Extracted Exercise 10 Sections (from uploaded PDF)

EXERCISE 10.1

EXERCISE 10.1
1.■For■each■of■the■following■ differential■equations,■determine■its■order,■degree■(if■exists)■
■ ■■ (i)■dy
dxxy x += cot■■ (ii)■dy
dxdy
dxdy
dx3
32
32
235 40

−+ +=
■ ■■(iii)■dy
dxdy
dxxdy
dx2
22 2 2
2

+

=

 sin■■ (iv)■dy
dxdy
dxx −− = 47 0
■ ■■ (v)■ ydy
dxx
dy
dxdy
dx

=


+

3■■ (vi)■ xdy
dxdy
dx22
221
2
10++





=
■ ■■(vii)■dy
dxdy
dx2
23
1

=+

■■ (viii)■dy
dxxydy
dx2
2=+

 cos
■ ■■(ix)■dy
dxdy
dxydxx2
235++ =∫■■ (x)■ xexydy
dx=


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Ordinary Differential Equations14910.3 Classification of Differential Equations

Definition 10.4: (Ordinary Differential Equation)
If a differential equation contains only ordinary derivatives of one or more functions with respect
to a single independent variable, it is said to be an Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE).
Definition 10.5: (Partial Differential Equation)
An equation involving only partial derivatives of one or more functions of two or more
independent variables is called a Partial Differential Equation (PDE).
For instance, let y denote the unknown function and x be independent variable. Then
dy
dxyex+=−2 , dy
dxdy
dxy2
250 −− = and dx
dtdy
dtxy += −34 are some examples of ordinary
differential equations.
For instance, ∂
∂=−∂
∂u
yu
x, ∂
∂+∂
∂=2
22
20u
xu
y and ∂
∂=∂
∂−∂
∂2
22
22u
xu
tu
tare some examples of partial
differential equations.
In this chapter , we discuss ordinary differential equations only.
■ Ordinary ■dif ferential ■equations ■are ■classified ■into ■two ■dif ferent ■categories ■namely ■linear ordinary
differential equations and non linear ordinary differential equations.
Definition 10.6
A general linear ordinary differential equation of order n is any differential equation that
can be written in the following form.
ax ya xy ax ya yg xnn
nn() + () ++ () += ()()
−−()
11
10■' ... (1)
where■the ■coefficients ■ax ax ax axnn()≠ () () … ()− 001 1 ,, ,, and gx() are any function of
independent variable x (including the zero function)
Note
(1) The important thing to note about linear differential equations is that there are no products of
the function, yx(), and its derivatives and neither the function nor its derivatives occur to any
power■other■than■the■first■power.■
(2) No transcendental functions – (trigonometric or logarithmic etc) of y or any of its derivatives
occur in differential equation.
(3) Also note that neither the function nor its derivatives are “inside” another function, for instance,
′y or ey′.
(4) The■coefficients ■ax ax axn 01 1 () () … ()− ,, , and gx() can be zero or non-zero functions, or
constant or non-constant functions, linear or non-linear functions. Only the function, yx(),
and its derivatives are used in determining whether a differential equation is linear.
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150
XII - MathematicsDefinition 10.7
A non linear ordinary differential equation is simply one that is not linear.
■ If■the■coefficients ■of ■yy yyn,, ,,()′′′■ contain the dependent variable y or its derivatives or if
powers of yy yyn,, ,,()′′′■ , such as ()′y2, appear in the equation, then the differential equation is non
linear. Also, non linear functions of the dependent variable or its derivatives, such as siny or ey′
cannot appear in a linear equation.
For instance,
(1) dy
dxax=3, dy
dxdy
dxy2
220++ = and dy
dxpx yq x += () () are linear differential equations
where as ydy
dxx +=sin0 is a non linear differential equation.
(2) ′′+ ′=+ yx yx yx 2732 is a second order linear ODE.
(3) ′′+′= yy x is a second order linear ODE.
(4) yy x2+′=■is■a■first■order■non■linear■ODE.
(5) ′=yx y sin( )■is■a■first■order■non■linear■ODE.
(6) ′′=yy x sin( ) is a second order linear ODE.
Definition 10.8
If gx()=0 in (1), then the above equation is said to be homogeneous, otherwise it is called
non-homogeneous .
Remark
If yx ii(),,=12are any two solutions of homogeneous equation
ax yx ax yx ax yx ax yxnn
nn() () () () () () ()()() ()' ++ ++ =−−
11
10 0 ■ …(2)
then ax yx ax yx ax yx ax yxnin
nin
ii () () () () () () () ()() ()++ ++ =−−
11
10 0 ■ ,i i=12,.
Suppose ux cy xc yx () () () =+11 22 , where c1 and c2are arbitrary constants. Then, it can be easily
verified■that■ux() is also a solution of (2).
■ Thus,■a ■first ■order ■linear ■dif ferential ■equation ■is ■written ■as ■′+=yp xy fx () ().■A■first■order ■
differential equation that can’t be written like this is non linear. Since y=0 is obviously a solution
of the homogeneous equation ′+=yp xy() 0, we call it the trivial solution. Any other solution is
nontrivial. In fact this is true for a general linear homogeneous differential equation as well.
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Ordinary Differential Equations15110.4. Formation of Differential Equations

10.4.1 Formation of Differential equations from Physical Situations
■ Now,■we■provide■some■models■to■describe■how■the■differential■ equations■arise■as■models■of■real■
life■problems.
Model 1: (Newton’s Law)
According■ to■Newton’s■second■law■of■motion,■the■
instantaneous■ acceleration■ a■of■an■object■with■constant■
mass m■is■related■to■the■force■ F■acting■on■the■object■by■
the■equation■ Fm a=.■In■the■case■of■a■free■fall,■an■object■
is■released■from■a■height■ ht()■above■the■ground■level.■
Then,■the■Newton’s■second■law■is■described■by■the■differential■ equation■ mdh
dtft htdh
dt2
2= ()

 ,, ,■
where m■is■the■mass■of■the■object,■ h■is■the■height■above■the■ground■level.■This■is■the■second■order■
differential■equation■of■the■unknown■height■as■a■function■of■time.
Model 2: (Population Growth Model)
The■population■ will■increase■whenever■the■offspring■
increase.■For■instance,■let■us■take■rabbits■as■our■population.■
More■number■of■rabbits■yield■more■number■of■baby■
rabbits.■As■time■increases■ the■population■ of■rabbits■
increases.■ If■the■rate■of■growth■of■biomass■ Nt() of the
population■ at■time■ t is■proportional■ to■the■biomass■of■the■
population,■ then■the■differential■ equation■governing■ the■population■ is■given■by■dN
dtrN=,■where■
r>0■is■the■growth■rate.
Model 3: (Logistic Growth Model)
The■rate■at■which■a■disease■is■spread■(i.e.,■the■rate■of■increase■of■the■number■ N■of■people■
infected)■in■a■fixed■population■ L■is■proportional■ to■the■product■of■the■number■of■people■infected■ and■
the■number■of■people■not■yet■infected:
dN
dLkNLN k =− > () ,0.

EXERCISE 10.2

EXERCISE 10.2
1.■Express■each■of■the■following■physical■statements■in■the■form■of■differential■equation.
■ ■■ (i)■Radium■decays■at■a■rate■proportional■to■the■amount■ Q■present.
■ ■■(ii)■The■ population■ P■of■a■city■increases■at■a■rate■proportional■ to■the■product■of■population■
and■to■the■difference■between■5,00,000■and■the■population.
■ ■■(iii)■For■ a■certain■substance,■ the■rate■of■change■of■vapor■pressure■ P■with■respect■to■temperature■
T■is■proportional■ to■the■vapor■pressure■and■inversely■proportional■ to■the■square■of■the■
temperature.
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152
XII - Mathematics■ ■■(iv)■A ■saving■amount■pays■8%■interest■per■year,■compounded■ continuously.■ In■addition,■
income■from■another■investment■ is■credited■to■the■amount■continuously■ at■the■rate■of
` 400■per■year.
2.■Assume■that■a■spherical■rain■drop■evaporates■ at■a■rate■proportional■ to■its■surface■area.■Form■
a■differential■equation■involving■the■rate■of■change■of■the■radius■of■the■rain■drop.
10.4.2 Formation of Differential Equations from Geometrical Problems
■ Given■ a■family■of■functions■parameterized■ by■some■constants,■ a■differential■ equation■can■be■
formed■by■eliminating■ those■constants■of■this■family.■For■instance,■the■elimination■ of■constants■A■and■
B from ye exx=+−AB ,■yields■a■differential■equation■dy
dxy2
20 −=.
■ Consider■ an■equation■of■a■family■of■curves,■which■contains■ n■arbitrary■constants.■ To■form■a■
differential■equation■not■containing■any■of■these■constants,■let■us■proceed■as■follows:
■ Differentiate■ the■given■equation■successively■ n■times,■getting■ n■differential■ equations.■ Then
eliminate n■arbitrary■constants■from■■ ()n+1■equations■made■up■of■the■given■equation■and■n■newly■
obtained■equations■arising■from■ n■successive■ differentiations.■ The■result■of■elimination■ gives■the■
required■differential■equation■which■must■contain■a■derivative■of■the■ nth■order.
Example 10.2
■ Find■the■differential■equation■for■the■family■of■all ■straight■lines■passing■through■the■origin.
Solution
The■family■of■straight■lines■passing■through■
the■origin■is■ym x=,■where■ m■is■an■arbitrary■
constant.■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■ ■■ …■(1)
■ Differentiating■both■sides■with■respect■to■ x,■we■get
dy
dxm=.■■■■■■■■ ■ ■■■…■(2)
■ From■ (1)■and■(2),■we■get■ yxdy
dx=.■This■is■the■
required■differential■equation.
■ Observe■ that■the■given■equation ym x=■contains■
only■one■arbitrary■constant■and■thus■we■get■the■
differential■equation■of■order■one.
Example 10.3
Form■the■differential■ equation■by■eliminating■ the■arbitrary■constants■ A■and■B■from■
yx x =+ABcoss in.
Solution
Given■that■■ y = ABcoss in xx+■ ...■(1)
■ Differentiating■(1)■twice■successively,■we■get
dy
dx = −+ABsinc os xx .■ ...■(2)
dy
dx2
2 = −− =− + AB AB coss in (cos sin) xx xx .■ ...■(3)Fig.■10.1xy
y x= y x=2
Oy x= −y x= −
2
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Ordinary Differential Equations153 Substituti ng (1) in (3), we get dy

dxy2
20 += as the required differential equation.
Example 10.4
Find the dif ferential equation of the family of circles passing through the points (, )a0 and −()a,0.
Solution
A circle passing through the points a,0() and −()a,0 has its centre on y - axis.
Let 0,b() be the centre of the circle. So, the radiu s of the circle is ab22+ .
Therefore the equation of the family of circles passing through the points a,0() and −()a,0is
xy ba bb2 2 22+−() =+ , is an arbitrary constant. ... (1)
Dif ferentiating both sides of (1) with respect to x, we get
22xy bdy
dx+−() = 0⇒− =− ⇒= + ybx
dy
dxbx
dy
dxy.
Substituti ng the value of b in equation (1), we get
xx
dy
dx22
2+


 = ax
dy
dxy22
++




⇒

+ xdy
dxx22
2 = ady
dxxydy
dx22 2

++




⇒− − () − xy ady
dxxy22 22 = 0, which is the required differential equation.
Example 10.5
Find the differential equation of the family of parabolas ya x24= , where a is an arbitrary
constant.
Solution
The equation of the family of parabolas is given by ya x24= , a is an arbitrary constant. ... (1)
Dif ferentiating both sides of (1) with respect to x, we get 242ydy
dxaaydy
dx=⇒ =
Substituti ng the value of a in (1) and simplifying, we get dy
dxy
x=2 as the required differential
equation.
Example 10.6
Find the differential equation of the family of all ellipses having foci on the x-axis and centre at
the origin.
Solution
The equation of the family of all ellipses having foci on the x-axis and centre at the origin is
given by x
ay
bab2
22
21 += > , ... (1)
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154
XII - Mathematics where a■and■ b■are■arbitrary■constants.
■ Differentiating■equation■(1)■with■respect■to■ x,■we■get■
22
22x
ay
bdy
dx+ = 0022 ⇒+ =x
ay
bdy
dx■■ ...■(2)
Differentiating■equation■(2)■with■respect■to■ x,■we■get■■
11
222
22
abydy
dxdy
dx++





 = 011
222
22
⇒= −+





 abydy
dxdy
dx
Substituting■the■value■of■■1
2a■in■equation■(2)■and■ simplifying,■we■get
−+





+1
22
22
2bydy
dxdy
dxxy
bdy
dx = 002
22
⇒+

−= xydy
dxxdy
dxydy
dx
which■is■the■required■differential■equation.
Remark
The■result■of■eliminating■ one■arbitrary■constant■yields■a■first■order■differential■ equation■and■that■
of■eliminating■two■arbitrary■constants■leads■to■a■second■order■differential■equation■and■so■on.

