Stones:
• From rocks.
• Classification of rocks: Igneous, Sedimentary, Metamorphic
• Igneous – Cooling of the molten material
• Sedimentary – Deposition of weathering products
• Metamorphic – Change in character of pre-existing rocks
Qualities of good stone:
• Crushing strength - Greater than 100 N/mm2
• Decent appearance, uniform color; light colors are preferred
• Stones must be durable. Natural bed – perpendicular to the pressure
• Fracture – sharp and clear
• Road work – hard enough to resist wear and tear
• Wear – should be less than 3%
• Fire resistant
• Specific Gravity – 2.7
• Compact, fine, crystalline structure, strong, durable
• Should not contain quarry sap (moisture)
• Water absorption – Not greater than 0.6% by weight
• Acid resistant
Uses of stones:
• Buildings
• Components – Foundations, walls, lintels, floors, etc.
• Facing, appearance, walls, etc.
• Pavements
• Concrete
• Railway ballast, bridges, dams, etc.
Quarrying of stones:
• Extracting blocks from existing rocks
• From some depth below the top surface of the rock
• Digging, heating, wedging – Soft rock
• Blasting – Hard rock
Dressing of stones:
• Rough and irregular.
• Cutting, regular size and shape, surface finish
Types and uses:
• Granite – igneous rocks
• Basalt and trap – igneous rocks
• Chalk – sedimentary rock
• Limestone – sedimentary rock
• Sandstone – sedimentary rock
• Laterite – metamorphic rock
• Gneiss – metamorphic rock
• Marble – metamorphic rock
• Gravel – river beds
• Slate – metamorphic rock
• Quartzite – metamorphic rock
Cement:
Burning at high temperature: Calcareous + Argillaceous materials + Little gypsum
Portland cement – Cement
Good qualities of cement:
• Uniform color
• Small quantity thrown in water – it should sink
• Free from lumps
• Cement mortar – 3 days – Compressive strength - 11.5 N/mm2; tensile strength -
2 N/mm2
• Cement mortar – 7 days – Compressive strength - 17.5 N/mm2; tensile strength -
2.5 N/mm2
• When ignited, not more than 4% loss by weight
• Sulphur – Not greater than 2.75%
• Magnesia - Not greater than 5%
• Initial setting time – Not less than 30 minutes & Final setting time – 10 hours
• Expansion of cement – Not greater than 10 mm
• Specific surface – Not less than 2250 mm2/gram
Uses:
Buildings, bridges, tunnels, dams, drains, colored cement – aesthetics, precast
members, etc.
Types of Cement:
• Rapid hardening cement
• Sulphate resisting cement
• Low-heat cement
• Quick setting cement
• Portland Pozzolona cement
• High alumina cement
• Air – entraining cement
• Expansive cement
• Hydrophobic cement
• Colored cement
• White cement
• High-strength cement
References:
1) Shanmugam, G., & Palanichamy, M. S. (2018). Basic Civil and Mechanical Engineering.
McGraw-Hill Education.
2) Palanichamy, M. S. (2017). Basic Civil Engineering. McGraw-Hill Education.