CONTENTS

[Link] TITLE [Link]

1 Objectives of the Study 1

2 What is Cancer? 2

3 History and Discovery of Cancer 3

4 Types of Cancer 5

5 Causes of Cancer 13

6 Symptoms and Stages of Cancer 16

7 Diagnosis and Detection Methods

Treatment and Prevention of

8
Cancer
Recent Advances in Cancer
9
Research

10 Conclusion

11 Bibliography
 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

 To understand the basic concept and biological nature of

cancer.
 To study how normal cells transform into cancerous
cells.
 To identify the major types and classifications of cancer.
 To explore the genetic, environmental, and lifestyle
factors responsible for the development of cancer.
 To learn about the stages of cancer development and its
progression in the human body.
 To understand the various diagnostic methods used for
early detection of cancer.
 To analyse and compare different treatment methods
such as chemotherapy, radiation therapy,
immunotherapy, and surgery.
 To study preventive measures and methods to spread
awareness about cancer.
 To understand the molecular and cellular mechanisms
involved in the formation of cancer cells.
 To highlight recent advancements in cancer research and
medical technologies for its treatment and control.
 WHAT IS CANCER?
Cancer is a disease in which some of the
body’s cells grow uncontrollably and
spread to other parts of the body.
Cancer can start almost anywhere in the
human body, which is made up of
trillions of cells. Normally, human cells
grow and multiply to form new cells as
the body needs them. When cells grow
old or become damaged, they die, and
new cells take their place.
Sometimes this orderly process breaks down, and abnormal or
damaged cells grow and multiply when they shouldn’t. These
cells may form tumours, which are lumps of tissue. Tumours
can be cancerous or not cancerous
Cancerous tumours spread into, or invade, nearby tissues and
can travel to distant places in the body to form new Cancerous
tumours may also be called malignant tumours. Many cancers
form solid tumours, but cancers of the blood, such
as leukemias, generally do not.
Cancer
Over the centuries, cancer has stayed one of the world's
deadliest diseases. It is a top cause of death around the globe,
leading to nearly 10 million deaths in 2020, which is about
one in six deaths. Ongoing research and medical progress
have helped us understand and fight this dangerous disease
better.
 HISTORY AND DICVOVERY OF
CANCER
The world’s earliest known
mention of cancer was found in a
papyrus document from ancient
Egypt during the 3000 BCE. It
described tumors found in
the breast. The cancer was treated
by destroying the tissue with a hot
instrument called “the fire drill”—
a technique we now call “cauterization.”2 Some writings have
shown that the ancient Egyptians could distinguish between
cancerous (malignant) and noncancerous (benign) tumors.

In ancient Greece,during 460 BCE, Hippocrates thought there

were four fluids in the body that influenced health:
blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. He believed that
having too much black bile in a part of the body caused
cancer. For the next 1,400 years, people believed cancer was
caused by too much black bile
A British surgeon named Percivall
Pott(1775) discovered that testicular cancer
was common in chimney sweeps. This was
the first time a cancer was connected to an
environmental cause
The discovery of the lymphatic system in the 17th century led
to new ideas about cancer. The lymphatic system includes the
tissues, vessels, and organs that move a substance called
lymph around your body. Lymph is an important part of your
immune system. When the lymphatic system was discovered,
it brought about the possibility that problems in this part of
the body could cause cancer. This idea was called the lymph
theory. It replaced Hippocrates’ theory about black bile and
cancer.
Johannes Mueller(1838), a German
pathologist, showed that cancer is made
of cells, not lymph. Mueller’s student,
physician Rudolf Virchow, figured out
that all our cells—even cancerous ones—
come from other cells.6 However, he
thought cancer spread in the body “like a
liquid.”
A German surgeon named Karl Thiersch (1860)was the first
person to prove that cancer spread through malignant cells
 TYPES OF CANCER
There are more than 200 types of cancer and we can classify
cancers according to where they start in the body, such as
breast cancer or lung cancer.
We can also group cancer according to the type of cell they
start in. There are 5 main groups. These are:
Carcinoma – this cancer begins in the skin or in tissues
that line or cover internal organs. There are different
subtypes, including adenocarcinoma, basal cell
carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and transitional cell
carcinoma
Sarcoma – this cancer begins in the connective or
supportive tissues such as bone, cartilage, fat,
muscle or blood vessels
Leukaemia – this is cancer of the white blood cells. It
starts in the tissues that make blood cells such as the
bone marrow.
Lymphoma and Myeloma – these cancers begin in the
cells of the immune system
Brain and Spinal cord cancers – these are known as central
nervous system cancers
Carcinomas
Carcinomas start in epithelial tissues. These tissues:
cover the outside of the body such as the skin
cover and line all the organs inside the body such as the
organs of the digestive system.
line the body cavities such as the inside of the chest
cavity and the abdominal cavity