EXERCISE 10.3

EXERCISE 10.3
1.■Find■the■differential■ equation■of■the■family■of■■(i)■all■non-vertical■ lines■in■a■plane■(ii)■all■non-
horizontal■lines■in■a■plane.
2.■Form■the■differential■equation■of■all■straight■lines■touching■the■circle■ xy r22 2+=.
3.■Find■the■differential■ equation■of■the■family■of■circles■passing■through■the■origin■and■having■
their■centres■on■■the■ x-axis.
4.■Find■the■differential■ equation■of■the■family■of■all■the■parabolas■with■latus■rectum■4a■and■
whose■axes■are■parallel■to■the■ x-axis.
5.■Find■the■differential■ equation■of■the■family■of■parabolas■with■vertex■at■(, ) 01−■and■having■
axis■along■the■ y-axis.
6.■Find■the■differential■ equations■ of■the■family■of■all■the■ellipses■having■foci■on■the■
y-axis■and■centre■at■the■origin.
7.■Find■the■differential■ equation■corresponding■ to■the■family■of■curves■represented■ by■the■
equation ye exx=+−AB88,■where■ A■and■B■are■arbitrary■constants.
8.■Find■the■differential■equation■of■the■curve■represented■by■ xy ae be xxx=+ +− 2.
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Ordinary Differential Equations15510.5 Solution of Ordinary Differential Equations
Definition 10.9 : (Solution of DE)
A solution of■a■differential■ equation■is■an■expression■ for■the■dependent■ variable■in■terms■of■
the■independent■variable(s)■which■satisfies■the■differential■equation.■
Caution
■ (i)■There■is■no■guarantee■that■a■differential■equation■has■a■solution.■
■ ■For■ instance,■ yx y '() () ++ =2 210■has■no■solution,■since■ yx y '() () =− +()2 21■and■so■yx'()
cannot■be■real.
■ (ii)■Also,■a■solution■of■a■differential■equation,■if■exists,■is■not■unique.■
■ ■■For■ instance,■the■functions■ ye yexx= =222 ,,■■yex=82are■solutions■of■same■equation■
dy
dxy−=20 .■In■fact, yc ecx=∈2,,■■are■all■solutions■of■the■differential■ equation■dy
dxy−=20 .
Thus,■to■represent■all■possible■solutions■of■a■differential■ equation,■we■introduce■■ the■notion■
of the general■solution■of■a■differential■equation.
Definition 10.10 : (General solution)
The■solution■which■contains■as■many■arbitrary■constants■as■the■order■of■the■differential■
equation■is■called■the general solution
Remark
■ The■ general solution includes■all■possible■solutions■and■typically■includes■arbitrary■constants■(in■
the■case■of■an■ODE)■or■arbitrary■functions■(in■the■case■of■a■PDE.)■
Definition 10.11 : (Particular solution)
If■we■give■particular■values■to■the■arbitrary■constants■in■the■general■solution■of■differential■
equation,■the■resulting■solution■is■called■a■Particular■Solution.
Remark
■ (i)■Often■we■find■a■particular■solution■to■a■differential■equation■by■giving■extra■conditions.■
■ (ii)■The■general■solution■of■a■first■order■differential■ equation■ yf xy ',= ()■represents■ a■one-
parameter■family■of■curves■in■ xy-plane.
■ ■For■ instance,■■ yc ecx=∈2,,■■is■the■general■solution■of■the■differential■ equationdy
dxy−=20 .
For■instance,■we■have■already■seen■that■ ya xb x =+coss insatisfies■the■second■order■
differential■ equation■dy
dxy2
20 +=.■Since■it■contains■two■arbitrary■constants,■ it■is■the■general■
solution of dy
dxy2
20 +=.■If■we■put■ab= =10,■in■the■general■solution,■then■we■get■ yx=cos
is■a■particular■solution■of■the■differential■equation■dy
dxy2
20 +=.
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156
XII - Mathematics In■application,■ differential■ equations■do■not■arise■by■eliminating■ the■arbitrary■constants.■ They■
frequently■ arise■while■investigating■ many■physical■problems■in■all■fields■of■engineering,■ science■and■
even■in■social■sciences.■Mostly■these■differential■ equations■are■also■accompanied■ by■certain■conditions■
on■the■variables■to■obtain■unique■solution■satisfying■the■given■conditions.■
Example 10.7
■ Show■that■ xy r22 2+=,■where■ r■is■a■constant,■is■a ■solution■of■the■differential■equationdy
dxx
y=−.
Solution
Given■that■ xy r22 2+=,r∈■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ ...■(1)
■ The■given ■equation■contains■exactly■one■arbitrary ■constant.■
■ So,■we■have■to■differentiate■the■given■equation■once.■Differentiate■(1)■with■respect■to■ x,■we■get
22 0 xydy
dx+= ,■■which■implies■■dy
dxx
y=−.
■ Thus, xy r22 2+=■satisfies■the■differential■equation■dy
dxx
y=−.
■ Hence, xy r22 2+=■is■a■solution■of■the■differential■equation■dy
dxx
y=−.
Example 10.8
Show■that ym xmm =+ ≠70 ,■is■a■solution■of■the■differential■equation■ xyyy ''+− = 710.■
Solution
The■given■function■is■■ ym xm=+7■,■where■ m■is■an■arbitrary■constant.■ ...■(1)
■ Differentiating■both■sides■of■equation■(1)■with■respect■to■ x,■we■get■ ym'=.
■ Substituting■the■values■of■■ y'■and■ y■in■the■given ■differential■equation,■
■ we■get■ xyyyxmmmxm′+′−= +− −=77 70■■.
■ Therefore,■the■given■function■is■a■solution■of■the■ differential■equation■ xyyy ''+− = 710.■
Example 10.9
■ Show■that■ yx Cex=−() +−2122■is■a■solution■of■the■differential■equation■dy
dxxy x +− = 24 03.
Solution
The■given■function■is■■ yx Cex=−() +−2122,■where■ C is■an■arbitrary■constant.■ ...(1)
■ Differentiating■both■sides■of■equation■(1)■with■respect■to■ x,■we■get■dy
dxxx Cex=−−422.
■ Substituting■the■values■of■■dy
dx■and■ y■in■the■given ■differential■equation,■we■get■
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Ordinary Differential Equations157 dy

dxxy x +−243 = 422xx Cex−−+ 22 122xx Cex−() + −−43x = 0
■ Therefore,■the■given■function■is■a■solution■of■the■ differential■equation■dy
dxxy x +− = 24 03.■
Example 10.10
Show■that■ ya xb xx =+ () > cos(lo g) sinlog ,0■is■a■solution■of■the■differential■ equation■■
xy xy y20 ′′+ ′+=.
Solution
The■given■function■is ya xb x =+ () cos(lo g) sinlog ...(1)
where ab,■are■two■arbitrary■constants.■ In■order■to■eliminate■the■two■arbitrary■constants,■ we■have■to■
differentiate■the■given■function■two■times■successively.■
■ Differentiating■equation■(1)■with■respect■to■ x,■we■get
′=− () ⋅+ () ⋅ ya xxbxxsinlog coslog11⇒xy ax bx ′=− () + () sinlog coslog.■
■ Again■differentiating■this■with■respect■to■ x,■we■get
xy ya xxbxx′′+′=− () ⋅− () ⋅ coslog sinlog11⇒ ′′+′+= xy xy y20.■
■ Therefore,■ ya xb x =+ () cos(lo g) sinlogis■a■solution■of■the■given■differential■equation.

EXERCISE 10.4

EXERCISE 10.4
1.■Show■that■each■of■the■following■expressions■ is■a■solution■of■the■corresponding■ given■differential■
equation.
■ ■ (i)■ yx=22■ ;■ xy y '=2
■ ■ (ii)■ ya eb exx=+−■ ;■ ′′−=yy 0
2.■Find■value■of ■m■so■that■the■function■ yemx=is■a■solution■of■the■given■differential■equation.
■ ■ (i)■ yy'+=20■ (ii)■ yy y '' '−+ = 560
3.■The■slope■of■the■tangent■to■the■curve■at■any■point■is■the■reciprocal■ of■four■times■the■ordinate■at■
that■point.■ The■curve■passes■through■(2,5).■Find■the■equation■of■the■curve.
4.■Show■that■ ye mx nx=+ +−■is■a■solution■of■the■differential■equation■ edy
dxx2
210

−=.
5.■Show■that■ ya xb
xx =+ ≠,0■is■a■solution■of■the■differential■equation■ xy xy y20 ′′+′−=.
6.■Show■that■ ya ebx=+−3,■where■ a■and■b■are■arbitrary■constants,■is■a■solution■of■the■differential■
equation■dy
dxdy
dx2
230+=.
7.■Show■that■the■differential■ equation■representing ■the■family■of■curves■ ya xa22
32=+

,■where■
a■is■a■positive■parameter,■is■■■ yx ydy
dxydy
dx235
28−

=

.
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158
XII - Mathematics 8.■Show■that■ ya bx=cos■is■a■solution■of■the■differential■equation■dy
dxby2
220 +=.
■ Now,■we■discuss■some■standard■methods■of■solving■certain■type■of■differential■ equations■of■the■
first■order■and■first■degree.
10.6 Solution of First Order and First Degree Differential Equations
10.6.1 Variables Separable Method
■ In■solving■differential■ equations,■ separation■ of■variables■was■introduced■ initially■by■Leibniz■and■
later■it■was■formulated■by■John■Bernoulli■in■the■year■1694.
■ A■first■order■differential■ equation■is■separable■if■it■can■be■written■as■hy yg x () () ′= where the left
side■is■a■product■of■′y■■and■a■function■of■y■and■the■right■side■is■a■function■of■x.■Rewriting■a■separable■
differential■equation■in■this■form■is■called■the■method■of■separation■of■variables.
■ Finding■ a■solution■to■a■first■order■differential■ equation■will■be■simple■if■the■variables■in■the■
equation■can■be■separated.■ An■equation■of■the■form■ fx gy dx fx gy dy11 22 0 () () () () += ■is■called■an■
equation■with■ variable separable or■simply■a■ separable equation .
■ Rewrite■the■given■differential■equation■as■fx
fxdxgy
gydy1
22
1()
()()
()=− .■ ...(1)
■ Integration■ of■both■sides■of■(1)■yields■the■general■solution■of■the■given■differential■ equation■as
fx
fxdxgy
gydy C1
22
1()
()()
() ∫∫=− +,■where■ C■is■an■arbitrary■constant.
Remarks
■ 1.■No■ need■to■add■arbitrary■constants■on■both■sides■as■the■two■arbitrary■constants■are■combined■
together■as■a■single■arbitrary■constant.
■ 2.■A■solution■with■this■ arbitrary■constant■is■the■general■solution■of■the■differential■equation.
“Solving■a■differential■ equation”■is■also■referred■to■as■“integrating■ a■differential■ equation”,■ since■the■
process■of■finding■the■solution■to■a■differential■equation■involves■integration.
Example 10.11
Solve■ 1122+() =+ xdy
dxy.
Solution
Given■that■■■ 12+()xdy
dx = 12+y. ...■(1)
■ The■given■equation■is■written■in■the■variables■separable■form
dy
y12+ = dx
x12+.■■ ...■(2)
■ Integrating■■both■sides■of■(2),■we■get■ tant an−−=+11yx C.■ ...■(3)
■ ■ ■ But■■ tant an−−−11yx = tan− −
+

1
1yx
xy.■ ...■(4)
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Ordinary Differential Equations159Using■(4)■in■(3)■leads■to■ tan− −

+

1
1yx
xy = C,■which■implies■yx
xyCa−
+==1tan( )say.
■ ■ ■ Thus,■ yx− = ax y ()1+gives■the■required■solution.
Example 10.12
■ Find■the■particular■solution■of■ 1032+() −= xd yx ydx■satisfying■the■condition y()12=.
Solution
■ Given■that■ ()132+−xdyx ydx = 0.
■ The■above■equation■is■written■as■■dy
yx
xdx −+2
31 = 0.
Integrating■both■sides■gives■ logl og( ) yx−+1
313 = C1,■which■implies,
313logl og( ) yx−+ = logC.
■ Thus,■ 3logy = log( )log 13++xC ,■
■ which■reduces■to■ logy3 = log( ) Cx13+.
■ Hence,■ yC x331=+()■gives■the■general■solution■of■the■given■differential■ equation.■It■is■given■■
that when xy= =12,.■ ■Then 21 13=+C() ⇒ C=4■and■hence■the■particular■ solution■is
yx3341=+().
10.6.2 Substitution Method
■ Let■the■differential■equation■be■of■the■formdy
dxfaxb yc =+ + () .
■ (i)■ If■ a■≠■0■and■ b¹0,■then■the■substitution■ ax by cz ++ =■reduces■the■given■equation■to■the■
variables■separable■form.
■ (ii)■If■ a = 0 or b=0,■then■the■differential■equation■is■already■in■separable■form.
Example 10.13
■ Solve yx y 's in=− + ()21.
Solution
Given■that■■ ′y = sin21 xy−+()
■ ■ ■ Put■■ z = xy−+1,■so■that■dz
dxdy
dx=−1.
Thus,■the■given■equation■reduces■to■ 1−dz
dx = sin2z.
■ ■ ■ i.e.,■■dz
dx = 122−=sinc oszz.
■ ■ ■ Separating■the■variables■leads■to■dz
z cos2 = dx■(or)■ sec2zdzd x=.
■ ■ ■ On■integration,■we■get■ tanz = xC+■(or)■ tanxy xC −+() =+1.
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160
XII - MathematicsExample 10.14
Solve■:■■dy
dxxy=+ − 42 1■.
Solution
By■putting■ zx y =+ − 42 1,■we■have
dz
dx = 42 42 += +dy
dxz
■ ■ ■ Hence■■dz
z 42+ = dx.
■ ■ ■ Integrating,■■■dz
z 42+∫ = xC+.
■ ■ ■ Putting■ z = u2,■we■have
dz
z 42+∫ = udu
uuu C+=− ++ ∫222log,
or zz−+22log = xC+
■ ■ ■ From■which■on■substituting■■ z = 42 1 xy+−,■we■have■the■general■solution
42 12 42 12 xy xy +− −+ −+ log = xC+.
Example 10.15
■ Solve:■()5
27dy x y
dx x y-+=-+.
Solution
Given■that■()5
27dy x y
dx x y-+=-+
Put■ ■■z = x –■y
dz
dx =■1■–■dy
dx
dy
dx = 1dz
dx-
Thus,■the■given■equation■reduces■to
1dz
dx- = z
z+
+5
27
1dz
dx- = 1■–■z
z+
+5
27
dz
dx = z
z+
+2
27
Separating■the■variables,■we■get
27
2z
zdz dx+
+=
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Ordinary Differential Equations161 22 3

2z
zdz dx+() +
+()=
23
2++

 =zdz dx
Integrating■both■sides,■we■get
23 2 zx C ++ =+ logz
That■is,■■ 23 2 () log xy xy xC −+ −+ =+.
Example 10.16
Solve■:dy
dxxy =+ + ()342.■
Solution
To■solve■the■given■differential■equation,■we■make■the■substitution 34xy z ++ =.■
■ Differentiating■ with■respect■to■x,■we■get■dy
dxdz
dx=−3.■So■the■given■differential■ equation■becomes■
dz
dxz=+23.
■ In■this■equation■variables■are■separable.■ So,■separating■ the■variables■and■integrating,■ we■get■the■
general■solution■of■the■given■differential■equation■as■1
334
31tan− ++ 

=+xyxC.

EXERCISE 10.5

EXERCISE 10.5
1. If F■is■the■constant■force■generated■by■the■motor■of■an■automobile■ of■mass■ M,■its■velocity■
V■is■given■by■MdV
dtFkV =−,■where■ k■is■a■constant.■Express■ V in terms of t■given■that■
V=0when t=0.
2. The■velocity■ v,■of■a■parachute■ falling■vertically■satisfies■the■equation■ vdv
dxgv
k=−

 12
2,■
where g■and■ k■are■constants.■If■ v■and■ x■are■both■initially■zero,■find■ v in terms of x.
3.■ Find■the■equation■of■the■curve■whose■slope■is■y
xx−
+1
2and■which■passes■through■the■point■
10,().
4.■ Solve■the■following■differential■equations :
■ ■ ■ (i)■dy
dxy
x=−
−1
12
2■ (ii)■ ydxx xdy ++() =−1021tan
■ ■ ■(iii)■ sin,dy
dxay= ()= 01■■ (iv)■dy
dxex exy y=++3
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162
XII - Mathematics (v) ex dx ex dyyy+() += 10coss in (vi) ydxx dyx
yny dx − ()

= cot2
(vii) dy
dxxx−− = 25 02 (viii) xy dy ex xd xxcosl og =+() 1
(ix) tanc os cos ydy
dxxy xy =+ () +− () (x) dy
dxxy =+ () tan2
10.6.3 Homogeneous Form or Homogeneous Differential Equation
Definition 10.12 : (Homogeneous Function of degree n)
A function fx y (, ) is said to be a homogeneous function of degree n in the variables x and
y if, ftxtyt fx yn(, )( ,)= for some n∈■ for all suitably restricted xy, and t. This is known as
Euler’s homogeneity .
For instance,
(i) fx yx xy y (, )=+ + 62 422is a homogeneous function in x and y, of degree two.
(ii) But fx yx xey(, )s in =+ ()3 is not a homogeneous function.
If fx y (, )is a homogeneous function of degree zero, then there exists a function g such that
fx y (, ) is always expressed in the form gy
x

 or gx
y

.
Definition 10.13: (Homogeneous Differential Equation)
An ordinary differential equation is said to be in homogeneous form, if the differential
equation is written as dy
dxgy
x=

.
Caution
The word “homogeneous” used in Definition 10.8 is different from in Definition 10.12.
Remark
(i) The differential equation Mx ydxN xydy (, )( ,) += 0 [in differential form] is said to be
homogeneous if M and N are homogeneous functions of the same degree.
(ii) The above equation is also written as dy
dxfx y= (, ) [in derivative form] where
fxyM xy Nx y (, )( ,) /( ,) =− is clearly homogeneous of degree 0.
For instance
(1) consider the differential equation xy dx xydy2232 0 −() += . The given equation is rewritten
as dy
dxyx
xy=−3
222
=

−

3
21
21 y
xy x/. Thus, the given equation is expressed as
dy
dxy
xy xgy
x=

−

=

3
21
21
/. Hence, xy dx xydy2232 0 −() += is a homogeneous
differential equation.
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Ordinary Differential Equations163 (2) However, the differential equation dy
dxxy
xx y=+
−32
322 is not homogeneous. (verify!)
To find the solution of a homogeneous differential equation dy
dxgy
x=

