PRIMARY STORAGE & SECONDARY STORAGE

🔹 What is Memory?
Memory is the part of a computer that stores data, instructions, and results so that the CPU
can use them when required.

🔹 What is CPU?
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the main processing unit of a computer. It executes
instructions, performs calculations, and controls all operations of the computer system.

🔹 How is Data Transmitted Between CPU and Memory?

Data is transmitted between the CPU and memory using Data buses

🟢 PRIMARY MEMORY

🔹 Definition
Primary memory is the main memory directly accessed by the CPU to store data and
instructions currently in use.

🔹 Purpose
Its purpose is to provide fast access to programs and data needed by the CPU.

🔹 Types of Primary Memory

1️⃣ RAM (Random Access Memory)

RAM is volatile memory that temporarily stores data and programs while the computer is
running. The data is lost when the power is turned off.

2️⃣ ROM (Read Only Memory)

ROM is non-volatile memory that permanently stores essential startup instructions. The
data is not lost when power is off.

🔹 Differences Between RAM and ROM

RAM ROM
Volatile Non-volatile
Temporary storage Permanent storage
Data changes Data rarely changes

✔ Computer Boot instructions are stored in ROM.

✔ Temporary data is stored in RAM.

💾 SECONDARY STORAGE

🔹 Definition
Secondary storage is non-volatile storage used to store data and programs permanently.

🔹 Examples
Hard disk, SSD, pen drive, CD/DVD.

💻 SOFTWARE

🔹 Definition
Software is a collection of programs and instructions that tell the computer how to perform
tasks.

🔹 Types
1️⃣ System Software – Controls hardware (Operating System).
2️⃣ Application Software – Performs user tasks (MS Word).
3️⃣ Utility Software – Maintains the system (Antivirus).

OPERATING SYSTEM

🔹 Definition
An operating system is system software that manages hardware, software, and provides an
interface between the user and the computer.

🔹 Main Tasks
Providing user interface
Managing memory
Managing files
Running applications
Managing input/output devices
Managing user accounts

🔢 BINARY, BIT AND DENARY

🔹 Bit
A bit is the smallest unit of data and can store 0 or 1.

🔹 Binary System
Uses only digits 0 and 1.

🔹 Denary System
Uses digits 0–9.

🔹 Place Value in Binary

2³ 2² 2¹ 2⁰
8 4 2 1
Largest 4-bit number:
1111 = 15

🔡 ASCII AND EXTENDED ASCII

🔹 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

Definition
ASCII is a character encoding system that represents letters, numbers, and symbols using
binary numbers so that computers can store and process text.

Details
 Standard ASCII uses 7 bits.
 It can represent 128 characters (from 0 to 127).
 It includes:
o Uppercase letters (A–Z)
o Lowercase letters (a–z)
o Numbers (0–9)
o Punctuation marks
o Control characters (e.g., Enter, Tab)
Example
 A = 65
 a = 97
 0 = 48
Uppercase and lowercase letters have different values because they are treated as separate
characters in the ASCII table.

🔹 Extended ASCII

Definition

Extended ASCII is an expanded version of the ASCII character set that uses 8 bits instead of
7 bits to represent characters.

Details
 Uses 8 bits.
 Can represent 256 characters (from 0 to 255).
 Includes all standard ASCII characters plus:
o Special symbols (€, £, ©)
o Mathematical symbols
o Foreign language characters (é, ñ, ü)
o Graphic characters
Purpose
The purpose of Extended ASCII is to allow computers to represent more characters,
especially symbols and characters from different languages.

🔹 Difference Between ASCII and Extended ASCII

ASCII Extended ASCII
Uses 7 bits Uses 8 bits
128 characters 256 characters
Limited symbols More symbols and foreign characters

🔹 Why Extended ASCII Was Needed

Standard ASCII was limited to 128 characters, which was not enough to represent:
 Special symbols
 Accented letters
 International languages

Extended ASCII solved this limitation by adding more character codes.

📦 DATA COMPRESSION

🔹 Definition
Data compression is the process of reducing file size to save storage space and allow faster
transmission.

🔹 Types
Lossless (no data lost)
Lossy (some data removed)

🔌 LOGIC GATES AND TRUTH TABLES

🔹 Logic Gate
A logic gate is an electronic circuit that performs logical operations on binary inputs.

🔹 Truth Table
A truth table shows all possible input combinations and outputs.

1️⃣ AND Gate

A B Output
0 00
A B Output
0 10
1 00
1 11

2️⃣ OR Gate
A B Output
0 00
0 11
1 01
1 11

3️⃣ NOT Gate

A Output
01
10

4️⃣ NAND Gate

A B Output
0 01
0 11
1 01
1 10

5️⃣ NOR Gate

A B Output
0 01
0 10
1 00
1 10

6️⃣ XOR Gate

A B Output
0 00
0 11
1 01
1 10

🤖 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

🔹 Definition
Artificial Intelligence is the ability of machines to perform tasks that normally require
human intelligence, such as learning, reasoning, and decision-making.
🔹 How It Works
AI systems collect data, process it using algorithms, and make decisions or predictions.

🔹 Examples
Chatbots, self-driving cars, voice assistants.

🤖 MACHINE LEARNING

🔹 Definition
Machine learning is a branch of AI that allows computers to learn from data and improve
performance automatically.

🔹 Purpose
To identify patterns and make predictions.

🔹 How It Works
 Data is collected.
 A model is trained.
 Patterns are identified.
 Predictions are made.
 Accuracy improves over time.

🔹 Examples
Spam filters, recommendation systems, face recognition.
📱 AUGMENTED REALITY (AR)

🔹 Meaning of Augmented
Augmented means enhanced by adding extra elements.

🔹 Definition
Augmented Reality is a technology that overlays digital information onto the real world.

🔹 How It Works
 Camera captures real world.
 Sensors detect position.
 Software adds digital objects.
 Display shows combined view.

🔹 Uses

Education: 3D models, virtual labs.

Retail: Virtual try-on, furniture preview.

Entertainment: AR games, filters.

🔹 Similarities Between AI and AR

Both use advanced technology.
Both improve user experience.

🔹 Differences
AI AR
Focuses on intelligence Focuses on visual enhancement
Makes decisions Adds digital content

🤖 AUTONOMOUS PROGRAMMING

🔹 Definition
Autonomous programming refers to systems that can operate and make decisions
independently without human control.

🔹 Examples
Self-driving cars, drones, robot vacuum cleaners.

🔎 SENSOR
🔹 Definition
A sensor is a device that detects changes in the environment and converts them into
electrical signals.

🔹 Examples
Temperature sensor, motion sensor, light sensor.

🤖 AI & AUTONOMOUS PROGRAMMING IN ROBOTICS

Robots work using:

 Sensors to detect environment.
 AI algorithms to process information.
 Autonomous programming to make decisions.
 Motors and actuators to perform actions.

Example:
A self-driving car detects obstacles using sensors, processes information using AI, and
automatically changes direction.

🔎 FINAL CONCEPT QUESTIONS

✔ What does it mean when a machine can learn?

It means the machine improves performance using data without being reprogrammed.

✔ Do all AI systems use machine learning?

No, some AI systems are rule-based.

✔ Are all machines with machine learning examples of AI?

Yes, machine learning is a subset of artificial intelligence.