to bottleneck and component failure

 As a result of the variety of paths traffic can be routed around failed or busy
components
 Mesh topologies can be expensive in terms of the cabling costs

Advantages of mesh topology

o Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously
o This topology can withstand high traffic
o Even if one of the components fails, there is always an alternative present so that data
transfer doesn’t get affected
o Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting other nodes.
Disadvantages of mesh topology
o There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections
o Overall cost of this network is too high as compared to other network topologies
o Setting-up and maintenance of this network is very difficult.
o Also administration of this network is tough.

CLIENT/SERVER NETWORK
A client-server network is a central computer, also known as a server, which hosts data and
other forms of resources. Clients such as laptops and desktop computers contact the server and
request to use data or share its other resources with it.

o A client-server network is designed for end-users, called clients, to access resources

such as files, songs, video collections, or some other service from a central computer
called a server. A server's sole purpose is to do what its name implies - serve its clients!
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 You may have been using this configuration and not even have known it. Have you
ever played Xbox Live or used the PlayStation Network? Your Xbox One is the client,
and when it logs into the network, it contacts the Xbox Live servers to retrieve gaming
resources like updates, video, and game demos.

o What Are the Advantages of a Client-Server Network?

The biggest advantage to using this setup is central management of the server. Only one
server is used to host the resources that all the clients request and use. This is especially
good for server administrators, because they only have to be in one place and can solve
all the problems in one place, as well. Having to manually update several hundred
servers would take much more time. One centrally managed server is the key to ease of
management, and it is cost effective, too.

o Another advantage of using one physical server is that the configuration is simple to set
up and takes less time to troubleshoot. For instance, if there were a site with multiple
servers providing redundant services, and it was having issues, it could take an extreme
amount of work to effectively troubleshoot why services are being hindered. In a single
server role, all troubleshooting takes place at one physical server, so it takes much less
time.

o The major drawback to the client-server model is that since all the resources are located
on one server, this creates a single point of failure (SPF). An SPF means that if
anything should happen to the server - such as a fried computer chip, a crashed hard
drive that is not recoverable, or a major power outage that destroys the motherboard -
then all the resources that were once hosted on that server will no longer be available.

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 TYPES OF NETWORKS
Local Area Networks

Local area networks (LANs) are used to connect networking devices that are in a very close
geographic area, such as a floor of a building, a building itself, or a campus environment.

Wide Area Networks

Wide area networks (WANs) are used to connect LANs together. Typically, WANs are
used when the LANs that must be connected are separated by a large distance.

Metropolitan Area Networks

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a hybrid between a LAN and a WAN.

Storage Area Networks

Storage area networks (SANs) provide a high-speed infrastructure to move data between
storage devices and file servers.
Advantage

 Performance is fast.
 Availability is high because of the redundancy features available.
 Distances can span up to 10 kilometres.
 Management is easy because of the centralization of data resources.
 Overhead is low (uses a thin protocol).

Disadvantage of SANs is their cost.

Content Networks
Content networks (CNs) were developed to ease users' access to Internet resources.
Companies deploy basically two types of CNs:

 caching downloaded Internet information

 Distributing Internet traffic loads across multiple servers

Intranet

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An intranet is basically a network that is local to a company. In other words, users from within
this company can find all of their resources without having to go outside of the company. An
intranet can include LANs, private WANs and MANs,

Extranet

An extranet is an extended intranet, where certain internal services are made available to
known external users or external business partners at remote locations.

Internet

An internet is used when unknown external users need to access internal resources in your
network. In other words, your company might have a web site that sells various products, and
you want any external user to be able to access this service.

VPN

A virtual private network (VPN) is a special type of secured network. A VPN is used to
provide a secure connection across a public network, such as an internet. Extranets typically
use a VPN to provide a secure connection between a company and its known external users or
offices.

Authentication is provided to validate the identities of the two peers.

Confidentiality provides encryption of the data to keep it private from prying eyes.