, consider the substitution
vy
x=. Then, yx v= and dy
dxvxdv
dx=+ .Thus, the given differential equation becomes xdv
dxfv v =− ()
which is solved using variables separable method. This leads to the following result.
Theorem 10.1
If Mx ydxN xydy (, )( ,) += 0 is a homogeneous differential equation, then the change of variable
yv x=, transforms into a separable equation in the variables v and x.
Example 10.17
Solve xy dx xydy2232 0 −() += .
Solution
We know that the given equation is homogeneous.
Now , we rewrite the given equation as dy
dx = 3
22y
xx
y− .
Taking yv x=, we have vxdv
dx+ = 3
21
2v
v− or xdv
dxv
v=−21
2.
Separating the variables, we obtain 2
12vdv
v− = dx
x.
On integration, we get logv21− = logl ogxC+ ,
Hence v21− = Cx, where C is an arbitrary constant.
Now , replace v by y
xto get y
x2
21− = Cx.
Thus, we have yx22− = Cx3.
Hence, yx22− = ±Cx3 (or) yx kx22 3−= gives the general solution.
Example 10.18
Solve yx yd xx dy y ++( )−= =2201 0 ,( ) .
Solution
The given differential equation is homogeneous (verify!).
Now , we rewrite the given equation in differential form dy
dxyx y
x=++22
.
Since the initial value of x is 1, we consider x>0 and take xx=2 .
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164
XII - Mathematics■ We■havedy
dxy
xy
x=+ +

 12
.
■ Let■ yv x=.■Then,■■■■■■■ vxdv
dxvv += ++12■■,■which■becomes xdv
dxv =+12.
■ By■separating■variables,■we■have■dv
vdx
x21+=.
■ Upon■integration,■we■get■■ logl og log vv xC ++ =+21 or vv xC ++ =21.
■ Now,■we■replace■ v by■y
x,■we■get■■y
xy
xCx ++ =2
21■(or)■■ yx yC x ++ =22 2gives■the■general■
solution■of■the■given■differential■equation.
■ To■determine■the■value■of■ C,■we■use■the■condition■that■ y=0 when x=1.■So,■we■get■ C=1.
■ Thus■ yx yx ++ =22 2■is■the■particular■solution■of■the■given■differential■equation.
Example 10.19
■ Solve■ 23 0 xy dx yx dy +() +−() =.
Solution
The■given■equation■can■be■written■as■ ■dy
dx = 23xy
xy+
−.
■ This■is■a■homogeneous■equation.
Let■ yv x=.■Then■we■have vxdv
dx+ = 23
1+
−v
v.
■ Thus,■ xdv
dxvv
v=++
−22
12
or 1
112−
+() +=v
vdvdx
xor−+
++−
+() +



=1
222
224
112 2v
vv vdvdx
x.
■ Integrating■both■sides,■we■get■ −+ ++ +() =+− 1
222 2121logt an logl og vv vx C
or logt an logl og vv vx C2122 41 22 ++ −+ () =− −−
or logl og tanl og vv xv C2 2 122 41 2 ++ +− +() =−−
or logt an log vv xv C22 122 41 2 ++() −+ () =−−.
■ Now■replacing■ v■by■y
x,■we■get,■ logt an yx yxxy
xk22 122 4 ++ −+

=−,■where■ kC=−2log
gives■the■required■solution.
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Ordinary Differential Equations165Example 10.20

Solve■■ yxdy
dxxydy
dx22+= .
Solution
The■given■equation■is■rewritten■as■dy
dx = y
xy x2
2−.
■ This■is■a■homogeneous■differential■equation.
■ ■ ■ Put■ yv x=.■Then,■we■have■ xdv
dx = v
v−1.
■ ■ ■ By■separating■the■variables,■v
vdv−1 = dx
x.
Integrating,■we■obtain■ vv−log = logl ogxC+ or v vxC=log.
■ Replacing■ v by■y
x,■we■get,■y
xCy=log or Cy eyx=/oryk eyx=/■■■(how!)■which■is■the■required■
solution.
Example 10.21
■ Solve 12 21 0 +() +−

 = ed xex
ydyxy xy //.
Solution
The■given■equation■can■be■written■asdx
dyx
ye
egx
yxy
xy=−


+=

12
12/
/.■■ …(1)
■ The■appearance■of■x
yin■equation■(1),■suggests■that■the■appropriate■substitution■is■ xv y=.
■ Put■ xv y=.■Then,■we■have■ ydv
dyev
ev
v=−+
+2
12.
■ By■separating■the■variables,■we■have■12
2+
+=−e
vedvdy
yv
v.
■ On■integration,■we■obtain■
logl og log 2ev yCv+= −+ orlogl og 2ye vy Cv+= or2ye vy Cv+= ±.
■ Replace■ v■by■x
yto■■get,■ 2ye xkxy/+=,■where■ kC=±,which■gives■the■required■solution.

EXERCISE 10.6

EXERCISE 10.6
Solve■the■following■differential■equations:
1. xyy
xdx xy
xdy +



=

 cosc os 2. xy dy xydx33 20 +() −=
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166
XII - Mathematics 3. yedx xe ydyx
yx
y=+

 4. 22 022xydxx yd y ++() =
5. yx ydxx xydy2222−() =−() 6. xdy
dxyxy
x=−

 cos2
7. 13 31 0 +

 +−

 = ed yey
xdxy
xy
x, given that y = 0 when x=1
8. xy dy xydx22+() = . It is given that y11()=and yx e0() =. Find the value of x0.
10.7 First Order Linear Differential Equations
A first order differential equation of the form
dy
dxPy+ = Q. ... (1)
where P and Q are functions of x only. Here no product of y and its derivative dy
dx occur and the
dependent variable y and its derivative with respect to independent variable x occurs only in the first
degree.
To solve (1), let us consider the homogeneous equation dy
dxPy+= 0. ...(2)
The equation (2) can be solved as follows:
Separating the variables, dy
y = −Pdx.
On integration, we get yePdxò = C.
Now , d
dxyePdx∫ 

 = edy
dxyPePdxP dx ∫+∫.
= edy
dxPy QePdxP dx ∫+

=∫ ... (3) (using (1))
Integrating both sides of (3) with respect to x, we get the solution of the given differential equation
as
yePdxò = Qe dx CPdx∫+ ∫.
Here ePdxòis known as the integrating factor (I.F.) of (1).
Remarks
1. The solution of linear dif ferential equation is
yI FQ IFdx C ×= + ∫(. )( .) , where C is an arbitrary constant.
2. In the integrating factor ePdxò, P is the coefficient of y in the differential equation provided
the coefficient of dy
dxis unity.
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Ordinary Differential Equations167 3. A first order differential equation of the form dx

dyPx Q += , where P and Q are functions of
y only. Here no product of x and its derivative dx
dy occur and the dependent variable x and
its derivative with respect to independent variable y occurs only in the first degree.
In this case, the solution is given by xe Qe dy CPdyP dy ∫=∫+ ∫.
Example 10.22
Solve dy
dxyex+=−2 .
Solution
Given that dy
dxy+2 = ex− ... (1)
This is a linear differential equation in y of the form dy
dxPy+ = Q.
Here P=2; Qex=−.

Pdxò = 22dx x=∫.

Thus, I.F . = eePdxx ∫=2.
Hence the solution of (1) is yePdxò = Qe dx CPdx∫+ ∫.
That is, ye ee dx Cxx x 22=+−∫or ye eCxx2=+ orye Cexx=+−− 2is the required solution.
Example 10.23
Solve yx xx xdxx dy 102−() +  −= tanc os .
Solution
The given equation can be rewritten as dy
dxxx
xyx x +− ()=tancos1.
This is a linear differential equation in y of the form dy
dxPy+ = Q.
Here Pxx
x=− tan1; Qx x=cos.
Pdxxx
xdx xx xxxx=−=− −= −= ∫ ∫tanlogcos logl og cosl ogcos11.
Thus, I.F . = eexxPdx xx ∫==logcos
cos11
Hence the solution is yePdxò = Qe dx CPdx∫+ ∫
i.e., yxx1
cos = xxxxdx C coscos() + ∫1
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168
XII - Mathematics or yxx1
cos = xC+
or y = xx Cx x2cosc os+ is the required solution.
Example 10.24
Solve : dy
dxyx xx +=2322cotc osec .
Solution
 Given that the equation is dy
dxyx xx +=2322cotc osec .
This is a linear differential equation in y of the form dy
dxPy+ = Q.
Here, Px=2cot; Qx x =322cose c.
Pdxx dx x ==∫ ∫22cotl ogsin = logsin logsin xx2 2= .
Thus, I.F=∫ePdx = exx logsinsin22= .
Hence, the solution is. yePdxò = Qe dx CPdx∫+ ∫.
That is ,yxsin2 = 3322 22 3xx xdxC xdxC xC cose c⋅+ =+ =+ ∫∫sin .
Hence, yxsin2 = xC3+ is the required solution.
Example 10.25
Solve 16 132 2+() += + xdy
dxxy x.
Solution
Here, to make the coefficient of dy
dx unity, divide both sides by 13+()x.
Then the equation is dy
dxxy
xx
x++=+
+6
11
12
32
3.
This is a linear differential equation in y of the form dy
dxPy+ = Q.
Here, P = 6
11
12
323 x
xQx
x +=+
+;
Pdxò = 6
121 112
333232 x
xdx xx x+=+ =+ =+ () ∫logl og log
Thus, I.F . = ee xPdx x ∫== +()+()log13232
1
Hence the solution is yePdxò = Qe dx CPdx∫+ ∫.
That is ,yxx
xxd xC xx dxCx xx 11
111 1132233223 23 5
+() =+
++() += +() +() += ++ + ∫∫ (() + ∫dx C
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Ordinary Differential Equations169 oryx xxx xC 134 63234 6

+() =+ ++ +
and y=1
13 463234 6
()+++ ++

xxxx xC is the required solution.
Example 10.26
Solve yedx yx ed yyy=+()32 .
Solution
The given equation can be written as dx
dy yxy ey−=− 22.
This is a linear differential equation in x of the form dx
dyPx Q += .
Here Py=−2;Qy ey=−2.
pdyò = −= −= =

 ∫− 221 2
2ydy yyylogl og log ,
Thus, I.F . = eeyPdyy ∫==

log1
22 1.
Hence the solution is xePdyò = Qe dy CPdy∫+ ∫
That is, xy1
2

 = yeydyCe dyCe Cyy y 2
21−− − 

 += += −+ ∫∫
or x = −+−ye Cyy 22 is the required solution.

EXERCISE 10.7

EXERCISE 10.7
Solve the following Linear differential equations:
1. coss in xdy
dxyx+= 1 2. 112−() −= xdy
dxxy
3. dy
dxy
xx += sin 4. xdy
dxxy x2212 4 +() += +
5. 21 003xy dy ydx −() += 6. xxdy
dxxx xy x sinc os sins in ++() =
7. yedx
dyxx−() +− =−sin1102 8. dy
dxy
xxx +
−()=−
11
9. 1023++() ++() = xx ydy
dxyy 10. dy
dxy
xxx
x+=logsin
log2
11. xady
dxyx a +() −= +() 24 12. dy
dxx
xx
xy =+−+sin2
32
313
1
13. xdy
dxyx x += log 14. xdy
dxyx x +− = 202log
15. dy
dxy
xx+=31
2 , given that y=2 when x=1
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 10_Differential [Link] 16912th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 10_Differential [Link] 169
170
XII - Mathematics10.8 Applications of First Order Ordinary Differential Equations
■ The■subject■of■differential■ equations■has■vast■applications■ in■solving■real■world■problems.■ The■
solutions■of■the■differential ■equations■are■used■to■predict■the■behaviors■of■the■system■at■a■future■time,■
or■at■an■unknown■location.■In■several■problems,■ the■rate■at■which■a■quantity■changes■is■a■given■
function■of■the■quantity■and■/or■the■time.■The■objective■is■to■find■the■quantity■itself.■If■x■denotes■the■
amount■of■the■quantity■present■at■time t,■then■the■instantaneous■ rate■at■which■the■quantity■changes■at■
time t is dx
dt.■This■leads■to■a■differential■ equation■of■the■form■dx
dtfx t= (, ).■In■this■section■we■shall■
consider■this■type■of■problems■only.■Further,■by■rate,■we■mean■the■instantaneous■rate■only.
10.8.1 Population growth
■ Now,■ we■consider■the■growth■of■a■population■ (for■example,■human,■an■animal,■or■a■bacteria■
colony)■as■a■function■of■time■ t.
■ Let■ xt()■be■the■size■of■the■population■ at■any■time■ t.■Although■ xt()■is■integer-valued,■ we■
approximate■ xt()■as■a■differentiable■ function■and■techniques■ of■differential■ equation■can■be■applied■
to■determine■ xt().■Assume■that■population■ grows■at■a■rate■directly■proportional■ to■the■amount■of■
population■present■at■that■time.■ Then,■we■obtain
dx
dtkx=,■where■ k■is■the■constant■of■proportionality■.■ …■(1)
■ Here■ k>0,■since■the■population■always■increases.
■ The■solution■of■the■differential■ equation■is■xt Cekt()=,■where■ C■is■a■constant■of■integration.■ The■
values■of■C■and■k■are■determined■ with■the■help■of■initial■conditions.■ Thus,■the■population■ increases■
exponentially■with■time.■ This■law■of■population■growth■is■called■ Malthusian law .
Example 10.27
The■growth■of■a■population ■is■proportional■ to■the■number■present.■If■the■population■ of■a■colony■
doubles■in■50■years,■in■how■many■years■will■the■population■become■triple?
Solution
Let xt()be■the■population■at■time■ t.■Then■dx
dtkx=.
■ By■separating■the■variables,■we■obtain■■dx
xkdt=.
■ Integrating■ on■both■sides,■we■get,■ logl og xk tC=+ or xC ekt=,■where■ C■is■an■arbitrary■
constant.
■ Let■ x0be■the■population■when■ t=0■and■obtain■ Cx=0.
■ Thus,■we■get■ xx ekt=0.
Now xx=20,■when■ t=50■and■thus,■ k=1
502log.
■ Hence,■ xxt
=0502■is■the■population■at■any■time■ t.
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 10_Differential [Link] 170 16-12-2022 16:48:36

Ordinary Differential Equations171■ Assume■that■the■population■is■tripled■in■ t1■years.