Carcinomas are the most common type of cancer. They

include many breast, lung, bowel and prostate cancers.
There are different types of epithelial cells and these can
develop into different types of carcinoma. These include:
 squamous cell carcinoma
 adenocarcinoma
 transitional cell carcinoma
 basal cell carcinoma
Squamous cell carcinoma
Squamous cell carcinoma starts in squamous cells. These
are the flat, surface covering cells found in areas such as the
skin or the lining of the throat or food pipe (oesophagus)

Adenocarcinoma
Adenocarcinomas start in glandular cells called adenomatous
cells. Glandular cells produce fluids to keep tissues moist.
Transitional cell carcinoma
Transitional cells are cells that can stretch as an organ
expands. They make up tissues called transitional epithelium.
An example is the lining of the bladder. Cancers that start in
these cells are called transitional cell carcinoma.

Basal cell carcinoma

Basal cells line the deepest layer of skin cells. Cancers that
start in these cells are called basal cell carcinomas.
Sarcomas
Sarcomas start in connective tissues. These are the supporting
tissues of the body. Connective tissues include the bones,
cartilage, tendons and fibrous tissue that support organs.
Sarcomas are much less common than carcinomas.
There are 2 main types:
 bone sarcomas
 soft tissue sarcomas
These make up less than 1 in every 100 cancers
(1%) diagnosed every year.
Bone sarcomas
Sarcomas of bone start from bone cells.

Soft tissue sarcomas

Soft tissue sarcomas are rare but the most common types start
in cartilage or muscle.

Cartilage: Cancer of the cartilage is called chondrosarcoma

Muscle: Cancer of muscle cells is called rhabdomyosarcoma

or leiomyosarcoma

Leukaemias – cancers of blood cells

Leukaemia is cancer of the white blood
cells. The bone marrow makes too many
white blood cells. The blood cells are not
fully formed and so they don't work properly. The abnormal
cells build up in the blood.
Leukaemias are uncommon. They make up only 3 out of 100
of all cancer cases (3%). But they are the most common type
of cancer in children.
Lymphomas and myeloma
Other types of cancer are lymphomas and myeloma, They
are cancers of the lymphatic system . The lymphatic system
is a system of tubes and glands in the body that filters body
fluid and fights infection.
Lymphomas
Lymphoma is cancer that starts in the lymph glands or cells of
the lymphatic system. The lymphatic system runs all through
the body so lymphoma can start just about anywhere.
It happens because some of the lymphatic system white blood
cells (lymphocytes) start to divide in an abnormal way. And
don't die as they should. These cells start to divide before they
become fully grown (mature) so they can't fight infection.
The abnormal lymphocytes start to
collect in the lymph nodes or other
places such as the bone marrow or
spleen. They can then grow into
tumours.

Myeloma
Myeloma is a cancer that starts in
plasma cells. Plasma cells are a
type of white blood cell made in
the bone marrow. They
produce antibodies, also called
immunoglobulins, to help fight
infection.

