Society
The term society is most fundamental to sociology. It is derived from the Latin word socius
which means companionship or friendship. Companionship means sociability. According to
George Simmel it is this element of sociability which defines the true essence of society. It
indicates that man always lives in the company of other people. Man is a social animal said
Aristotle centuries ago. Man needs society for his living, working and enjoying life. Society
has become an essential condition for human life to continue. We can define society as a
group of people who share a common culture, occupy a particular territorial area and feel
themselves to constitute a unified and distinct entity. It is the mutual interactions and
interrelations of individuals and groups.
Individual is the basic component of society. The interaction of individuals with each other
gives birth to group. The social groups interact with each other and develop relationships
with each other, leads to a society. The players in football or other games came together is not
a society, but just an aggregate of people. Within the society there are patterns and groupings
on the basis of likeness and differences. “Likeness” creates a chain of relations among the
individuals having similarity in one or more conditions like same profession, same residence,
same caste, family and kinship, college, age, sex etc.”
Definition of Society
Prof Wright: It is a system of relationships that exists among the individuals of the groups.
Linton: Any group of people who have lived and worked together long enough to get
themselves organized and to think of themselves as a social unit with well defined limits”.
A.W. Green: It is the largest group in which individual have relationships.
Maclver: It is a web of social relationship, which is always changing.
Adam Smith: Society is an artificial device of Natural economy.
To Talcott Parson ‘Society may be defined as the total complex of human relationships in so
far as they grow out of action in terms of mean-end relationships intrinsic or symbolic.’
To R.T. LaPierre ‘Society refers not to a group of people but to the complex pattern of norms
of interaction that arise among and between them’.
To Anthony Giddings, ‘Society is the union itself, the organization, the sum of formal
relations in which associating individuals are bound together.
To Talcott Parson ‘Society may be defined as the total complex of human relationships in so
far as they grow out of action in terms of mean-end relationships intrinsic or symbolic.’
To R.T. LaPierre ‘Society refers not to a group of people but to the complex pattern of norms
of interaction that arise among and between them’.
August Comte the father of sociology saw society as a social organism possessing a harmony
of structure and function. Emile Durkheim the founding father of the modern sociology
treated society as a reality in its own right.
According to Talcott Parsons Society is a total complex of human relationships in so far as
they grow out of the action in terms of means-end relationship intrinsic or symbolic.G.H
Mead conceived society as an exchange of gestures which involves the use of symbols.
Morris Ginsberg defines society as a collection of individuals united by certain relations or
mode of behavior which mark them off from others who do not enter into these relations or
who differ from them in behavior. Cole sees Society as the complex of organized associations
and institutions with a community. According to Maclver and Page society is a system of
usages and procedures of authority and mutual aid of many groupings and divisions, of
controls of human behavior and liberties. This ever-changing complex system which is called
society is a web of social relationship
Features/Characteristics/Nature
Society is viewed as a process as well as a structure that is complementary to each other. It
means that society exists only when they behave toward each other (process) and it is a
structure as it is made up of a web or network of relationships among the people and
institutions. Society has the following basic features as follows:
Society is Abstract: It is abstract in nature. We cannot see the structure of it, we can just feel
it. It is made up of social relationships. It consists of social relations, human behavior,
customs, rituals, etc.
It is Dynamic: Society is not static, it is dynamic. Change is ever-present in it. According to
Herbert Spencer change is the rule of society. It is like water in a stream or river that forever
flows. New associations, institutions, and groups may come into being and old ones may die
a natural death. Changes take place slowly, or gradually, suddenly or abruptly.
It Consists of People: It is composed of people. Without people, there is no society. No
social relationships and no social life is possible.
It is not only a group of persons: According to sociologist Wright, society is not a group of
persons rather it is a relationship and interaction process among and between people and
groups.
It is a complex system: It is ever-changing. Due to continuous change in people’s roles,
right, duties, and conditions whole social structure gets changed. Its nature changed from
simple to complex due to its dynamic nature.