■ That■is,■ xx=30,■when■ tt=1.
■ Thus,■ t1503
2=

log
[Link],■the■population■is ■tripled■in■ 503
2log
log

■years.
10.8.2. Radioactive decay
■ The■nucleus■of■an■atom■consists■of■combinations■ of■protons■and■neutrons.■Many■of■these■
combinations■ of■protons■and■neutrons■are■unstable,■that■is■the■atoms■decay■or■transmute■ into■the■
atoms■of■another■substance.■Such■nuclei■are■said■to■be■ radioactive .
■ It■is■assumed■that■the■rate■d
dtA■at■which■the■nuclei■of■a■substance■decays■is■proportional■ to■the■
amount A()t■of■the■substance■remaining■at■time■ t.
■ Thus,■ the■required■differential■ equation■is■d
dtAA∝ or d
dtkAA=…(2),■where■ k■is■the■constant■
of■proportionality.■Here■ k<0,■since■decay■occurs.
Remarks
■ From■equations■(1)■and■(2),■we■see■that■the■differential■ equations■are■the■same,■but■the■difference■
is■only■in■the■interpretations■ of■the■symbols■and■the■constants■of■proportionality.■ For■growth■as■we■
expect■in■(1),■ k>0■and■in■the■case■of■(2)■for■decay,■ k<0.
A single differential equation can serve as a mathematical model for many different phenomena.
Example 10.28
A■radioactive ■isotope■has■an■initial■mass■ 200mg,■After■two■years■it■is■decreased■by■50mg.■Find■
the expression■ for■the■amount■of■the■isotope■remaining■ at■any■time.■What■is■its■half-life?■(half-life■
means the■time■taken■for■the■radioactivity■of■a■specified■isotope■to■fall■to■half■its■original■value).
Solution
Let■ A ■be■the■mass■of■the■isotope■remaining■ after■t■years,■and■let■−k■be■the■constant■of■
proportionality,■ where■ k>0.■Then■the■rate■of■decomposition■ is■modeled■by■■d
dtkAA=−,■where■the■
minus■sign■indicates■that■the■mass■is■decreasing.■ It■is■a■separable■equation.■Separating■ the■variables,■
we■get■dkdtA
A=−
■ Integrating■on■both■sides,■we■get■ logl og A=− +kt C or AC ekt=−.
■ Given■that■the■initial■mass■is■200mg.■ That■is,■ A=200 when t=0■■and■thus,■ C=200.
■ Thus,■we■get■ A=−200 ekt.
■ Also,■ A=150when t=2■and■therefore,■ k=

1
24
3log.
■ Hence, A()log
tet
=−

20024
3■is■the■mass■of■isotope■remaining■after■ t years.
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 10_Differential [Link] 171 16-12-2022 16:48:39

172
XII - Mathematics The half- life th is the time corresponding to A=100mg.
Thus, th=




21
2
3
4log
log.
10.8.3. Newton’s Law of cooling/warming
Consider pouring a 80°C cup of coffee and kept it on the table in an 30°C room.
What happens to the temperature of the coffee? We observe that the cup of coffee
will cool off until it reaches the room temperature.
Now consider taking a 15°C glass of cold water from the
refrigerator and kept it on the table in a 30°C room. What
happens to the temperature of the cold water? Similarly, we can
observe the water will warm up until it reaches room temperature.
According to Newton’s law of cooling or warming, the rate at which the
temperature of a body changes is proportional to the difference between the
temperature of the body and the temperature of the surrounding medium the so-called ambient
temperature. If Tt() represents the temperature of a body at time t, Tm the temperature of the
surrounding medium, and dT
dtthe rate at which the temperature of the body changes, then Newton’s
law of cooling(or warming) is dT
dtTTm ∝− ordT
dtkT Tm =−() , where kis constant of proportionality.
In either case, cooling or warming, if Tm is constant, it stands to reason that k<0.
Example 10.29
In a murder investigation, a corpse was found by a detective at exactly 8 p.m. Being alert, the
detective also measured the body temperature and found it to be 70oF. Two hours later, the detective
measured the body temperature again and found it to be 60oF. If the room temperature is 50oF, and
assuming that the body temperature of the person before death was 98.6oF, at what time did the
murder occur?
log. .; log. . 2430 88789 05 0 69315 () = () =− 
Solution
Let T be the temperature of the body at any time t and with time 0 taken to be 8 p.m.
By Newton’ s law of cooling, dT
dtkT=−() 50ordT
Tkdt−=50.
Integratin g on both sides, we get logl og 50−= + Tk tC or 50−=TC ekt.
When tT= =07 0 ,, and so C=−20
When tT= =26 0 ,, we have −= − 10 202ek.
Thus, k=

1
21
2log .
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 10_Differential [Link] 17212th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 10_Differential [Link] 172

Ordinary Differential Equations173■ Hence,■the■solution■is■ 50 201

21
2−= −

Tetlog
or Tt
=+

 50 201
22
■ Now,■we■would■like■to■find■the■value■of■t,■■for■which■ Tt() .=986,■and■t=










≈− 2486
20
1
2256log.
log.
■ It■appears ■that■the■person■was■murdered■at■about■ 5.30■p.m.
10.8.4 Mixture problems
■ Mixing■ problems■occur■quite■frequently■ in■chemical■industry.■Now■we■explain■
how■to■solve■the■ basic■model■involving■a■single■tank.
■ A■substance■ S■is■allowed■to■flow■into■a■certain■mixture■in■a■container■at■a■
constant■rate,■and■the■mixture■is■kept■uniform■by■stirring.■Further,■in■one■such■
situation,■ this■uniform■mixture■simultaneously■ flows■out■of■the■container■ at■
another■rate.■Now■we■seek■to■determine■ the■quantity■of■the■substance■ S
present■in■the■mixture■at■time■ t.
■ Letting■ x■to■denote■the■amount■of■S■present■at■time■ t■and■the■derivative■dx
dtto■denote■the■rate■
of■change■of■x■with■respect■to■t.■If■IN■denotes■the■rate■at■which■ S■enters■the■mixture■and■OUT denotes■
the■rate■at■which■it■leaves,■then■we■have■the■equation■dx
dt=−IN OUT
Example 10.30
A■tank■contains■1000■litres■of■water■in■which■100■grams■of■salt■is■dissolved.■ Brine■(Brine is a
high-concentration solution of salt (usually sodium chloride) in water )■runs■in■a■rate■of■10■litres■per■
minute,■and■each■litre■contains■5grams■of■dissolved■salt.■The■mixture■of■the■tank■is■kept■uniform■by■
stirring.■Brine■runs■out■at■10■litres■per■minute.■Find■the■amount■of■salt■at■any■time■ t.
Solution
Let■ xt()denote■the■amount■of■salt■in■the■tank■at■time■ t.■Its■rate■of■change■is■
dx
dt=−inflow rate outflow rate
■ Now,■5■ grams■times■10■litres■gives■an■inflow■of■50■ grams■of■salt.■Also,■the■out■flow■of■brine■ is■10■
litres■per■minute.■This■ is■10 1000 001 /.=of■the■total■brine■content■in■the■tank.■Hence,■the■outflow■of■
salt■is■0.01■times■ xt(),■that■is■ 001.( )xt.
■ Thus■the■differential■equation■for■the■model■is■dx
dtxx =− =− −() 50 0010 01 5000 ..
■ This■can■ be■written■as■dx
xdt−=−5000001 (. )
■ Integrating■■both■sides,■we■obtain■ log. log xt C −= −+ 5000 001
input
output
Fig.■10.2
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 10_Differential [Link] 173 16-12-2022 16:48:47

174
XII - Mathematics or xC et−=−[Link] et=+−5000001.
■ Initially,■■when tx= =0 100 ,,■so■100 5000=+ [Link],■ C=−4900.
■ Hence,■the■amount■of■the■salt■in■the■tank■at■time■ t is xet=−−5000 4900001..

EXERCISE 10.8

EXERCISE 10.8
1. The■rate■of■increase■in■the■number■of■bacteria■in■a■certain■bacteria■culture■is■proportional■ to■
the■number■present.■Given■that■the■number■triples■in■5■hours,■find■how■many■bacteria■will■be■
present■after■10■hours?■
2.■Find■the■population■ of■a■city■at■any■time■ t,■given■that■the■rate■of■increase■of■population■ is■
proportional■ to■the■population■ at■that■instant■and■that■in■a■period■of■40■years■the■population■
increased■from■3,00,000■to■4,00,000.■
3. The■equation■of■■electromotive■ force■for■an■electric■circuit■containing■ resistance■ and■self-
inductance■ is■ER iLdi
dt=+ ■,■where■ E■is■the■electromotive■ force■is■given■to■the■circuit,■ R the
resistance■and■ L,■the■coefficient■of■induction.■Find■the■current■ i at time t when E■=■0.
4.■The■engine■of■a■motor■boat■moving■at■10■ms/■is■shut■off.■Given■that■the■retardation■ at■any■
subsequent■ time■(after■shutting■off■the■engine)■equal■to■the■velocity■at■that■time.■Find■the■
velocity■after■2■seconds■of■switching■off■the■engine.
5.■Suppose■a■person■deposits■ `10,000■in■a■bank■account■at■the■rate■of■5%■per■annum■compounded■
continuously.■How■much■money■will■be■in■his■bank■account■18■months■later?■
6. Assume■that■the■rate■at■which■radioactive■ nuclei■decay■is■proportional■ to■■the■number■of■such■
nuclei■that■are■present■in■a■given■sample.■In■a■certain■sample■10%■of■the■original■number■of■
radioactive■ nuclei■have■undergone■ disintegration■ in■a■period■of■100■years.■■What■percentage■
of■the■original■radioactive■nuclei■will■remain■after■1000■years?■
7.■Water■at■temperature■ 100■C■cools■in■10■minutes■to■80■Cin■a■room■temperature■ of■25■C.■
Find■
■ ■■ (i)■The■temperature■of■water■after■20■minutes
■ ■■(ii)■The■time■when■the■temperature■is■ 40■C
log. ;log .ee11
1503101 51 6094 =− =


 8. At■10.00■A.M.■a■woman■took■a■cup■of■hot■instant■coffee■from■her■microwave■ oven■and■
placed■it■on■a■nearby■Kitchen■counter■to■cool.■At■this■instant■the■temperature■ of■the■coffee■
was 180■F,■■and■10■minutes■later■it■was■ 160■F.■Assume■that■constant■temperature■ of■the■
kitchen■was■ 70■F.
■ ■(i)■ What■was■the■temperature■of■the■coffee■at■10.15A.M.?■ log.9
1102006 =−


■ ■(ii)■The■ woman■likes■to■drink■coffee■when■its■temperature■ is■between■ 130■Fand■140■F.■
between■what■times■should■she■have■drunk■the■coffee?
9. A■pot■of■boiling■water■at■100■C■is■removed■from■a■stove■at■time■ t=0■and■left■to■cool■in■the■
kitchen.■After■5■minutes,■the■water■temperature■ has■decreased■to■80■C,■and■another■5■minutes■
later■it■has■dropped■to■ 65■C.■Determine■the■temperature■of■the■[Link]. ,log .6
11060617
1104519 =−

=−


12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 10_Differential [Link] 174 16-12-2022 16:48:50

Ordinary Differential Equations175 10. A tank initially contains 50 litres of pure water. Starting at time t=0 a brine containing wi
2 grams of dissolved salt per litre flows into the tank at the rate of 3 litres per minute. The
mixture is kept uniform by stirring and the well-stirred mixture simultaneously flows out of
the tank at the same rate. Find the amount of salt present in the tank at any time t>0.

EXERCISE 10.9

EXERCISE 10.9
Choose the correct or the most suitable answer from the given four alternatives :
1. The order and degree of the differential equation dy
dxdy
dxx2
213
140 +

+=/
/
are respectively
(1) 23, (2) 33, (3) 26, (4) 24,
2. The differential equation representing the family of curves yx B =+Acos() , where A and B
are parameters, is
(1) dy
dxy2
20 −= (2) dy
dxy2
20 +=
(3) dy
dx2
20=
(4) dx
dy2
20=
3. The order and degree of the differential equation sinc os xdxd yx dx dy +() =− () is
(1) 12, (2) 22, (3) 11, (4) 21,
4. The order of the differential equation of all circles with centre at hk,() and radius ‘ a’ is
(1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 4 (4) 1
5. The dif ferential equation of the family of curves ye exx=+−AB , where A and B are arbitrary
constants is
(1) dy
dxy2
20 += (2) dy
dxy2
20 −= (3) dy
dxy+= 0 (4) dy
dxy−= 0
6. The general solution of the differential equation dy
dxy
x= is
(1) xy k= (2) yk x=log (3) yk x= (4) logyk x=
7. The solution of the differential equation 23xdy
dxy−= represents
(1) straight lines (2) circles (3) parabola (4) ellipse
8. The solution of dy
dxpx y +=() 0 is
(1) yc epdx=∫ (2) yc epdx=∫− (3) xc epdy=∫− (4) xc epdy=∫
9. The integrating factor of the differential equation dy
dxyy
x+=+1 is
(1) x
ex (2) e
xx
(3) xex (4) ex
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 10_Differential [Link] 17512th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 10_Differential [Link] 175

176
XII - Mathematics 10. The■integrating■factor■of■the■differential■equation■■dy
dxPxyQ x += () () is x,■then■ Px()
(1)■■x■ (2)■■■x2
2■ (3)■■■■1
x■ (4)■■■1
2x
11. The■degree■of■the■differential■equation■ yxdy
dxdy
dxdy
dx() .... =+ +⋅

+⋅⋅

+ 11
121
12 323
is
(1)■■■2■ (2)■■■■■■3■ (3)■■■1■ (4)■■■■4
12. If p■and■q■are■the■order■and■degree■of■the■differential■ equation■ ydy
dxxdy
dxxy x +

+=32
2cos,■■■
when
■ ■ (1)■ pq<■ (2)■ pq=■ (3)■pq>■ ■(4)■p■exists■and■ q■does■not■exist
13. The■solution■of■the■differential■equation■■dy
dx x+
−=1
10
2 is
(1)■■■ yx c +=−sin1■ (2)■■■ xy+=−sin10■ (3)■■ yx C212+=−sin■(4)■■ xy2120+=−sin
14. The■solution■of■the■differential■equation■dy
dxxy=2 is
(1)■■ yC ex=2■ (2)■■■ yx C =+22■ (3)■■■ yC eCx=+−2■ (4)■■■ yx C =+2
15. The■general■solution■of■the■differential■equation■■ logdy
dxxy

=+ is
(1)■■■ ee Cxy+=■ (2)■■■ ee Cxy+=−■ (3)■■ ee Cxy−+=■ (4)■■ ee Cxy−−+=
16. The■solution■of■dy
dxyx=−2 is
(1)■■■■ 22xyC +=■ (2)■■■■ 22xyC −=■ (3)■■■1
21
2xyC −=■ (4)■■■ xyC+=
17. The■solution■of■the■differential■equation■■■dy
dxy
xy
x
y
x=+




φ
φ' is
(1)■■■■■ xy
xk φ

=■ (2)■■■ φy
xkx

=■ (3)■■■■ yy
xk φ

=■ (4)■■■ φy
xky

=
18. If sinx■is■the■integrating■factor■of■the■linear■differential■equation■■dy
dxPy Q +=,■then■ P is
(1)■■■ logsinx■ (2)■■ cosx■ (3)■■■ tanx■ (4)■■■ cotx
19. The■number■of■arbitrary■constants■in■the■general■solutions■of■order■ n■and■n+1are■respectively
■ ■ (1)■■■ nn−1,■ (2)■■■ nn,+1■ (3)■■■ nn++12,■ (4)■■■ nn+1,
20. The■number■of■arbitrary■constants■in■the■particular■solution■of■a■differential■ equation■of■third■
order■is
■ ■ (1)■■■■3■ (2)■■■2■ (3)■■■1■ (4)■■■0
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 10_Differential [Link] 176 16-12-2022 16:49:03