Plasma cells can become abnormal and multiply out of

control. They make a type of antibody that doesn't work
properly to fight infection.
Brain and spinal cord cancers
Cancer can start in the cells of the brain or spinal cord. The
brain controls the body by sending electrical messages along
nerve fibres. The fibres run out of the brain and join to make
the spinal cord, which also takes messages from the body to
the brain.
The brain and spinal cord form
the central nervous system. The
brain is made up of billions of
nerve cells called neurones. It
also contains special connective
tissue cells called glial cells that
support the nerve cells.
The most common type of brain tumour develops from glial
cells. It is called glioma. Some tumours that start in the brain
or spinal cord are non cancerous (benign) and grow very
slowly. Others are cancerous and tend to grow and spread.
 CAUSES OF CANCER
Cancer can develop from many factors. These include genetic
mutations, unhealthy lifestyle choices, exposure to harmful
chemicals, radiation, and certain infections. Environmental
factors and family history also matter. Studying these causes
helps identify risks and effectively use preventive measures.
Smoking and tobacco
Smoking causes at least 16
different types of cancer and is the
biggest cause of lung cancer in the
world . Smoking causes other
diseases too, such as heart disease
and various lung diseases.
DNA controls how our cells grow and behave. Damage to
DNA causes cells to behave in ways that they’re not supposed
to. And the build-up of DNA damage over time can lead to
cancer.
Cigarette smoke contains over 5000 chemicals and many of
these are harmful - we know at least 70 can cause cancer.
When smoking, the harmful chemicals enter our lungs and
affect the entire body.
These chemicals damage our DNA, including parts of our
DNA that protect us against cancer.
Chemicals in cigarette smoke also make it harder for our cells
to repair DNA damage. This means DNA damage can build
up.
It’s the build-up of DNA damage in the same cell over time
that leads to cancer.
Overwight and obesity
People with obesity are have high chances of
cancer risks.,Extra fat in the body doesn’t just
sit there, it's active and send out signals to the
rest of your body. These signals can tell cells
in our body to divide more often, which can
lead to cancer.
The signals released by fat cells can affect:
Growth hormones - too much body fat can cause levels of
growth hormones to rise, which tells cells to divide more
often. This raises the chance that cancer cells will develop.

Inflammation - immune cells go to areas of the body where

there are lots of fat cells. This can lead to inflammation, which
causes cells to divide quicker. Over time, this can increase the
risk of cancer.
Sex hormones - after the menopause, fat cells produce the
hormone oestrogen. This hormone can make cells in the breast
and womb divide more often, which increases the risk of
cancer developing.
Alcohols
There are many ways that alcohol can cause cancer. Some of
the main ways are:
Damage to cells: When we drink alcohol, our bodies turn it
into a chemical, called acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde can
damage our cells and can also stop cells from repairing this
damage.
Changes to hormones: Alcohol can increase the levels of
some hormones in our bodies such as oestrogen and insulin.
Hormones are chemical messengers, and higher levels of
oestrogen and insulin can make cells divide more often. This
increases the chance that cancer will develop.
Changes to cells in the mouth and throat:Alcohol can make
it easier for cells in the mouth and throat to absorb harmful
chemicals that cause damage.

Inherited cancer genes

Most cancers are not caused by inherited gene changes, but
some inherited mutations increase cancer risk.
 BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene changes increase the risk of
breast, ovarian, prostate, and pancreatic cancers.
  Lynch syndrome affects genes like MLH1, MSH2,
MSH6, PMS2, and EPCAM, increasing risk of bowel,
womb, ovarian, stomach, and other cancers.
 These hereditary conditions are rare.
 Most cancers develop due to environmental factors and
chance rather than inherited gene changes