Integrity is used to ensure that the data sent between the two devices or sites has not been
tampered with.

NETORK DEVICES

HUB

Networks using a Star topology require a central point for the devices to connect. Originally
this device was called a concentrator since it consolidated the cable runs from all network
devices. The basic form of concentrator is the hub.

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As shown in Figure above, the hub is a hardware device that contains multiple, independent
ports that match the cable type of the network. Most common hubs interconnect Category 3 or
5 twisted-pair cable with RJ-45 ends. The hub is considered the least common denominator in
device concentrators. Hubs offer an inexpensive option for transporting data between devices,
but hubs don't offer any form of intelligence. Hubs can be active or passive.

An active hub strengthens and regenerates the incoming signals before sending the data on to
its destination.

Passive hubs do nothing with the signal.

Switches

Switches are a special type of hub that

offers an additional layer of intelligence to
basic, physical-layer repeater hubs. A
switch must be able to read the MAC address of each frame it receives. This information allows
switches to repeat incoming data frames only to the computer or computers to which a frame
is addressed. This speeds up the network and reduces congestion.

Switches operate at both the physical layer and the data link layer of the OSI Model.

Bridges

A bridge is used to join two network segments together, it allows computers on either segment
to access resources on the other. They can also be used to divide large networks into smaller
segments. Bridges have all the features of repeaters, but can have more nodes, and since the
network is divided, there is fewer computers competing for resources on each segment thus
improving network performance.
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Bridges can also connect networks that run at different speeds, different topologies, or different
protocols. But they cannot, join an Ethernet segment with a Token Ring segment, because these
use different networking standards. Bridges operate at both the Physical Layer and the MAC
sub-layer of the Data Link layer. Bridges read the MAC header of each frame to determine on
which side of the bridge the destination device is located, the bridge then repeats the
transmission to the segment where the device is located.

Routers

Routers Are networking devices used to extend or segment networks by forwarding packets
from one logical network to another. Routers are most often used in large internetworks that
use the TCP/IP protocol suite and for connecting TCP/IP hosts and local area networks (LANs)
to the Internet using dedicated leased lines.

Routers work at the network layer (layer 3) of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model for networking to move packets between networks using their logical
addresses (which, in the case of TCP/IP, are the IP addresses of destination hosts on the
network). Because routers operate at a higher OSI level than bridges do, they have better
packet-routing and filtering capabilities and greater processing power, which results in routers
costing more than bridges.

Gateway
A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. On the Internet, a
node or stopping point can be either a gateway node or a host (end-point) node. Both the
computers of Internet users and the computers that serve pages to users are host nodes. The

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computers that control traffic within your company's network or at your local Internet service
provider (ISP) are gateway nodes.

In the network for an enterprise, a computer server acting as a gateway node is often also acting
as a proxy server and a firewall server. A gateway is often associated with both a router, which
knows where to direct a given packet of data that arrives at the gateway, and a switch, which
furnishes the actual path in and out of the gateway for a given packet.

More Description of Gateway

A gateway is a node (router) in a computer network, a key stopping point for data on its way
to or from other networks. Thanks to gateways, we are able to communicate and send data back
and forth. The Internet wouldn't be any use to us without gateways (as well as a lot of other
hardware and software).

In a workplace, the gateway is the computer that routes traffic from a workstation to the outside
network that is serving up the Web pages. For basic Internet connections at home, the gateway
is the Internet Service Provider that gives you access to the entire Internet.

A node is simply a physical place where the data stops for either transporting or reading/using.
(A computer or modem is a node; a computer cable isn't.) Here are a few node notes:

 On the Internet, the node that's a stopping point can be a gateway or a host node.
 A computer that controls the traffic your Internet Service Provider (ISP) receives is
a node.

If you have a wireless network at home that gives your entire family access to the Internet, your
gateway is the modem (or modem-router combo) your ISP provides so you can connect to their
network. On the other end, the computer that controls all of the data traffic your Internet Service
Provider (ISP) takes and sends out is itself a node.