Ordinary Differential Equations177 21.■ Integrating■factor■of■the■differential■equation■■dy

dxxy
x=++
+1
1 is
■ ■ (1)■■■■■1
1x+■ (2)■■■■ x+1■ (3)■■■1
1x+■ (4)■■■ x+1
22. The■population■ P■in■any■year■ t■is■such■that■the■rate■of■increase■in■the■population■ is■proportional■
to■the■population.■ Then
■ ■ (1)■■■ PC ekt=■ (2)■■■ PC ekt=−■ (3)■■■ PC kt=■ (4)■■■ PC=
23. P■is■the■amount■of■certain■substance■ left■in■after■time■ t.■If■the■rate■of■evaporation■ of■the■
substance■is■proportional■to■the■amount■remaining,■then■
■ ■ (1)■■■ PC ekt=■ (2)■■■ PC ekt=−■ (3)■■■ PC kt=■ (4)■■■ PtC=
24.■ If■the■solution■of■the■differential■ equation■dy
dxax
yf=+
+3
2■represents■ a■circle,■then■the■value■of■
a is
■ ■ (1)■■■2■ (2)■■■■−2■ (3)■■■■■1■ (4)■■■−1
25.■ The■slope■at■any■point■of■a■curve■ y = f (x)■is■given■by■dy
dxx=■3x2■and■it■passes■through■(-1,1).■
Then■the■equation■of■the■curve■is
■ ■ (1)■ y = x3■+■2■ (2)■ y■=■3x2■+■4■ (3)■ y■=■3x3■+■4■ (4)■ y = x3■+■5
SUMMARY
■ 1.■ A■differential■ equation■is■any■equation■which■contains■at■least■one■derivative■ of■an■unknown■
function,■either■ordinary■derivative■or■partial■derivative .
■ 2.■ The■ order■of■a■differential■ equation■is■the■highest■derivative■ present■in■the■differential■
equation.
■ 3.■ If■ a■differential■ equation■is■expressible■ in■a■polynomial■ form,■then■the■integral■power■of■the■
highest■order■derivative■appears■is■called■the■ degree■of■the■differential■equation
■ 4.■ If■ a■differential■ equation■is■not■expressible■ to■polynomial■ equation■form■having■the■highest■order■
derivative■as■the■leading■term■then■that■the■degree■of■the■differential■equation■is■not■defined.
■ 5.■ If■ a■differential■ equation■contains■only■ordinary■derivatives■ of■one■or■more■functions■with■respect■
to■a■single■independent■variable,■it■is■said■to■be■an■ordinary■differential■equation■(ODE). ■
■ 6.■ An■ equation■involving■only■partial■derivatives■ of■one■or■more■functions■of■two■or■more■
independent■variables■is■called■a■partial■differential■equation■(PDE).
■ 7.■ The■ result■of■eliminating■ one■arbitrary■constant■yields■a■first■order■differential■ equation■and■that■
of■eliminating■two■arbitrary■constants■leads■to■a■second■order■differential■equation■and■so■on.
■ 8.■ A■solution■of■a■differential■ equation■is■an■expression■ for■the■dependent■ variable■in■terms■of■
the■independent■variable(s)■which■satisfies■the■differential■equation.
■ 9.■ The■ solution■which■contains■as■many■arbitrary■constants■as■the■order■of■the■differential■
equation■is■called■the■ general solution
■ 10.■ If■ we■give■particular■values■to■the■arbitrary■constants■in■the■general■solution■of■differential■
equation,■the■resulting■solution■is■called■a■Particular■Solution.
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 10_Differential [Link] 177 16-12-2022 16:49:05

178
XII - Mathematics 1 1. An equation of the form fx gy dx fx gy dy11 22 0 () () () () += is called an equation with variable
separable or simply a separable equation.
12. A function fx y (, ) is said to be a homogeneous function of degree n in the variables x
and y if, ftxtyt fx yn(, )( ,)= for some n∈■ for all suitably restricted xy, and t. This is
known as Euler’s homogeneity.
13. If fx y (, ) is a homogeneous function of degree zero, then there exists a function g such that
fx y (, ) is always expressed in the form gy
xgx
y



 or .
14. An ordinary differential equation is said to be in homogeneous form, if the differential
equation is written as dy
dxgy
x=

.
15. The dif ferential equation Mx ydxN xydy (, )( ,) += 0 [in differential form] is said to be
homogeneous if M and N are homogeneous functions of the same degree.
16. A first order differential equation of the form dy
dxPy+ = Q.
where P and Q are functions of x only. Here no product of y and its derivative dy
dx occurs
and the dependent variable y and its derivative with respect to independent variable x occur
only in the first degree.
The solution of the given dif ferential equation (1) is given by ye Qe dx CPdxP dx ∫=∫+ ∫.
Here ye Qe dx CPdxP dx ∫=∫+ ∫ is known as the integrating factor (I.F.)
17. A first order differential equation of the form dx
dyPx Q += , where P and Q are
functions of yonly. Here no product of x and its derivative dx
dy occurs and the dependent
variable x and its derivative with respect to independent variable y occur only in the first
[Link] this case, the solution is given by xe Qe dy CPdyP dy ∫=∫+ ∫ .
18. If x denotes the amount of the quantity present at time t, then the instantaneous rate at
which the quantity changes at time t is dx
dt.
This leads to a dif ferential equation of the form dx
dtfx t= (, ).
ICT CORNER
[Link] or Scan the QR Code
Open the Browser, type the URL Link given (or) Scan the QR code.
GeoGebra work book named “ 12th Standard Mathematics Vol-2” will open.
In the left side of work book there are chapters related to your text book. Click
on the chapter named “ Ordinary Differential Equations”. You can see several
work sheets related to the chapter. Go through all the work sheets
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 10_Differential [Link] 17812th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 10_Differential [Link] 178

Probability theory is nothing but common sense reduced to calculation

-LaplaceChapter
11Probability Distributions
Laplace
(1749-1827)
179The history of random variables and how they evolved into mapping
from sample space to real numbers was a subject of interest. The modern
interpretation certainly occurred after t he invention of sets and maps
(1900), but as Eremenko says, random variables were used much earlier.
Mathematicians felt the need to interpret random variables as maps. In 1812,
Laplace published his book on Theory analytique des probabilities in which
he laid down many fundamental results in statistics. The first half of this
treatise was concerned with probability methods and prob lems and the second
half with statistical applications.
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, students will be able to
• define a random variable, discrete and continuous random variables
• define probability mass (density) function
• determine probability mass (density) function from cumulative distribution function
• obtain cumulative distribution function from probability mass (density) function
• calculate mean and variance for random variable
• identify and apply Bernoulli and binomial distributions.
11.1 Introduction
The concept of a sample space that completely describes the possible outcomes of a random
experiment has been developed in volume 2 of I year higher secondary course.
In this chapter, we learn about a function, called random variable defined on the sample space of
a random experiment and its probability distribution.
11.2 Random Variable
The outcome from a random experiment is not always a simple thing to represent in notion. In
many random experiments that we have considered, the sample space S has been a description of
possible outcomes. That is the outcome of an experiment, or the points in the sample space S, need
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 179 16-12-2022 16:50:00

180
XII - Mathematicsnot be numbers. For example in the random experiment of tossing a coin, the outcomes are H(head)
or T(tail). It is necessary to deal with numerical values, in some situation, for outcomes of random
experiment. Therefore, we assign a number to each outcome of the experiment say 1to head and 0 to
tail. Such an assignment of numerical values to the elements in S is called a random variable . A
random variable is a function . Thus, a random variable is:
Definition 11.1
A random variable X is a function defined on a sample space S into the real numbers ■such
that the inverse image of points or subset or interval of ■ is an event in S, for which probability
is assigned.
We use the capital letters of the alphabet, such as X, Y, and Z to represent the random variables
and the small letters, such as x, y, and z to represent the possible values of the random variables.
Suppose S={}ww w12 3 ,, ,■ is the sample space of a random experiment and ■ denotes the real line.
Then the random variable X is a real valued function defined on S and is denoted by XS:→■. If ωis a
sample point in S,then X()ωis a real number.
The range set is the collection of X()ωsuch that /g90/g143S.
That is the range set denoted by Rx is RxXS= () ∈ {}ww/ .
Fig 11.1 shows the mapping of some sample
points ωior events of the Sample space S on the
real line ■ .
For instance, if xis a possible value of X for
ω11, ω12, ω13,...ω1kωω ωω11 12 13 1 ,, ,,■kS∈ then ωω ωω11 12 13 1 ,, ,■k {}ω11, ω12, ω13,...ω1k ωω ωω11 12 13 1 ,, ,■k
called inverse image of x.
That is Xxk−={}1
11 12 13 1 (),, , ωω ωω■ ωω ωω11 12 13 1 ,, ,■k {}ω11, ω12, ω13,...ω1k ωω ωω11 12 13 1 ,, ,■k {} is an event in S
Illustration 11.1
Suppose a coin is tossed once. The sample space consists of two sample points H (head) and T
(tail).
That is ST H /g32/g94/g96,
Let XS:→■ be the number of heads
Then XT/g11/g12 /g320, and XH/g11/g12 /g321.
Thus X is a random variable that takes on the values 0 and 1. If X()ωdenotes the number of
heads, then
X()/g90/g90
/g90/g32/g173
/g174
/g1750
1for =Tail
for = Head
Example 11.1
Suppose two coins are tossed once. If X denotes the number of tails, (i) write down the sample
space (ii) find the inverse image of 1 (iii) the values of the random variable and number of elements
in its inverse images.
Solution
(i) The sample space S /g32/g94/g96 /g117/g94/g96 HT HT ,,iωrω
i()Xω ()r XωS
XSample space
Real numbers lin ex■ωω ωω11 12 13 1 ,, ,■k
Fig. 11.1
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 180 16-12-2022 16:50:04

Probability Distributions181 That is ST TTHHTHH /g32/g94/g96,, ,

(ii) Let XS:→■be the number of tails
Then XTT/g11/g12 = 2 (2 Tails)
XTH/g11/g12 = 1 (1 Tail)
XHT/g11/g12 = 1 (1 Tail)
and XHH/g11/g12 = 0 (0 Tails).
Then X is a random variable that takes on the values 0, 1 and 2.
Let X()ωdenote the number of tails, this gives
XTT
HTTH
HH()if
if ,
if/g90/g90
/g90
/g90/g32/g32
/g32
/g32/g173
/g174/g176
/g175/g1762
1
0
The inverse images of 1 is THHT,/g94/g96 . That is XT HHT/g16/g94/g96/g11/g12 /g32/g94/g9611, .
(iii) Number of elements in inverse images are shown in the table.
Values of the Random Variable 0 1 2 Total
Number of elements in inverse image 1 2 1 4
Example 11.2
Suppose a pair of unbiased dice is rolled once. If X denotes the total score of two dice, write down
(i) the sample space (ii) the values taken by the random variable X, (iii) the inverse image of 10, and
(iv) the number of elements in inverse image of X.
Solution
(i) The sample space
S = 123456 123456 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, /g94/g96 /g117/g94/g96 ,
consists of 36 ordered pairs /g68/g69,/g11/g12 where α
and β can take any integer value between 1
and 6 as shown. X is assigned to each
point (α, β) the sum of the numbers on the
dice .
That is X/g68/g69 /g68/g69 ,/g11/g12 /g32/g14 .
Therefore
X11,/g11/g12 = 11 2/g14/g32
X12,/g11/g12 = X21 3 ,/g11/g12 /g32
X13,/g11/g12 = XX22 31 4 ,,/g11/g12 /g32/g11/g12 /g32
X14,/g11/g12 = XXX23 32 41 5 ,, , /g11/g12 /g32/g11/g12 /g32/g11/g12 /g32
X15,/g11/g12 = XX XX 24 33 42 51 6 ,,, , /g11/g12 /g32/g11/g12 /g32/g11/g12 /g32/g11/g12 /g32
X16,/g11/g12 = X XXX X 25 34 43 52 61 7 ,, ,, , /g11/g12 /g32/g11/g12 /g32/g11/g12 /g32/g11/g12 /g32/g11/g12 /g32TT TH
Real line01 2S
X
■
A mapping X (.) from S to
Fig. 11.2
S/g32/g11/g12 /g11/g12 /g11/g12
/g11/g12/g11/g12 /g11/g12
/g11/g12/g11/g12
/g11/g1211 12 15
21 2413 16
2214
23,,, ,, ,, ,
,, ,,,,
,,,
, /g11/g11/g12
/g11/g12 /g11/g12/g11/g12
/g11/g12 /g11/g12/g11/g12
/g11/g12 /g11/g12
/g11/g12,, ,
,, ,, ,, ,
,,
,,
,,,
,25
31 3426
35 32
4133 36
4224 5
51 5443 46
52 5544
53/g11/g12 /g11/g12
/g11/g12 /g11/g12/g11/g12 /g11/g12
/g11/g12 /g11/g12/g11/g12
/g11/g12,, ,, ,,
,, ,, ,, ,,
,,
,, 556
65 61 64 66 62 63,
, ,, ,, ,, ,, , ,/g11/g12
/g11/g12 /g11/g12 /g11/g12 /g11/g12/g173
/g174/g176
/g176
/g176/g176
/g175/g176
/g176
/g176
/g176/g189
/g190/g176
/g176
/g176/g176
/g11/g12 /g11/g12 /g191/g191/g176
/g176
/g176
/g176
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 181 16-12-2022 16:50:09

182
XII - Mathematics X26,/g11/g12 = XX XX 35 44 53 62 8 ,,, , /g11/g12 /g32/g11/g12 /g32/g11/g12 /g32/g11/g12 /g32
X36,/g11/g12 = XXX45 54 63 9 ,, , /g11/g12 /g32/g11/g12 /g32/g11/g12 /g32
X46,/g11/g12 = XX55 64 10 ,,/g11/g12 /g32/g11/g12 /g32
X56,/g11/g12 = 65 11 ,/g11/g12 /g32
X66,/g11/g12 = 12.
(ii) Then the random variable X takes on the values 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 .
(iii) The inverse images of 10 is 46,/g11/g12/g94 ,55,/g11/g12 ,64,/g11/g12 /g96.
(iv) The number of inverse images are given below
Values of the random variable 2345678910 11 12 Total
Number of elements in inverse image 12345654 3 2 1 36
Example 11.3
An urn contains 2 white balls and 3 red balls. A sample of 3 balls are chosen at random from the
urn. If X denotes the number of red balls chosen, find the values taken by the random variable X
and its number of inverse images.
Solution
Let us denote white and red balls as ww rr r12 12 3 ,, ,,and.
The sample space consists of 53c= 10 different samples of size 3.
That is Sw wr wwrw wr wrrw rrwrrw rrwrr /g3212 11 22 12 31 12 12 31 13 21 22 23 ,, ,, ,, ,, wwrrrrr213 12 3 , /g94/g96 .
The random variable X takes on the values 1, 2, and 3.
A mapping X (.) from S to real numbers
Fig. 11.3
Values of the Random Variable X 1 2 3 Total
Number of elements in inverse images 3 6 1 10
Remark
If X denotes the number of white balls, then X takes on the values 0,1, and 2 and the elements in
inverse images areX= 1 X= 1 X= 1 X= 3 X= 2 X= 2 X= 2 X= 2 X= 2 X= 2S
1w 2w
1r2w3r
2r2w
1r2r1w
1r2r
1w
2r3r 1w 1r
3r1r2w
3r2w1w
2r2w1w
3r1r2r3r
Real lineSample space S
1 23
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 182 16-12-2022 16:50:12

Probability Distributions183Values of the Random Variable X 0 1 2 Total

Number of elements in inverse images 1 6 3 10
Illustration 11.2
A batch of 150 students is taken in 4 buses to an excursion. There are 38 students in the first bus,
36 in second bus, 32 in the third bus, and the remaining students in the fourth bus. When the buses
arrive at the destination, one of the 150 students is randomly chosen.
Suppose that X denotes the number of students on the bus of that randomly chosen student. Then
X takes on the values 32, 36, 38, and 44.
Example 11. 4
T wo balls are chosen randomly from an urn containing 6 white and 4 black balls. Suppose that
we win ` 30 for each black ball selected and we lose ` 20 for each white ball selected. If X denotes
the winning amount, find the values of X and number of points in its inverse images.
Solution
The possible events of selection are (i) both balls may be black, or (ii) one white and one black or
(iii) both are white. Therefore X is a random variable that take the values,
X (both are black balls) = ` 2(30) = ` 60
X (one black and one white ball) = ` 30− ` 20= ` 10
X (both are white balls) = ` 2(− 20)/g32/g16 ` 40
Therefore X takes on the values 60,10, and − 40.
Note : The inverse image of 60 is bb bb bb bb bb bb12 13 14 23 24 34 ,, ,, ,. /g94/g96
Values of the Random Variable X 60 10 – 40 Total
Number of elements in inverse images 6 24 15 45
Illustration 11.3
A coin is tossed until head occurs.
The sampl e space is SH TH TTH TTTH /g32/g94/g96,, ,,■.
Suppose X denotes the number of times the coin is tossed until head occurs.
Then the random variable X takes on the values 123,, ,■
Illustration 11.4
Suppose N is the number of customers in the queue that arrive at a service desk during a time
period, then the sample space should be the set of non-negative integers. That is S={, ,, ,} 01 23■
and N is a random variable that takes on the values 01 23,, ,,■
Illustration 11.5
If an experiment consists in observing the lifetime of an electrical bulb, then a sample space would
be the life time of electrical bulb. Therefore the sample space is S/g32/g102[, ) 0. Suppose X denotes the
lifetime of the bulb, then X is a random variable that takes on the values in 0,/g102/g62 /g12.
Illustration 11.6
Let D be a disk of radius r. Suppose a point is chosen at random in D. Let X denote the
distance of the point from the centre. Then the sample space SD= and X is the random variable that
takes on any number from 0 to r. That is Xr S /g90/g90/g11/g12/g143/g62/g64 /g143 0, ,for .(6
0)(4
2) (6
1)(4
1) (6
2)(4
0) (10
2)
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability [Link] 18312th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability [Link]