It is based upon interdependence: Social relationships are characterized by
interdependence. Society’s people and groups are interdependent. One has to depend upon
others for the satisfaction of needs.
Cooperation and conflict: It is based on cooperation. It is the very basis of our social life.
People can satisfy their desires and fulfill their needs with the help of cooperation. Due to a
lot of differences, we find conflicts in society. In it, like cooperation, conflict also existed
directly or indirectly.
It is means of social control: It has its own ways and means of controlling the behavior of its
members. It has various formal as well as informal means of social control. It means it has
customs, traditions, conventions and folkways, mores, manners, etiquettes, laws, legislations,
police, court, and other formal or informal means of social control to regulate the behavior of
its members.
It consists of culture: Each society is distinct from others. Every society is unique because it
has one way of life, called culture. Human societies are distinguished from animal societies
because of the culture we share.
Mutual interaction and awareness: It is a group of people in continuous interaction with
each other. Social interaction is made possible because of mutual awareness. So without
interaction and awareness, there are no societies.
Meaning of Social Groups:
Two or more persons in interaction constitute a social group. It has common aim. In its strict
sense, group is a collection of people interacting together in an orderly way on the basis of
shared expectations about each other’s behaviour. As a result of this interaction, the members
of a group, feel a common sense of belonging. group is a collection of individuals but all
collectivities do not constitute a social group. A group is distinct from an aggregate (people
waiting at railway station or bus stand) member of which do not interact with one another.
The essence of the social group is not physical closeness or contact between the individuals
but a consciousness of joint interaction.
Following are the important characteristics of social group:
1. Mutual Awareness:
The members of a social group must be mutually related to one another. A more aggregate of
individuals cannot constitute a social group unless reciprocal awareness exist among them.
Mutual attachment, is therefore, regarded as its important and distinctive feature. It forms an
essential feature of a group.
2. One or more Common Interests:
Groups are mostly formed for the fulfillment of certain interests. The individuals who form a
group should possess one or more than one common interests and ideals. It is for the
realization of common interests that they meet together. Groups always originates, starts and
proceed with a common interests.
3. Sense of Unity:
Each social group requires sense of unity and a feeling of sympathy for the development of a
feeling or sense of belongingness. The members of a social group develop common loyalty or
feeling of sympathy among themselves in all matters because of this sense of unity.
4. We-feeling:
A sense of we-feeling refers to the tendency on the part of the members to identify
themselves with the group. They treat the members of their own group as friends and the
members belonging to other groups as outsiders. They cooperate with those who belong to
their groups and all of them protect their interests unitedly. We-feeling generates sympathy,
loyalty and fosters cooperation among members.
5. Similarity of Behaviour:
For the fulfillment of common interest, the members of a group behave in a similar way.
Social group represents collective behaviour. The-modes of behaviour of the members on a
group are more or less similar.
6. Group Norms:
Each and every group has its own ideals and norms and the members are supposed to follow
these. He who deviates from the existing group-norms is severely punished. These norms
may be in the form of customs, folk ways, mores, traditions, laws etc. They may be written or
unwritten. The group exercises some control over its members through the prevailing rules or
norms.
In-Groups and Out-Groups
One of the ways that groups can be powerful is through inclusion, and its inverse, exclusion.
The feeling that we belong in an elite or select group is a heady one, while the feeling of not
being allowed in, or of being in competition with a group, can be motivating in a different
way. Sociologist William Sumner (1840–1910) developed the concepts of in-group and out-
group to explain this phenomenon (Sumner 1906). In short, an in-group is the group that an
individual feels she belongs to, and she believes it to be an integral part of who she is. An
out-group, conversely, is a group someone doesn’t belong to; often we may feel disdain or
competition in relationship to an out-group. Sports teams, unions, and sororities are examples
of in-groups and out-groups. Primary groups consist of both in-groups and out-groups, as do
secondary groups.