When a computer-server acts as a gateway, it also operates as a firewall and a proxy server. A
firewall keeps out unwanted traffic and outsiders off a private network. A proxy server is
software that "sits" between programs on your computer that you use (such as a Web browser)
and a computer server—the computer that serves your network. The proxy server's task is to
make sure the real server can handle your online data requests.
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Router at work.
As mentioned before, a gateway is often associated with a router. A router is hardware—a
small piece of computer/network-related equipment that connects you to the Internet. In home
networks, the router comes with special software that you install on one computer. You're then
able to use the software to set up your home network so everyone allowed on your network can
connect to the ISP and the Internet. A router can be connected to two or more networks at a
time, but for home networks that's generally not the case.

When you do a Google search or compose an email and hit "Send," your computer sends the
data to your router. Your router then, which is hardwired to do its job right, figures out the next
destination of the data based on its "comprehension" of the condition of the networks.
Routers can be gateways because a router can control the path through which information is
sent in and out. It does so by using built-in headers and forwarding tables to figure out where
packets of data need to be sent. Those packets of data carry your emails, transactions, online
activity and so on.
A gateway is one of the many ways our data is moved over the Web for us. The gateway gives
us entry into different networks so we can send email, look at Web pages, buy things online,
and more. You can easily say that gateways deliver the freedom, information and convenience
we enjoy online.
Network card

Network cards also known as Network Interface Cards (NICs) are hardware devices that
connect a computer with the network. They are installed on the mother board. They are
responsible for developing a physical connection between the network and the computer.
Computer data is translated into electrical signals send to the network via Network Interface
Cards.

They can also manage some important data-conversion

function. These days network cards are software configured unlike in olden days when drivers
were needed to configure them. Even if the NIC doesn’t come up with the software then the
latest drivers or the associated software can be downloaded from the internet as well.

Modem

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Modem is a device which converts the computer-generated digital signals of a computer into
analog signals to enable their travelling via phone lines. The ‘modulator-demodulator’ or
modem can be used as a dial up for LAN or to connect to an ISP. A modem enables a computer
to transmit data over telephone or cable lines. Computer information is stored digitally, whereas
information transmitted over telephone lines is in the form of analog waves. A modem converts
between the two – modulates digital information used on computer and demodulates analog
signals used on telephone lines – hence, Modulator – Demodulator.

Communications Protocols
A communications protocol defines the rules for sending blocks of data (each known as a
Protocol Data Unit (PDU)) from one node in a network to another node. Protocols are normally
defined in a layered manner and provide all or part of the services specified by a layer of the
OSI reference model.
Protocols in computers can be used for various purposes, for example File transfer protocol
(FTP) is used to transfer large files across a computer network. However not all protocols do
the same, file transfer protocol transfers files, whereas an simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP)
sends and receives email to a computer, for a remote server. There are many computer protocols
which I will explain later. Protocols need some level to operate on, and this level is the OSI
model there are seven layers to the OSI model, at the bottom is the actual physical hardware
on the computer, and at the top is the user land applications.
First I am going to explain what both file transfer protocol (FTP) does and what level of the
OSI model it operates. File transfer protocol (FTP) this is used to send data from one computer
to another over a TCP based computer network; this can be both used on a private network or
the internet. The file transfer protocol is typically used to upload webpages and documents
from the user’s computer who developed it and want it on the internet, File transfer protocol
(FTP) also can be encrypted for a secure connection to transfer files, this offers and secure
environment for sensitive files. However the file transfer protocol (FTP) runs on the seventh
layer of the OSI model which is the application layer which means that the network
connectivity is directly available the FTP client, so the file transfer protocol users the so called
“closest layer the user” the transfer to files between computers, both on the internet and on
private networks.
I’m going to explain the two main protocol models, the first one will be the OSI model, and I
am going to tell you what each layer does:

1. The first layer is the physical layer. The major functions and services performed by the
physical layer are:
Establishment and termination of a connection to communications.
Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively shared
among multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flow control.
Modulation or conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment and
the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel.
2. The second layer is the data link layer. The data link layer provides the functional
means to transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that
may occur in the physical layer.