184
XII - MathematicsEXERCISE 11.1
1. Suppose X is the number of tails occurred when three fair coins are tossed once simultaneously.
Find the values of the random variable X and number of points in its inverse images.
2. An urn conta ins 5 mangoes and 4 apples. Three fruits are taken at random. If the number of
apples taken is a random variable, then find the values of the random variable and number of
points in its inverse images.
3. T wo balls are chosen randomly from an urn containing 6 red and 8 black balls. Suppose that we
win ` 15 for each red ball selected and we lose ` 10 for each black ball selected. If X denotes
the winning amount, find the values of X and number of points in its inverse images.
4. A six sided die is marked ‘2’ on one face, ‘3’ on two of its faces, and ‘4’ on remaining three
faces. The die is thrown twice. If X denotes the total score in two throws, find the values of
the random variable and number of points in its inverse images.
11.3 Types of Random Variable
In this chapter we shall restrict our study to two types of random variables, one is a random
variable assuming at most a countable number of values and another is a random variable assuming the values continuously.
(i) Discrete Random variable (for counting the q uantity)
(ii) Continuous Random variable (for measuring the quantity)
11.3.1 Discrete random variables
In this section we discuss
(i) Discrete random variables
(ii) Probability mass function
(iii) Cumulative distribution function.
(iv) Obtaining cumulative distribution function from probability mass function.
(v) Obtaining probability mass function from cumulative distribution function.
If the range set of the random variables is discrete set of numbers then the inverse image of
random variable is either finite or countably infinite. Such a random variable is called discrete random variable. A random varia
Definition 11.2 (Discrete Random Variable)
A random variable X is defined on a sample space S into the real numbers ■ is called
discrete random variable if the range of X is countable, that is, it can assume only a finite or
countably infinite number of values, where every value in the set Shas positive probability with
total one.
Remark
It is also possible to define a discrete random variable on continuous sample space. For instance,
(i) for a continuous sample space S=[, ]01, the random variable defined by XS() , /g90/g90/g32/g14310for all
is a discrete random variable.
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 184 16-12-2022 19:18:35

Probability Distributions185 (ii) for a continuous sample space S=[, ] 020, the random variable defined by
X()[, )
[, ]/g90/g90
/g90/g32/g143
/g143/g173
/g174
/g17510 10
21 020 for
for is a discrete random variable.
11.3.2 Probability Mass Function
The probability that a discrete random variable X takes on a particular value x, that is PX x ()=,
is frequently denoted by fx()or px() . The function fx()is typically called the probability mass
function, although some authors also refer to it as the probability function or the frequency function.
In this chapter, when the random variable is discrete, the common terminology the probability mass
function is used and its common abbreviation is pmf.
Definition 11.3 (Probability mass function)
If X is a discrete random variable with discrete values xx xxn 12 3 ,, ,,■■ then the function
denoted by f(.)orp(.) and defined by
fx PX xk nkk() () ,, ,, , == = for1 23■■
is called the probability mass function of X
Theorem 11.1 (Without proof)
The function fx()is a probability mass function if and only if it satisfies the following
properties for the set of real values x1, x2, x3, ... xn ....
(i) fxk()³0 for kn=123,, ,,■■ and (ii) fxk
k()=∑ 1
Note:
(i) The set of probabilities fx PX xk nkk() () ,, ,, , /g32/g32 /g32 /g94/g96 12 3■■ is also known as
probability distribution of discrete random variable
(ii) Since the random variable is a function, it can be presented
(a) in tabular form (b) in graphical form and (c) in an expression form
Example 11.5
Two fair coins are tossed simultaneously (equivalent to a fair coin is tossed twice). Find the
probability mass function for number of heads occurred.
Solution The sample space S = HT HT ,,/g94/g96 /g117/g94/g96
 That is S = TTTHHTHH ,, , /g94/g96
Let X be the random variable denoting the number of heads.
Therefore
XTT/g11/g12 = 0, XTH/g11/g12 = 1,
XHT/g11/g12 = 1, and XHH/g11/g12 = 2.
Then the random variable Xtakes on the values 0, 1 and 2
Values of the Random Variable 0 1 2 Total
Number of elements in inverse images 1 2 1 4
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 185 16-12-2022 16:50:20

186
XII - Mathematics The probabilities are given by
f()0 = PX()= =01
4,
f()1 = PX()= =11
2
and f()2 = PX()= =21
4
The function fx()satisfies the conditions
(i) fx()≥0, for x=01 2,,
(ii) fx fx ff f
xx
x() () () () () /g32/g32 /g14/g14
/g32/g32
/g166 /g166 01 2
02

=1
41
21
41 /g14/g14 /g32
Therefore fx()is a probability mass function.
The probability mass function is given by
x012
fx()1
41
21
4(or)
Example 11.6
A pair of fair dice is rolled once. Find the probability
mass function to get the number of fours.
Solution
Let X be a random variable whose values x are the
number of fours.
The sample space S is given in the table.
It can also be written as
Si j /g32/g94/g96(, ), where i=1236,, ,■ and j=1236,,,■
Therefore X takes on the values of 0, 1, and 2.
We observe that
(i) X=0, if (, ) ij for ij≠≠44,,
(ii) X=1, if 1,4,2,4, 3,4, 5,4,6,4 /g11/g12 /g11/g12 /g11/g12 /g11/g12 /g11/g12 /g11/g12 /g11/g12 /g11/g12 /g11/g12 /g11 ,, ,, ,
(iii) X=2, if 44,/g11/g12 ,
Therefore,
Values of the Random Variable X 0 1 2 Total
Number of elements in inverse images 25 10 1 361 21
Probability mass function of f(x)f(x)
x1-41-23-4
1-41-2
0
Fig. 11.4
fxx
x
x()/g32/g32
/g32
/g32/g173
/g174/g176
/g176/g176
/g175/g176
/g176
/g1761
40
1
21
1
42for
for
for
) ()( )( )( )( ()
) () () () () (( )
) () () () () ((
)1,1,1,2, 1,3, 1,4, 1,5, 1,6
() () () () (()
) () () () () (()
) () () () () (()
)2,1,2,2,2,3,2,4,2,5, 2,6
3,1,3,2,3,3, 3,4,3,5, 3,6
4,1,4,2,4,3,4,4,4,5,4,6
5,1,5,2,5,3, 5,4,5,5, 5,6
6,1,6,2,6,3,6,4,6,5, 6,6=S{ {( )4,4
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 186 16-12-2022 16:50:25

Probability Distributions187 The probabilities are

f()0 = PX()= =025
36,
f()1 = PX()= =110
36
and f()2 = PX()= =21
36
Clearly the function fx() satisfies the conditions
(i) fx() ,≥0 for x=01 2,, and
(ii) fx fx ff f
xx
x() () () () () /g32/g32 /g14/g14 /g32
/g32/g32
/g166 /g166 01 21
02

= 25
3610
361
361 ++ =
The probability mass function is presented as
x012
fx()25
3610
361
36(or) fxx
x
x()/g32/g32
/g32
/g32/g173
/g174/g176
/g176/g176
/g175/g176
/g176
/g17625
360
10
361
1
362for
for
for
11.3.3 Cumulative Distribution Function or Distribution Function
There are many situations to compute the probability that the observed value of a random variable
X will be less than or equal to some real number x. Writing Fx PX x ()/g32/g100/g11/g12 for every real number
x, we call Fx(), the cumulative distribution function or distribution function of the random variable
X and its common abbreviation is cdf .
Definition 11.4: (cumulative distribution function)
The cumulative distribution function Fx() of a discrete random variable X, taking the
values xx x12 3 ,, ,■ such that xx x12 3<<<■ with probability mass function fxi/g11/g12 is
Fx PX xf xxi
xxi() , =≤() = () ∈
≤∑ ■
The distribution function of a discrete random variable is known as Discrete Distribution Function.
Although, the probability mass function fx() is defined only for a set of discrete values xx x12 3 ,, ,,■
the cumulative distribution function Fx() is defined for all real values of x∈■.
We can compute the cumulative distribution function using the probability mass function
Fx PX xf xP Xxi
xxi
xxii()/g32/g100/g11/g12 /g32 /g11/g12/g32/g32 /g11/g12
/g100/g100/g166/g1661 21
Probability mass function of f(x)f(x)
xy
01-3625-36
10-36
Fig. 11.5
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 187 16-12-2022 16:50:30

188
XII - Mathematics If X takes only a finite number of values xx xxn 12 3 ,, ,■ , where xx xxn 12 3<<<<,,■ then the
cumulative distribution function is given by
Fxxx
fx xx x
fx fx xx x
fx fx(),
(),
() (),
() ()/g32/g16/g102/g31/g31
/g100/g31
/g14/g100 /g31
/g14/g1401
11 2
12 23
12 ffx xx x
fx fx fx xxnn(),
() () () ,33 4
12/g100/g31
/g14/g14 /g14/g100 /g31/g102/g173
/g174/g176
/g176
/g176/g176
/g175/g176
/g176
/g176
/g176/vertellipsis/vertellipsis
…
For a discrete random variable X, the cumulative distribution function satisfies the following
properties.
(i) 01≤≤Fx() , for all x∈■.
(ii) Fx() is real valued non-decreasing function xy Fx Fy /g31/g100/g11/g12 ,( )( ). then
(iii) Fx() is right continuous function lim.
xaFx Fa
/g111/g14/g11/g12/g32/g11/g12 /g11 /g12
(iv) lim
xFx F
/g111/g16/g102/g11/g12/g32/g16 /g102/g11/g12 /g320.
(v) lim
xFx F
/g111/g14/g102/g11/g12/g32/g14 /g102/g11/g12 /g321.
(vi) Px Xx Fx Fx12 21 /g31/g100/g11/g12 /g32/g11/g12 /g16/g11/g12.
(vii) PX xP Xx Fx /g33/g11/g12 /g32/g16 /g100/g11/g12 /g32/g16 /g11/g12 11 .
(viii) PX xF xF xkk k =() =−−() () .
Note
Some authors use left continuity in the definition of a cumulative distribution function Fx(),
instead of right continuity.
11.3.4 Cumulative Distribution Function from Probability Mass function
Both the probability mass function and the cumulative distribution function of a discrete random
variable X contain all the probabilistic information of X. The probability distribution of X is determined
by either of them. In fact, the distribution function F of a discrete random variable X can be expressed
in terms of the probability mass function f(x) of X and vice versa.
Example 11.7
If the probability mass function fx()of a random variable X is
x1234
fx()1
125
125
121
12
find (i) its cumulative distribution function, hence find (ii) PX()≤3 and, (iii) PX()≥2
Solution
(i) By definition the cumulative distribution function for discrete random variable is
Fx PX xP Xxi
xxi() () () /g32/g100 /g32/g32
/g100/g166
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 188 16-12-2022 16:50:34

Probability Distributions189 PX()<1 = 0 for −∞<<x1.

F()1 = PX PX xP Xx PX PXi
xxi() () () () () /g100/g32 /g32/g32 /g32/g32 /g31/g14 /g32/g32 /g14/g32
/g100/g16 /g102/g166/g166 11 101
121
121
.
F()2 = PX PX xP XP XP X () () () () () /g100/g32 /g32/g32 /g31/g14 /g32/g14 /g32
/g16/g102/g166 21 122
.
= 01
125
121
2/g14/g14 /g32.
F()3 = PX PX xP XP XP XP X () () () () () () /g100/g32 /g32/g32 /g31/g14 /g32/g14 /g32/g14 /g32
/g16/g102/g166 31 12 33
.
 = 01
125
125
1211
12/g14/g14/g14 /g32 .
F()4 = PX PX xP XP XP XP XP X /g100/g11/g12 /g32/g32 /g32/g31 /g14/g32 /g14/g32 /g14/g32 /g14/g32
/g16/g102/g166 41 1 2344
() () () () () () .
= 01
125
125
121
121 /g14/g14/g14/g14 /g32.
Therefore the cumulative distribution function is
Fig. 11.6
(ii) PX F () () /g100/g32 /g32 3311
12.
(iii) PX PX PX F () () () () /g116/g32 /g16/g31 /g32/g16 /g100/g32 /g16/g32 /g16/g32 21 21 11 111
1211
12.
Example 11.8
A six sided die is marked ‘1’ on one face, ‘2’ on two of its faces,
and ‘3’ on remaining three faces. The die is rolled twice. If X denotes
the total score in two throws.
(i) Find the probability mass function.
(ii) Find the cumulative distribution function.
(iii) Find PX()36/g100/g31 (iv) Find PX()≥4.O12 3 4xyF(x)
Cumulative distribution functio n1
121
211
121
1
121
211
121
F(x) 0, 1
1,1 2
12
121
2
11,
,3 4
1 4x
x
x
x/g31
/g31/g31/g16/g102
/g102/g173
/g176
/g176 /g100/g3/g31
,2 3x/g100/g3/g31/g176
/g176/g176
/g174
/g176
/g176/g100/g3/g31/g3/g3/g3/g176
/g176/g100 /g176/g175F(x) =
133
12
33 23
Fig. 11.7
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 189 16-12-2022 16:50:37
190
XII - MathematicsSolution:
Since X denotes the total score in two throws, it takes on the values 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.
From the Sample space S, we have
Values of the
Random Variable23456Total
Number of elements
in inverse images141012 9 36
PX()=2 = 1
36, PX()=3 = 4
36
PX()=4 = 10
36, PX()=5 = 12
36, and
PX()=6 = 9
36.
(i) Probability mass function is
x23456
fx() 1
36 4
36 10
36 12
36 9
36
(ii) Cumulative distribution function
By definition of the cumulative
distribution function for discrete random
variable we have
Fx() = PX xP Xxi
xxi() () /g100/g32 /g32
/g100/g166 ,
PX x ()< = 0 for /g16/g102/g31/g31X2.
F()2 = PX PX xP XP X () () () () /g100/g32 /g32/g32 /g31/g14 /g32/g32 /g14/g32
/g16/g102/g166 22 201
361
362
.
F()3 = PX PX xP XP XP X () () () () () /g100/g32 /g32/g32 /g31/g14 /g32/g14 /g32/g32 /g14/g14 /g32
/g16/g102/g166 32 23 01
364
365
363
.
F()4 = PX PX xP XP XP XP X /g100/g11/g12 /g32/g32 /g32/g31 /g14/g32 /g14/g32 /g14/g32
/g16/g102/g166 42 2344
() () () () ()
= 01
364
3610
3615
36/g14/g14/g14 /g32 .
F(5) = PX PX xP XP XP XP XP X () () () () () () () /g100/g32 /g32/g32 /g31/g14 /g32/g14 /g32/g14 /g32/g14 /g32
/g16/g102/g166 5 223455
= 01
364
3610
3612
3627
36/g14/g14/g14/g14 /g32 .12 34 5 6
Probability mass functio nOy
xf (x)
1
364
3610
3612
36
9
36
1
3610
36
5
36
Fig. 11.8Sample space S
II
I 122333
1 233444
2 344555
2 344555
3 455666
3 455666
3 455666
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 190 16-12-2022 16:50:43