SYMPTOMS AND STAGES OF

CANCER
There are over 200 different types of cancer, and they all have
different signs and symptoms. Some affect specific areas of
the body, such as our tummy or skin. But symptoms can also
be more general, such as weight loss, tiredness (fatigue) or
unexplained pain.
Some symptoms are general, and could affect any part of the
body, or the whole body.
Very heavy night sweats or fever
Sweating at night or having a high temperature (fever) can be
caused by infections or a side effect of certain medications.
It’s also often experienced by women around the time of the
menopause.
Unexplained bleeding or bruising
If you have unexplained bleeding or bruising when you have
not hurt yourself, it important to get checked out. This could
be from anywhere in your body, and includes vomiting or
coughing up blood. No matter how much blood or what
colour it is (blood can be red, or a darker colour like brown or
black), it must be checked immediately
Fatigue
There are lots of reasons why you may feel moretired than
usual, particularly if you’re having trouble sleeping or are
stressed. But if you’re feeling tired all the time, or if there is
no clear reason you’re feeling tired, speak to your doctor.
Unexplained pain or ache
Pain is one way our body tells us that something is wrong. As
we get older, it’s more common to experience aches and pains.
But unexplained or persistent pain anywhere in the body
could be a sign of something more serious.
Unexplained weight loss
Small weight changes over time are
quite normal. But if you or other
people think you have lost a
noticeable amount of weight when
you aren’t trying to, it can be a
symptom
Unusual lump or swelling anywhere
Persistent lumps or swelling in any part of your body should
be taken seriously. This includes any lumps in the neck,
armpit, stomach, groin, chest, breast, or testicle.
Stages of cancer :
Staging is a way of describing the size of a cancer and how far
it has grown. When doctors first diagnose a cancer, they carry
out tests to:
check how big the cancer is
whether it has spread into surrounding tissues
whether it has spread to other parts of the body
Staging is important because it helps your treatment team to
know which treatments you need.
The TNM staging system
The TNM staging system stands for Tumour, Node,
Metastasis

.
T describes the size of the tumour
N describes whether there are any cancer cells in the
lymph nodes
 M describes whether the cancer has spread to a different
part of the body
The system uses letters and numbers to describe the cancer.
T refers to the size of the cancer and how far it has
spread into nearby tissue. It can be 1, 2, 3 or 4, with 1
being small and 4 large.
N refers to whether the cancer has spread to the lymph
nodes. It can be between 0 and 3. 0 means that there are
no lymph nodes containing cancer cells. And 3 means
that there are lots of lymph nodes containing cancer cells.
M refers to whether the cancer has spread to another part
of the body. It can either be 0 or 1. M0 means that the
cancer hasn't spread and M1 that the cancer has spread.
The letter p is sometimes used before the letters TNM. For
example, pT4. This stands for pathological stage. It means
that doctors based the staging on examining cancer cells in the
lab after surgery to remove a cancer.
The letter c is sometimes used before the letters TNM. For
example, cT2. This stands for clinical stage. It means that the
stage is based on what the doctor knows about the cancer
before surgery.
Number staging systems
Number staging systems use the TNM system to divide
cancers into stages. Most types of cancer have 4 stages,
numbered from 1 to 4. Doctors often write the stage down in
Roman numerals. So they may write stage 4 as stage IV.
Here is a brief summary of what the stages mean for most
types of cancer:
Stage 1 usually means that a cancer is small and
contained within the organ it started in
Stage 2 usually means that the tumour is larger than in
stage 1 but the cancer hasn't started to spread into the
surrounding tissues. Sometimes stage 2 means that
cancer cells have spread into lymph nodes close to the
tumour. This depends on the particular type of cancer
Stage 3 usually means the cancer is larger. It may have
started to spread into surrounding tissues and there are
cancer cells in the lymph nodes nearby.
Stage 4 means the cancer has spread from where it
started to another body organ. For example to the liver or
lung. This is also called secondary or metastatic cancer