3. The third layer is the network layer. The network layer provides the functional means of
transferring variable data sequences from a source host on one network to a destination host on

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a different network, while maintaining the quality of service requested. The network layer
performs network routing functions.
The third layer controls many network dependencies, and how the computers communicate
on either a separate network, or a wired one.

4. Layer four is the transport layer. This layer maintains the flow control of data and provides
for error checking and recovery of data between the devices. Flow control means that the
Transport layer looks to see if data is coming from more than one application and integrates
each application's data into a single stream for the physical network. Making the streaming of
data faster and more reliable.

5. Layer five is the session layer. This layer maintains, establishes and ends the
communication between devices. This layer of the OSI model deals with setting up and
termination of conversations, dialogues and exchanges between applications at each end. It also
handles with the session and coordination.

6. Layer six is the presentation layer. This layer shows independence by encrypting data,
by transferring application data and the network data. This layer works in a way where it
changes data to a format that the application can recognise and use. So basically this layer
encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom of compatibility. Also this layer
is referred to as syntax layer.

7. Layer seven is the application layer. This layer is often referred to as the closest layer to
the user as it creates an environment for programs to run. Basically this layer handles
application processes this layer provides support for applications such as FTP, email and other
network software.

There is one more major protocol model and this is called the TCP/IP also known as the
internet protocol suite. The TCP/IP suite is a collection of computer communication protocols
used for internet and other similar networks, such as a private network. This is the most
common network stack also known as TCP, for wide area networks. TCP stands for Transfer
Control Protocol and IP means internet protocol. With both Transfer Control Protocol and
Internet protocol, provides end to end data transfer while specifying how the data should be
formatted. There are for layers to the TCP/IP model, each one has its own function and the
functions go like this; formatted, addressed, transmitted and routed and received at the
destination computer also each layer has its own protocols. The layers are as follows:

1. The Link layer, this can be Ethernet or wireless depending on the equipment in use, this
protocol contains technologies for local networks. Examples are HDLC, MAC, ARP
2. This layer is the Network or Internet layer; this provides connections to local networks
this means that the computers can interconnect. Examples are IP, ICMP
3. This layer is called the Transport layer; this handles computer to computer connections,
often referred as host to host connections. Examples are UDP, TCP
4. The final layer of the TCP/IP models is the Application layer, examples include HTTP
(hypertext transfer protocol) this layer provides all the protocols for data communications and
this is all done on a process to process level, this is like how a web browser connects with a
remote server.

Five different networking protocols, and what they do:

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· HTTP also known as the Hypertext transfer protocol, This protocol is used to show text
on webpages through web browsers on a computer, but this text is from a remote server, this
protocol runs on the application level.
· FTP also known as the File transfer protocol, this protocol is used to transfer large files
to both the internet and to other computers on a private Network; this protocol also runs on the
application layer of the OSI or TCP/IP model.
· SMTP also known as the simple mail transfer protocol, this protocol is used to simply
transfer mail from a remote server from the user’s inbox to their computer this protocol also
runs on the application layer on the OSI model.
· TCP also known as the transfer control protocol, this protocol is used simply to soft out
how to send data from the user applications, so the application doesn’t have to separate the
large data chunks into separate bits being sent to different IPs, TCP does it for the application.
This protocol unlike the rest I have listed uses the transport layer of the OSI model.
BGP also known as the border gateway protocol, this protocol is used basically to make peers
between different machines using TCP to maintain the connection it sends 19 byte messages
to keep the connection alive. BGP uses the TCP to maintain connections, and this protocol runs
in the Network layer of the OSI model.