Probability Distributions191 F()6 = PX PX x () () /g100/g32 /g32

/g16/g102/g166 66
= PX PX PX PX PX PX () () () () () () /g31/g14 /g32/g14 /g32/g14 /g32/g14 /g32/g14 /g32 2 23456
= 01
364
3610
3612
369
361 /g14/g14/g14/g14/g14 /g32.
Therefore the cumulative distribution function is
02
1
3623
5
3634
15
3645
27
3656
1for
for
for
for
for
f−∞<<
≤<
≤<
≤<
≤<x
x
x
x
x
oor 6≤< ∞










x
(iii) PX()36/g100/g31 = PX xP XP XP Xi
x() () () () /g32/g32 /g32/g14 /g32/g14 /g32
/g32/g166 345
35

=4
3610
3612
3626
36/g14/g14 /g32 .
(iv) PX()≥4 = PX xi
x()/g32
/g32/g102
/g166
4
= PX PX PX () () () /g32/g14 /g32/g14 /g32 456
= 10
3612
369
3631
36/g14/g14 /g32 .
11.3.5 Probability Mass Function from Cumulative Distribution Function
For a discrete random variable X, the cumulative distribution function F has jumps at each of
the xi, and is constant between successive xsi′. The height of the jump at xi is fxi(); in this way the
probability at xican be retrieved from F.y
Fig. 11.9
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 191 16-12-2022 16:50:46

192
XII - Mathematics Suppose X is a discrete random variable taking the values xx x12 3 ,, ,■ such that xx x12 3<<■
and Fxi()is the distribution function. Then the probability mass function fxi()is given by
fx Fx Fxii i () () () /g32/g16/g161, i=123,, ,■
Note
The jump of a function Fx() at xa= is Fa Fa() ()+−− . Since F is non-decreasing and
continuous to the right, the jump of a cumulative distribution function F is PX xF xF x () () () /g32/g32 /g16/g16.
Here the jump (because of discontinuity) acts as a probability. That is, the set of discontinuities of a
cumulative distribution function is at most countable!
Example 11.9
Find the probability mass function fx()of the discrete random variable X whose cumulative
distribution function Fx() is given by
Fxx
x
x
x
x().
../g32/g16/g102/g31/g31 /g16
/g16/g100 /g31/g16
/g16/g100 /g31
/g100/g31
/g100/g31 /g102/g173
/g174/g176
/g176/g176
/g175/g176
/g176/g17602
0252 1
0601 0
0900 1
11
Also find (i) PX()<0 and (ii) PX()/g116/g161.
Solution
Since X is a discrete random variable, from the given data, X takes on the values
−−21 01 ,, ,and.
For discrete random variable X, by definition, we have fx()=PX x ()=
Therefore left hand limit of F(x) at x/g32/g162 is F()−−2
f()−2 = PX F F () () .. () /g32/g16 /g32/g16 /g16/g32 /g16/g32 /g16/g1622 0250 025 2 .
Similarly for other jump points, we have
f()−1 = PX FF () () () .. . /g32/g16 /g32/g16 /g16/g16 /g32/g16 /g32 11 20 60 0250 35.
f()0 = PX FF () () () .. . /g32/g32 /g16/g16 /g32/g16/g32 00 10 90 0600 30,
f()1 = PX FF () () () .. /g32/g32 /g16/g32 /g16/g32 11 01 0900 10.
Therefore the probability mass function is
x−2−1 0 1
fx() 025 . 035 . 030 . 010 .
The distribution function Fx() has jumps at x/g32/g16 /g1621 0 ,, , and 1. The jumps are respectively
0250 35 030 ., .,., and 01. is shown in the figure given below .
These jumps determine the probability mass function
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability [Link] 19212th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability [Link]

Probability Distributions193Fig. 11.10

(i) PX()<0 = PX xP XP X () () () .. . /g32/g32 /g32/g16 /g14/g32 /g16/g32 /g14/g32
/g16/g102/g16
/g1661
21 0250 35 060.
(ii) PX()/g116/g161 = PX xP XP XP X () () () () .. .. == =− += += =+ +=
−∑
11
10 10 35 0300 10 075
Example 11.10
A random variable X has the following probability mass function.
x123456
fx() k 2k 6k 5k 6k 10k
Find (i) PX()26<< (ii) PX()25/g100/g31 (iii) PX()£4 (iv) PX()3<
Solution
Since the given function is a probability mass function, the total probability is one. That is
fx
x()/g32/g166 1.
From the given data kk kk kk /g14/g14 /g14/g14 /g14/g32 2 656 10 1
30 11
30kk/g32/g159 /g32
Therefore the probability mass function is
x123456
f(x)1
302
306
305
306
3010
30
(i) PX()26<< = ff f () () () 3456
305
306
3017
30/g14/g14 /g32/g14 /g14/g32 .
(ii) PX()25/g100/g31 = ff f 2342
306
305
3013
30/g11/g12/g14/g11/g12/g14/g11/g12/g32/g14 /g14/g32 .
(iii) PX()≤4 = ff ff ()1 2341
302
306
305
3014
30/g14/g11/g12/g14/g11/g12/g14/g11/g12/g32 /g14/g14/g14 /g32 .
(iv) PX()3< = ff f () () () 4565
306
3010
3021
30/g14/g14 /g32/g14 /g14/g32 .2/g16 1/g16 O 1 21
[Link]
[Link].10
xy yF(x)
2/g16 1/g16 O 1 21
0.50
[Link]
0.10
xf (x)
1
0.50
Distribution function
and jumps at each of ixF(x)Probability mass function f (x)Jumps
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 193 16-12-2022 16:50:57

194
XII - MathematicsEXERCISE 11.2
1. Three fair coins are tossed simultaneously. Find the probability mass function for number of
heads occurred.
2. A six sided die is marked ‘1’ on one face, ‘3’ on two of its faces, and ‘5’ on remaining three
faces. The die is thrown twice. If X denotes the total score in two throws, find
(i) the probability mass function (ii) the cumulative distribution function
(iii) PX()41 0 ≤< (iv) PX()≥6
3. Find the probability mass function and cumulative distribution function of number of girl
child in families with 4 children, assuming equal probabilities for boys and girls.
4. Suppose a discrete random variable can only take the values 0, 1, and 2.
The probability mass function is defined by
fxx
kx(),, ,/g32/g14/g32/g173
/g174/g176
/g175/g17621012
0for
otherwis e
Find (i) the value of k (ii) cumulative distribution function (iii) PX()≥1.
5. The cumulative distribution function of a discrete random variable is given by
Fxx
x
x
x
x
x().
.
.
./g32/g16/g102/g31/g31 /g16
/g16/g100 /g31
/g100/g31
/g100/g31
/g100/g31
/g100/g31 /g102/g173
/g17401
0151 0
0350 1
0601 2
0852 3
13/g176/g176
/g176
/g176
/g175/g176
/g176
/g176
Find ( i) the probability mass function () () () () iiPX iiiPX /g31/g11612and .
6. A random variable X has the following probability mass function.
x12345
fx() k222k 32k 2k 3k
Find (i) the value of k (ii) PX()25/g100/g31 (iii) PX()3<
7. The cumulative distribution function of a discrete random variable is given by
Fxx
x
x
x
x()=−∞<<
≤<
≤<
≤<
≤<00
1
201
3
512
4
523
9
1034
1for
for
for
for
for
foor4≤< ∞










x
Find (i) the probability mass function (ii) PX()<3 and (iii) PX()≥2.
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 194 16-12-2022 16:51:00

Probability Distributions19511.4 Continuous Distributions

In this section we learn
(i) Continuous random variable
(ii) Probability density function
(iii) Distribution function (Cumulative distribution function).
(iv) To determine distribution function from probability density function.
 (v) To determine probability density function from distribution function.
Sometimes a measurement such as current in a copper wire or length of lifetime of an electric
bulb, can assume any value in an interval of real numbers. Then any precision in the measurement is
possible. The random variable that represents this measurement is said to be a continuous random
variable. The range of the random variable includes all values in an interval of real numbers; that is,
the range can be thought of as a continuum of real numbers
11.4.1 The definition of continuous random variable
Definition 11.5 (Continuous Random Variable)
Let S be a sample space and let a random variable XS R :→ that takes on any value in a set
Iof ■. Then X is called a continuous random variable if PX x/g32/g11/g12 /g320for every x in I
11.4.2 Probability density function
Definition 11.6: (Probability density function)
A non-negative real valued function fx() is said to be a probability
density function if, for each possible outcome x, xa b /g143/g62/g64, of a continuous
random variable X having the property
Pa Xb fx dx
ab
() () /g100/g100 /g32/g179
Theorem 11.2 (Without proof)
A function f(.) is a probability density function for some continuous random variable X if
and only if it satisfies the following properties.
(i) fx()≥0, for every x and (ii) fx dx() /g32
/g16/g102/g102
/g1791 .
Note
It follows from the above definition, if X is a continuous random variable,
Pa Xb fx dx
ab
() () , /g100/g100 /g32/g179which means that PX af xdx
aa
() () /g32/g32 /g32 /g1790
That is probability when X takes on any one particular value is zero. Fig. 11.11()Pa Xb≤≤
a b x()fx
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 195 16-12-2022 16:51:03

196
XII - Mathematics11.4.3 Distribution function (Cumulative distribution function)
Definition 11.7 : (Cumulative Distribution Function)
The distribution function or cumulative distribution function Fx() of a continuous random
variable X with probability density f(x) is
Fx PX xf uduux
() () , =≤() =− ∞< <∞
−∞∫.
Remark
(1) In the discrete case, fa PX a /g11/g12 /g32/g32/g11/g12 is the probability that X takes the value a.
In the continuous case, fx/g11/g12at xa= is not the probability that X takes the value a,
that is fa/g11/g12/g122/g32/g11/g12PX a. If X is continuous type, PX a/g32/g11/g12 /g320 fora∈■.
(2) When the random variable is continuous, the summation used in discrete is replaced by
integration.
(3) For continuous random variable
Pa Xb Pa Xb Pa Xb Pa Xb () () () () /g31/g31 /g32/g100 /g31/g32 /g31/g100 /g32/g100 /g100
(4) The distribution function of a continuous random variable is known as Continuous Distribution
Function.

[Link] Properties of distribution function

For a continuous random variable X, the cumulative distribution function satisfies the following
properties.
(i) 01££Fx() .
(ii) Fx() is a real valued non-decreasing. That is, if xy<, then Fx Fy () ()£ .
(iii) Fx() is continuous everywhere.
(iv) lim( )
xFx F
/g111/g16/g102/g32/g16 /g102/g11/g12 /g320 and lim( )
xFx F
/g111/g102/g32/g14 /g102/g11/g12 /g321.
(v) PX xP Xx Fx /g33/g11/g12 /g32/g16 /g100/g11/g12 /g32/g16 /g11/g12 11 .
(vi) Pa Xb Fb Fa () () () /g31/g31 /g32/g16 .
Example 11.11
Find the constant C such that the function fxCx x()/g32/g31/g31 /g173
/g174
/g175214
0O therwise
is a density function, and compute (i) PX(. .) 15 35<< (ii) PX()£2 (iii) PX()3< .
Solution
Since the given function is a probability density function,
fx dx() /g32
/g16/g102/g102
/g1791.
That is fx dx fx dx fx dx () () () /g14/g14 /g32 /g179/g179 /g179/g102
/g16/g102 14
41
1.
From the given information, 12 3421()21fx x =
xf (x)
Area = 1
probability mass function f (x)
Fig. 11.12
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 196 16-12-2022 16:51:07

Probability Distributions197 00 12
14
41
dx Cxdx dx /g14/g14 /g32 /g179/g179 /g179/g102
/g16/g102.
030164 1
312 111
213
14
/g14/g170
/g172/g171/g186
/g188/g187/g14/g32 /g159/g16/g170
/g172/g171/g186
/g188/g187/g32/g159 /g32/g159 /g32 CxCC C , .
Therefore the probability density function is
fxxx()/g32/g31/g31/g173
/g174/g176
/g175/g1761
2114
02
Otherwis e
Since fx()is continuous, the probability that X is equal to any particular value is zero. Therefore
when the random variable is continuous, either or both of the signs < by ≥ and > by ≥ can be
interchanged. Thus
(i) PX PX PX PX(. .) (. .) (. .) (. .) 15 35 15 35 15 35 15 35/g31/g31 /g32/g100 /g31/g32 /g31/g100 /g32/g100 /g100
Therefore
PX(. .) 15 35<< = fx dx xdx ()
..
..
1535
2
15351
21 /g179/g179/g32
 =1
21 31
2135 15
33
1535 33x/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g32/g11/g12 /g16/g11/g12 /g167
/g169/g168/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g184
....
= 79
126.
(ii) PX fx dx fx dx fx dx () () () () /g100/g32 /g32/g14
/g16/g102 /g16/g102/g179/g179 /g179221
12

Therefore
PX fx dx fx dx fx dx () () () () /g100/g32 /g32/g14
/g16/g102 /g16/g102/g179/g179 /g179221
12
=+ =

 ∫01
211
21 32
12 3
12
xdxx
=1
2121
37
6333/g16 /g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g32 .
(iii) PX fx dx fx dx fx dx () () () () 3
34 34
/g31/g32 /g32/g14/g102/g102
/g179/g179 /g179
=1
2101
21 32
34 3
34xdxx/g14/g32/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 /g179.
=1
2143
337
6333/g16 /g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g3221()21fx x =
xf (x)
Area 79
126=
1.5 3.5 O
(1.5 3.5) =Px <<3.5
1.5()fxdx ∫
Fig. 11.13
Fig. 11.1412 3 421()21fx x =
xf (x)
Area = 7
63
2
1()fxdx =∫(2 ) Px ≤O
12 3421()21fx x /g32
xf (x)
Area =37
63
4
3(3 )( ) Px fxdx /g31/g32 /g179O
Fig. 11.15
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability [Link] 19712th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability [Link]

198
XII - Mathematics11.4.4 Distribution function from Probability density function
Both the probability density function and the cumulative distribution function (or distribution
function) of a continuous random variable X contain all the probabilistic information of X. The
probability distribution of X is determined by either of them. Let us learn the method to determine
the distribution function F of a continuous random variable X from the probability density function
fx/g11/g12 of X and vice versa.
Example 11.12
If X is the random variable with probability density
function fx/g11/g12given by,
fxxx
xx /g11/g12/g32/g16/g100 /g31
/g16/g14 /g100/g31/g173
/g174/g176
/g175/g17611 2
32 3
0,
,
otherwis e
find (i) the distribution function Fx/g11/g12
(ii) PX(. .) 15 25 ≤≤
Solution
(i) By definition Fx PX xf udux
() () () =≤ =
−∞∫
When x<1 Fx() = PX xd ux
()≤= =
−∞∫00 .
When 12/g100/g31x Fx() = PX xd uu dux
()≤= +−()
−∞∫∫011
1
= 01
21
22
12
+−()



=−() uxx

When 23/g100/g31x Fx() = PX xd uu du udux

()≤= +−() +−()
−∞∫∫ ∫01 31
12
2
= 01
23
222
12
2+−()