DIAGNOSIS AND DETECTION

METHODS
High or low levels of certain substances in your body can be a
sign of cancer. So lab tests of your blood, urine, and other
body fluids that measure these substances can help doctors
make a diagnosis
Blood chemistry test
A blood chemistry test measures the
amounts of certain substances that are
released into the blood by the organs and tissues of the body.
These substances include metabolites, electrolytes, fats,
sugars, and proteins, including enzymes.
Complete blood count (CBC)
The CBC measures the number of red blood cells, white
blood cells, and platelets in your blood. It also measures the
amount of hemoglobin in your blood, the amount of your
blood that is made up of red blood cells, the size of your red
blood cells, and the amount of hemoglobin in your red blood
cells.
The CBC is often part of a routine health check-up. It can help
diagnose some cancers, especially leukemias.
Cytogenetic analysis
Cytogenetic analysis looks for changes in chromosomes in
samples of tissue, blood, bone marrow, or amniotic fluid.
Chromosome changes may include broken, missing,
rearranged, or extra chromosomes. Changes in certain
chromosomes may be a sign of a genetic condition or some
types of cancer
Immunophenotyping
Immunophenotyping uses antibodies to identify cells based on
the types of antigens or markers on the surface of the cells. It
is most often done on blood or bone marrow samples. But it
may also be done on other body fluids or tissue samples.
Liquid biopsy
Liquid biopsy is a test done on a
sample of blood to look for
cancer cells or pieces
of DNA from tumor cells that are sometimes released into the
blood.
Sputum cytology
Sputum cytology looks for abnormal cells in sputum, which
is mucus and other matter brought up from the lungs by
[Link] used to identify lung cancer
Tumor marker tests
Tests for tumor markers measure
substances that are produced by cancer
cells or other cells of the body in
response to cancer. Most tumor markers
are made by both normal cells and
cancer cells. But they are produced at
much higher levels by cancer cells.

Urinalysis
Urinalysis describes the color of urine and measures its
contents, such as sugar, protein, red blood cells, and white
blood cells.
Urinalysis can help diagnose kidney cancer, bladder cancer,
and rarer urothelial cancers.
Urine cytology
Urine cytology finds disease by
looking for abnormal cells shed from
the urinary tract into the [Link]
cytology helps diagnose kidney
cancer, bladder cancer, and rarer
urothelial cancers. After cancer treatment, it is used to watch
for signs that cancer has returned.
Imaging tests help create pictures of the inside of the body to
detect tumors and abnormalities. Common imaging methods
include:
CT Scan
MRI
Nuclear Scan
Bone Scan
PET Scan
Ultrasound
X-rays

TREATMENT AND PREVENTION OF

CANCER
Many cancer treatments are available. treatment options will
depend on several factors, such as the type and stage of
cancer, general health, and preferences.
Goals of cancer treatment
Cancer treatments have different objectives, such as:
Cure: The goal of treatment is to achieve a cure for cancer,
allowing people to live a normal life span.
Primary treatment:The goal of a primary treatment is to
completely remove the cancer from the body or kill the cancer
cells.
Any cancer treatment can be used as a primary treatment, but
the most common primary cancer treatment for the most
common cancers is surgery. If the cancer is particularly
sensitive to radiation therapy or chemotherapy, those methods
are usually preferred
Adjuvant treatment:The goal of adjuvant therapy is to kill
any cancer cells that may remain after primary treatment in
order to reduce the chance that the cancer will recur.
Any cancer treatment can be used as an adjuvant therapy.
Common adjuvant therapies include chemotherapy, radiation
therapy and hormone therapy.
Palliative treatment:Palliative treatments may help relieve
side effects of treatment or signs and symptoms caused by
cancer itself. Surgery, radiation, chemotherapy and hormone
therapy can all be used to relieve symptoms and control the
spread of cancer when a cure isn't possible. Medications may
relieve symptoms such as pain and shortness of breath.
Cancer treatments
Doctors have many tools when it comes to treating cancer.
Cancer treatment options include:
Surgery
The goal of surgery is to remove the cancer
or as much of the cancer as possible.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells.
Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy uses
high-powered energy
beams, such as X-rays and
protons, to kill cancer cells.
Radiation treatment can
come from a machine
outside your body (external
beam radiation), or it can be
placed inside your body (brachytherapy).
Bone marrow transplant
Bone marrow transplant is also known as a stem cell
transplant. Your bone marrow is the material inside your
bones that makes blood cells. A bone marrow transplant can
use your own cells or cells from a donor.
A bone marrow transplant allows your doctor to use higher
doses of chemotherapy to treat your cancer. It may also be
used to replace diseased bone marrow.
Immunotherapy
Immunotherapy, also known as biological therapy, uses your
body's immune system to fight cancer. Cancer can survive
unchecked in your body because your immune system doesn't
recognize it as an intruder. Immunotherapy can help your
immune system "see" the cancer and attack it.
Hormone therapy
Some types of cancer are fueled by your body's hormones.
Examples include breast cancer and prostate cancer.
Removing those hormones from the body or blocking their
effects may cause the cancer cells to stop growing.
Targeted drug therapy
Targeted drug treatment focuses on specific abnormalities
within cancer cells that allow them to survive.
Clinical trials
Clinical trials are studies to investigate new ways of treating
cancer. Thousands of cancer clinical trials are underway.