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MULTIPLEXING

In telecommunications and computer networks, multiplexing (sometimes contracted to

muxing) is a method by which multiple analog message signals or digital data streams are
combined into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share an expensive resource.
For example, in telecommunications, several telephone calls may be carried using one wire.

Multiple low data rate signals are multiplexed over a single high data rate link, then
demultiplexed at the other end

A device that performs the multiplexing is called a multiplexer (MUX), and a device that
performs the reverse process is called a demultiplexer (DEMUX or DMX).

Types of Multiplexing

Space-Division Multiplexing
In wired communication, space-division multiplexing is the use of separate point-to-point
electrical conductors for each transmitted channel. Examples include an analogue stereo audio
cable, with one pair of wires for the left channel and another for the right channel, and a multi-
pair telephone cable, a switched star network such as a telephone access network, a switched
Ethernet network, and a mesh network.
In wireless communication, space-division multiplexing is achieved with multiple antenna
elements forming a phased array antenna. Examples are multiple-input and multiple-output
(MIMO), single-input and multiple-output (SIMO) and multiple-input and single-output
(MISO) multiplexing.

Frequency-division multiplexing

Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM): The spectrum of each input signal is shifted to a

distinct frequency range.

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Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is inherently an analog technology. FDM achieves the
combining of several signals into one medium by sending signals in several distinct frequency
ranges over a single medium.

One of the most common applications for FDM is traditional radio and television broadcasting
from terrestrial, mobile or satellite stations, or cable television. Only one cable reaches a
customer's residential area, but the service provider can send multiple television channels or
signals simultaneously over that cable to all subscribers without interference. Receivers must
tune to the appropriate frequency (channel) to access the desired signal

A variant technology, called wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is used in optical

communications.

Time-Division Multiplexing

Time-division multiplexing (TDM).

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital (or in rare cases, analog) technology which uses
time, instead of space or frequency, to separate the different data streams. TDM involves
sequencing groups of a few bits or bytes from each individual input stream, one after the other,
and in such a way that they can be associated with the appropriate receiver. If done sufficiently
quickly, the receiving devices will not detect that some of the circuit time was used to serve
another logical communication path.

Network Media
Network media is the actual path over which an electrical signal travels as it moves from one
component to another. This section describes the common types of network media, including
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, fibre-optic cable, and wireless.
Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisted-pair cable is a type of cabling that is used for telephone communications and most
modern Ethernet networks. A pair of wires forms a circuit that can transmit data. The pairs are
twisted to provide protection against crosstalk, the noise generated by adjacent pairs. When
electrical current flows through a wire, it creates a small, circular magnetic field around the
wire. When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, their magnetic fields are

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the exact opposite of each other. Thus, the two magnetic fields cancel each other out. They also
cancel out any outside magnetic fields. Twisting the wires can enhance this cancellation effect.
Using cancellation together with twisting the wires, cable designers can effectively provide
self-shielding for wire pairs within the network media.
Coaxial Cables: Coaxial cables are a type of cable that is used by cable TV and that is common
for data communications. There is a single centre solid wire symmetrically surrounded by a
braided or foil conductor. Data is transmitted through the centre wire, while the outer braided
layer serves as a line to ground. Both of these conductors are parallel and share the same axis.
This is why the wire is called coaxial!

Optical fibres: An optical fibre is a technology that uses glass (or plastic) threads (fibers) to
transmit data. A fiber optic cable consists of a bundle of glass threads, each of which is capable
of transmitting messages modulated onto light waves.
An optical fiber is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a
diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Optical fibers are used most often as a
means to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber and find wide usage in fiber-optic
communications, where they permit transmission over longer distances and at higher
bandwidths (data rates) than wire cables.

Fiber optics has several advantages over traditional metal communications lines:

 Fiber optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables. This means
that they can carry more data.
 Fiber optic cables are less susceptible than metal cables to interference.
 Fiber optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires.
 Data can be transmitted digitally (the natural form for computer data) rather than
analogically.

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