While group affiliations can be neutral or positive, the concept of in-groups and out-groups
can also explain some negative human behavior, such as white supremacist movements. By
defining others as “not like us” and inferior, in-groups can end up practicing ethnocentrism,
racism, sexism, ageism, and heterosexism—manners of judging others negatively based on
their culture, race, sex, age, or sexuality.
Often, in-groups can form within a secondary group. For instance, a workplace can have
cliques of people, from senior executives who play golf together, to engineers who write code
together, to young singles who socialize after hours. While these in-groups might show
favoritism and affinity for other in-group members, the overall organization may be unable or
unwilling to acknowledge it. Therefore, it pays to be wary of the politics of in-groups, since
members may exclude others as a form of gaining status within the group.
A reference group is a group that people compare themselves to-it provides a standard of
measurement. In U.S. society, peer groups are common reference groups. Kids and adults pay
attention to what their peers wear, what music they like, what they do with their free time-and
they compare themselves to what they see. Most people have more than one reference group,
so a middle school boy might look not just at his classmates but also at his older brother’s
friends and see a different set of norms. And he might observe the behaviors of his favorite
athletes for yet another point of reference.
Some other examples of reference groups can be one’s cultural center, workplace, family
gathering, and even parents. Often, reference groups convey competing messages. For
instance, on television and in movies, young adults often have wonderful apartments and cars
and lively social lives despite not holding a job. In music videos, young women might dance
and sing in a sexually aggressive way that suggests experience beyond their years. At all
ages, we use reference groups to help guide our behavior and establish our social norms. So
how important is it to surround yourself with positive reference groups? You may not
recognize a reference group, but it still influences the way you act. Identifying your reference
groups can help you understand the source of the social identities you aspire to or want to
distance yourself from.
Primary and secondary groups
Groups play a basic role in the development of the social nature and ideals of
people. Primary groups are those in which individuals intimately interact and cooperate
over a long period of time. Examples of primary groups are families, friends, peers,
neighbors, classmates, sororities, fraternities, and church members. These groups are marked
by primary relationships in which communication is informal. Members of primary groups
have strong emotional ties. They also relate to one another as whole and unique individuals.
In contrast, secondary groups are those in which individuals do not interact much. Members
of secondary groups are less personal or emotional than those of primary groups. These
groups are marked by secondary relationships in which communication is formal. Members
of secondary groups may not know each other or have much face to face interaction. They
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tend to relate to others only in particular roles and for practical reasons. An example of a
secondary relationship is that of a stockbroker and her clients. The stockbroker likely relates
to her clients in terms of business only. She probably will not socialize with her clients or hug
them.
Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) suggested that groups can broadly be
divided into two categories: primary groupsand secondary groups (Cooley 1909). According
to Cooley, primary groups play the most critical role in our lives. The primary group is
usually fairly small and is made up of individuals who generally engage face-to-face in long-
term emotional ways. This group serves emotional needs: expressive functions rather than
pragmatic ones. The primary group is usually made up of significant others, those individuals
who have the most impact on our socialization. The best example of a primary group is the
family.
Secondary groups are often larger and impersonal. They may also be task-focused and time-
limited. These groups serve an instrumental function rather than an expressive one, meaning
that their role is more goal- or task-oriented than emotional. A classroom or office can be an
example of a secondary group. Neither primary nor secondary groups are bound by strict
definitions or set limits. In fact, people can move from one group to another. A graduate
seminar, for example, can start as a secondary group focused on the class at hand, but as the
students work together throughout their program, they may find common interests and strong
ties that transform them into a primary group. A second type of social group is a secondary
group. Secondary groups are larger, more anonymous, and impersonal compared to primary
groups. They also tend to be more short-term. Such groups are often based on shared
interests, hobbies, or activities. For example, forming a temporary task group to plan a
holiday party at work or organizing a reading group before an exam. Oftentimes, secondary
group members interact based on social statuses. If you’re a worker you may belong to a
union; if you’re a student, you may be in a college class with a lot of other students; if you’re
a professor, you may belong to a professional association. As you interact more with people
in your larger secondary group, these groups may break down into primary groups. Stronger
friendships may form between you and a few others in the class of 150 students in Statistics
101, and you then become close long-term friends who influence one another. This is an
example of how secondary groups may break down into primary groups.