RECENT ADVANCES IN CANCER

RESEARCH
Immunotherapy Breakthroughs
Cancer patients treated with a pioneering
immunotherapy that genetically modifies
their own cells to wipe out tumours live
40% longer, according to “exciting” and
“groundbreaking” results from a world-
first clinical trial.
Car T-cell therapy is a new form of immunotherapy where a
patient’s own T-cells – a type of white blood cell – are
tweaked in a lab to target and kill cancer cells. The designer
cells are then infused back into their bloodstream to fight the
disease.
The therapy has already proved successful in treating blood
cancers. Now results from the world’s first randomised
controlled trial of Car T-cell therapy in solid tumours suggest
it could be transformative in the fight against these cancers
too.
Artificial Intelligence in Oncology
Artificial intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing cancer care by
enhancing diagnostic accuracy and personalizing treatment
plans. In 2025, AI's integration into oncology practices has the
potential to transform medical procedures by mimicking
human cognitive functions to perform tasks like image
analysis and treatment optimization

Personalized Cancer Vaccines

The development of personalized cancer vaccines is
advancing, with clinical trials underway in Europe. These
vaccines are tailored to individual patients, aiming to
stimulate the immune system to target and destroy cancer cells
more effectively
oncolytic vaccine Enteromix
Russia is developing oncolytic vaccine
Enteromix and Personalized mRNA
cancer vaccines for cancer treatment.
 Oncolytic vaccines are a type of cancer therapy that uses
oncolytic viruses (OVs) to directly kill cancer cells and
stimulate an anti-tumor immune response.
Enteromix is based on a combination of four non-
pathogenic viruses that have the ability to destroy
malignant cells and simultaneously activate the patient's
antitumor immunity.
Vaccine showed 100% success in preclinical trials.
Initial target of vaccine is colorectal cancer, Moreover,
promising progress has been made in developing vaccines for
glioblastoma and specific types of melanoma.

CONCLUSION
Cancer is a complex disease influenced by genetics,
environment, and lifestyle. Most cancers are not linked to
inherited gene changes, but mutations in genes like BRCA1,
BRCA2, and TP53 can increase the risk of certain cancers.
Knowing the types and stages of cancer aids in diagnosis,
prognosis, and treatment planning. Early detection through
imaging tests, biopsies, and lab tests greatly improves
outcomes. Advances in AI, immunotherapy, personalized
vaccines, and liquid biopsies are changing cancer care.
Research on pediatric cancer and global initiatives highlights
the need for fair healthcare access. The use of technology,
early detection methods, and new treatments offers hope for
more accurate and effective therapies. Ongoing research,
public awareness, and preventive measures are crucial in
lowering the global burden of cancer. This work helps
improve survival rates and quality of life for patients.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 American Cancer Society. Cancer Types and Stages.
[Link]
 National Cancer Institute. Causes and Risk Factors of
Cancer. [Link]
prevention
 NHS UK. Inherited Genes and Cancer.
[Link]
syndromes/
 Mayo Clinic. Cancer Symptoms and Diagnosis.
[Link]
osis-treatment/drc-20370594
 American Association for Cancer Research (AACR).
Experts Forecast Cancer Research and Treatment Advances
in 2025. [Link]
forecast-cancer-research-and-treatment-advances-in-2025
 The Guardian. Immunotherapy Trial Helps Cancer
Patients With Tumours Live 40% Longer.
[Link]
erapy-trial-helps-cancer-patients-with-tumours-live-40-longer
 Binaytara Cancer Center. Top Oncology Innovations That
Shaped the First Half of 2025.
[Link]
innovations-that-shaped-the-first-half-of-2025