Here is a nutshell description of social groups and the distinctions between primary and
secondary social groups:
• Social groups include two or more people who interact and share a sense of unity and
common identity.
• Primary groups are small and characterized by close, personal relationships that last a
long time.
• Secondary groups include impersonal, temporary relationships that are goal-oriented.
• Secondary groups often have an organized structure, an authority figure who oversees
the rules, while primary groups are typically informally organized.
• There often is an overlap between primary and secondary groups that arises, for
example, if an individual forms a personal relationship with someone in a secondary
group.
Another important criterion for classifying societies is on the basis of a major source of
economic organization which classifies society into the following types:
The members of hunting and gathering societies primarily survive by hunting animals,
fishing, and gathering plants. The vast majority of these societies existed in the past, with
only a few (perhaps a million people total) living today on the verge of extinction.
Sociology and Common Sense
Many people mistakenly believe that sociology is the study of the obvious. They claim that
sociology is nothing but the application of common sense. But equating any science with
simple common sense could not be further from the truth! Common sense is not always
“common,” nor “sensible.” Statements like “Birds of a feather flock together” and “Opposites
attract,” while supposedly based on common knowledge, contradict each other. Because
common sense does not always accurately predict reality, people need something else.
Not every sociological finding is revolutionary; many findings do appear consistent with
common sense. By systematically testing common sense beliefs against facts, sociologists
can sort out which popular beliefs hold true and which do not. To accomplish this,
sociologists use a variety of social science research designs and methods.
Sociology as a discipline is more than common sense. Sociology is a method of inquiry that
requires the systematic testing of beliefs against evidence. Sociologists, therefore, make
determining whether specific ideas are fact or fiction their job.
It is more than common sense and this is why it is studied as a discipline. Common sense, on
the other hand, is based on individual and natural hypotheses that one makes and this varies
from person to person since opinions are not the same among a group of people. Though
there is a close relationship between sociology and common sense, there is still a gap
between them. While in sociology, the sociologist’s research on whether which theories are
fact or fiction by elaborately researching beliefs as well as evidence, in common sense, there
is no hard and fast rule that a particular theory applies to everyone (since people have
conflicting opinions).
Differences between sociology and common sense:
Common sense differs from person to person and is influenced by the customs and beliefs of
the family one is born into. It, therefore, calls for no social changes and wants the status quo.
Sociology, on the other hand, studies the intricate details of evidence as well as the beliefs
and decides upon what can be applied and what cannot. It questions the present situation
when the opinions and evidence conflict and then supports changes in society.
Common sense of a person just an assumption. In this case, one has no evidence to back
what one believes. Unlike common sense, sociological theories are not mere assumptions but
a sociologist concludes upon the theories by collecting evidences and studying them in-depth.
Given this research, the points put forward by these theories are reliable and truly applicable
to real life.
Common sense is based on personal experiences. But Sociology looks at the society not with
respect to individuals but as a whole. While common sense develops as one experiences
various situations but Sociology demands thoughts that are not merely individual
experiences.
Sociology is a scientific study of society. But common sense is not. Since Sociology is an
elaborate study of the society (and includes research), it is a science. But since common sense
doesn’t require the same it isn’t.
In Sociology, while one is researching, one comes across the patterns that can be found
everywhere in the world. But common sense is subjective since it differs from one individual
to another based on the society one comes from.
Common sense is very limited since the person’s horizon is nowhere beyond the
environment in one’s vicinity. But Sociological findings are applicable to a huge number of
people who come from varying backgrounds.