+−−()



uux

= 10
213
213
2222−+−−()=−−() xx
When x≥3, Fx() = PX xd uu du udud ux
()≤= +−() +−() +
−∞∫∫ ∫∫01 301
12
23
3
= 01 301
12
23
3du ud uu du dux
−∞∫∫ ∫∫+−() +−() +1
x−3x− +
O 1 2 [Link].00
x()fx
probability density functio n
Fig. 11.16
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 198 16-12-2022 16:51:15

Probability Distributions199 = 01
23
2022
12
23
+−()



+−−()



+uu
=1
21
21 /g14/g32 .
These give Fxx
xx
xx
x(),
,
,=−∞<<
−()≤<
−−()≤<
≤< ∞





01
1
212
13
223
132
2
(ii) PX(. .) 15 25 ≤≤ = FF(. )( .) 25 15−
= 132 5
215 1
222
/g16/g16/g11/g12 /g167
/g169/g168/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g184/g16/g16 /g11/g12/g167
/g169/g168/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g184..
= 1750 25
2075...−=
or
PX(. .) 15 25 ≤≤ = fx dx xd xx dx /g11/g12 /g32/g16/g11/g12 /g14/g16 /g14/g11/g12 /g32 /g179/g179 /g179
1525
152
225
13 075
..
..
..
Check: (i) Whether Fx() is continuous everywhere.
(ii) From the Fig. 11.16, triangle area = =1
21 bh .
11.4.5 Probability density function from Probability distribution function.
Let us learn the method to determine the probability density function fx() from the distribution
function Fx() of a continuous random variable X.
Suppose Fx() is the distribution function of a continuous random variable X. Then the
probability density function fx/g11/g12is given by
fxdFx
dxFx ()()() /g32/g32 /g99, wherever derivative exists.
Example 11.13
If X is the random variable with distribution function Fx()given by,
Fxx
xx
x(),
,
,/g32/g31
/g100/g31
/g100/g173
/g174/g176
/g175/g17600
01
11
then find (i) the probability density function fx() (ii) PX(. .) 02 07££ .O 1 2 [Link].00
x()F x
Distribution functio n()F x
Fig. 11.17
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 199 16-12-2022 16:51:19

200
XII - MathematicsSolution
(i) Differentiating Fx()with respect to x at continuity points of fx(), we get
fx Fxx
x
x/g11/g12/g32/g99/g32/g31
/g100/g31
/g116/g173
/g174/g176
/g175/g176(),
,
,00
10 1
01
The pdf fx() is not continuous at x=0, or at x=1. We can define f()0 and f()1 in any
manner. Choosing f()01=, and f()10=.
Therefore the probability density function fx() is
fxx/g11/g12/g32/g100/g31 /g173
/g174
/g17510 1
0,
,o therwise
(ii) PX(. .) 02 07 ≤≤ = FF(. )( .) 07 02−
= 07 02 05 .. . /g16/g32
or
PX(. .) 02 07 ≤≤ = fx dx dx /g11/g12 /g32/g32 /g179/g179
0207
0207
10 5
..
..
..
Remark
By definition, PX xF xf udux
() () () ≤= =
−∞∫. Probability Pa Xb/g31/g31/g11/g12 can be obtained by
using either Fx() or fx().
Note
We may also define the above probability density function as
fxx/g11/g12/g173
/g174
/g175/g32/g31/g31 10 1
0,
,o therwise or fxx/g11/g12/g173
/g174
/g175/g32/g31/g100 10 1
0,
,o therwise or fxx/g11/g12/g173
/g174
/g175/g32/g100/g100 10 1
0,
,o therwise
Example 11.14
The probability density function of random variable X is given by fxkx()/g32/g100/g100 /g173
/g174
/g17515
0o therwise
Find (i) Distribution function (ii) PX()<3 (iii) PX()24<< (iv) PX()3≤
Solution
Since fx()is a probability density function, fx()≥0 and fx dx ()
/g16/g102/g102
/g179/g321.
 That is 00 11
15
5dx kdxd x
/g16/g102/g102
/g179/g179 /g179/g14/g14 /g32.
00 115/g14/g11/g12/g14/g32 /g159 kx 41k/g32/g159 k=1
4.
Therefore the probability density function is
fxx(),
,=≤≤

1
415
0o therwise
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 200 16-12-2022 16:51:26

Probability Distributions201 (i) Distribution function

The distribution function Fx() = PX xf udux
() () ≤=
−∞∫.
When x<1, Fx() = fu du duxx
()
−∞ −∞∫∫== 00 .
When 15/g100/g31x Fx() = fu du du du xxx
()
−∞ −∞∫∫ ∫=+ =−() 01
41
411
1.
When x≥5 Fx() = fu du du du duxx
()
−∞ −∞∫∫ ∫ ∫=+ += 01
4011
5 15
.
Thus Fx() = Fxx
xx
x(),
,
,./g32/g31
/g16/g100/g100
/g33/g173
/g174/g176/g176
/g175/g176
/g17601
1
415
15
(ii) PX()<3 = PX F () () ≤= =−= 3331
41
2 (since Fx() is continuous).
(iii) PX()24<< = PX FF () () () 24 423
41
41
2/g100/g100 /g32/g16 /g32/g16/g32 .
(iv) PX()3≤ = PX PX () () ≥= −< =− = 31 311
21
2.
Example 11.15
Let X be a random variable denoting the life time of an electrical equipment having probability
density function
fxke x
xx
()
./g32/g33
/g100/g173
/g174
/g175/g1620
00for
for
Find (i) the value of k (ii) Distribution function (iii) PX()<2
(iv) calculate the probability that X is at least for four unit of time (v) PX()=3.
Solution
(i) Since fx() is a probability density function, fx()≥0 and fx dx ()
/g16/g102/g102
/g179/g321
That is 00
2
0dx ke dxx
/g16/g102/g16/g102
/g179/g179/g14 = 1.
022
0/g14/g16/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g16/g102
kex
= 12120
/g159/g16
/g16/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g32/g159 /g32/g16/g102
keek .
Therefore the probability density function is
fx() = 20
002ex
xx/g16/g33
/g100/g173
/g174
/g175for
for
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 201 16-12-2022 16:51:32

202
XII - Mathematics (ii) Distribution function
By definition the distribution function Fx()=PX xf udux
() () ≤=
−∞∫
When x£0 Fx() = fu du duxx
()
−∞ −∞∫∫== 00 .
When x>0 Fx() = fu du du ed ueex
ux ux
x()
−∞ −∞−−
−∫∫ ∫=+ =−

=− 02 2210
2
02
02.
This gives Fx() = 00
102,f or
forx
exx/g100
/g16/g33/g173
/g174
/g175/g16 .
(iii) PX PX Fe e () () () /g31/g32 /g100/g32 /g32/g16 /g32/g16/g16/g117 /g1622 21 122 4 (since Fx() is continuous).
(iv) The probability that X is at least equal to four unit of time is
PX PX Fe e () () () () /g116/g32 /g16/g31 /g32/g16 /g32/g16 /g16/g32/g16/g117 /g1641 41 41 124 8.
(v) In the continuous case, fx/g11/g12at xa= is not the probability that X takes the value a, that is
fx/g11/g12at xa= is not equal to PX a/g32/g11/g12 . If X is continuous type, PX a/g32/g11/g12 /g320 for
a∈■.Therefore PX()==30 .
EXERCISE11.3
1. The probability density function of X is given by fxkxex
xx
()/g32/g33
/g100/g173
/g174
/g175/g1620
00for
for .
Find the value of k.
2. The probability density function of X is fxxx
xx ()/g32/g31/g31
/g16/g100 /g31/g173
/g174/g176
/g175/g17601
21 2
0o therwise .
Find (i) PX02 06 ../g100/g31/g11/g12 (ii) PX12 18 ../g100/g31/g11/g12 (iii) PX05 15 ../g100/g31/g11/g12
3. Suppose the amount of milk sold daily at a milk booth is distributed with a minimum of 200
litres and a maximum of 600 litres with probability density function
fxkx()/g32/g100/g100 /g173
/g174
/g175200 600
0o therwise
Find (i) the value of k (ii) the distribution function
(iii) the probability that daily sales will fall between 300 litres and 500 litres?
4. The probability density function of X is given by fxkx
xex
()/g32/g33
/g100/g173
/g174/g176
/g175/g176/g1630
00for
for
Find (i) the value of k (ii) the distribution function (iii) PX()<3
(iv) PX()5£ (v) PX()≤4.
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 202 16-12-2022 16:51:38

Probability Distributions203 5. If X is the random variable with probability density function fx() given by,
fxxx
xx /g11/g12/g32/g14/g16 /g100/g31
/g16/g14 /g100/g31/g173
/g174/g176
/g175/g176110
10 1
0,
,
otherwis e
then find (i) the distribution function Fx() (ii) PX(. .) −≤ ≤ 05 05
6. If X is the random variable with distribution function Fx() given by,
Fxx
xx x
x(),
,=−∞<<
+() ≤<
≤< ∞


00
1
201
112
then find (i) the probability density function fx() (ii) PX(. .) 03 06££
11.5 Mathematical Expectation
One of the important characteristics of a random variable is its expectation. Synonyms for
expectation are expected value, mean, and first moment.
The definition of mathematical expectation is driven by conventional idea of numerical average.
The numerical average of nnumbers, say aa aan 12 3 ,, ,,■ is
aa aa
nn 12 3++++■ .
The average is used to summarize or characterize the entire collection of n numbers
123, , ,,n aaa a ■ , with single value.
Illustration 11.7
Consider ten numbers 6, 2, 5, 5, 2, 6, 2, 4, 1, 5− .
The average is 62 5526 2415
103/g14/g14 /g14/g14 /g14/g14 /g16/g14 /g14/g32.
If ten numbers 6, 2, 5, 5, 2, 6, 2, , 1, 5−4 are considered as the values of a random variable X the
probability mass function is given by
x–41256
()PX x =1
101
103
103
102
10
The above calculation for average can also be rewritten as
/g16/g117 /g14/g117 /g14/g117 /g14/g117 /g14/g117 /g32 41
1011
1023
1053
1062
103.
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 203 16-12-2022 16:51:41

204
XII - Mathematics This illustration suggests that the mean or expected value of any random variable may be obtained
by the sum of the product of each value of the random variable by its corresponding probability.
So average /g32/g166 (value of x) × (probability)
This is true if the random variable is discrete. In the case of continuous random variable, the
mathematical expectation is essentially the same with summations being replaced by integrals.
Two quantities are often used to summarize a probability distribution of a random variable X. In
terms of statistics one is central tendency and the other is dispersion or variability of the probability
distribution. The mean is a measure of the centre tendency of the probability distribution, and the
variance is a measure of the dispersion, or variability in the distribution. But these two measures do
not uniquely identify a probability distribution. That is, two different distributions can have the same
mean and variance. Still, these measures are simple, and useful in the study of the probability
distribution of X.
11.5.1 Mean
Definition 11.8 : (Mean)
Suppose X is a random variable with probability mass (or) density function fx/g11/g12. The
expected value or mean or mathematical expectation of X, denoted by EX()or µ is
 EXxfxX
xfxdxXx
()()
()/g32/g173
/g174/g176/g176
/g175/g176
/g176/g166
/g179
/g16/g102/g102if isdiscrete
if iscontinuous
The expected value is in general not a typical value that the random variable can take on. It is
often helpful to interpret the expected value of a random variable as the long-run average value of the
variable over many independent repetitions of an experiment.
Theorem 11.3 (Without proof)
Suppose X is a random variable with probability mass (or) density function fx/g11/g12. The
expected value of the function gX/g11/g12, a new random variable is
Eg Xgx fx gx
gx fx dx gxx
(( ))() () ()
() () ()=∑ if isdiscrete
if iscontin uuous
−∞∞
∫



If gX xk()=the above theorem yield the expected value called the k-th moment about the origin
of the random variable X.
Therefore the k-th moment about the origin of the random variable X is
EXxf xX
xf xdxXkk
x
k()()
()/g32/g173
/g174/g176/g176/g166
/g179
/g16/g102/g102if isdiscrete
if iscontinuous
/g175/g175/g176
/g176
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 204 16-12-2022 16:51:43

Probability Distributions205Note
When k=0, by definition,
Efx X
fx dx Xx
()()
()11
1==
=

∑
∫
−∞∞if isdiscrete
if iscontinuous 

11.5.2 Variance
Variance is a statistical measure that tells us how measured data vary from the average value
of the set of data. Mathematically, variance is the mean of the squares of the deviations from the
arithmetic mean of a data set. The terms variability, spread, and dispersion are synonyms, and refer to
how spread out a distribution is.
Definition 11.9: (Variance)
The variance of a random variable X denoted by Varo ro r () or () () XV Xx σσ22 is
VX EX EX EX () (( )) () /g32/g16 /g32/g1622/g80
Square root of variance is called standard deviation . That is standard deviation /g86/g32VX(). The
variance and standard deviation of a random variable are always non negative.
11.5.3 Properties of Mathematical expectation and variance
(i) EaXb aEXb () () /g14/g32 /g14, where a and b are constants
Proof
Let X be a discrete random variable
EaXb()+ = ax bf xi
ii /g14/g11/g12
/g32/g102
/g166
1() (by definition)
= axfx bfxii i
i() ()/g14 /g11/g12
/g32/g102
/g166
1
= ax fx bf xi
iii
i /g32/g102
/g32/g102
/g166/g166 /g14
11() ()
= aEXb() /g14/g11/g121 ■ fxi
i()/g32/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184
/g32/g102
/g166 1
1
EaXb()+ = aEXb()+.
Similarly, when X is a continuous random variable, we can prove it, by replacing summation by
integration.
Corollary 1: EaX() =aEX() ( when b=0)
Corollary 2: Eb() =b (when a=0)
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206
XII - Mathematics (ii) VarX EX EX () () () =− ()2 2
Proof
We know Ex() = µ
VarX() = EX()/g16/g802
= EX X ()222/g16/g14 /g80/g80
= EX EX ()222/g16 /g11/g12 /g14 /g80/g80 (Since µ is a constant)
= EX EX () ()22 222/g16/g14 /g32/g16 /g80/g80 /g80/g80
VarX() = EX EX () ()2 2/g16/g11/g12
An alternative formula to compute variance of a random variable X is
σ2 = Var () () () XE XE X /g32/g16 /g11/g122 2
(iii) Var(aX +b)a VarX =2() where a and b are constants
Proof
VaraXb()+ = EaXb EaXb () () /g14/g16 /g14 /g11/g122
= EaXb aEXb /g14/g16 /g16 /g11/g12 () )2
= EaXa EX/g16 /g11/g12 ()2
= Ea XE X −()() ()2
= aE XE X2 2/g16/g11/g12 () .
Hence VaraXb()+ = aVarX2()
Corollary 3: VaX() =aVX2() (when b=0)
Corollary 4: Vb() =0 (when a=0)
Variance gives information about the deviation of the values of the random variable about the
mean µ. A smaller σ2 implies that the random values are more clustered about the mean, similarly,
a bigger σ2implies that the random values are more scattered from the mean.
Fig. 11.18()fx()fx
µµ
Deviation from mean Deviation from meanx x
Diff erent variance with same meanSmaller Varianc e Bigger varianc e
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 206 16-12-2022 16:51:53

Probability Distributions207 The above figure shows the pdfs of two continuous random variables whose curves are
bell-shaped with same mean but different variances.
Example 11.16
Suppose that fx()given below represents a probability mass function,
x123456
fx() c222c 32c 42cc 2c
Find (i) the value of c (ii) Mean and variance.
Solution
(i) Since fx() is a probability mass function, fx()≥0 for all x, and fx
x()/g32/g166 1.
Thus, fx
x()å = 1
cc cc cc22 22234 2 ++ +++ = 1
c=1
5 or −1
2.
Since fx()≥0 for all x, the possible value of c is 1
5.
Hence, the probability mass function is
x123456
fx()1
252
253
254
251
52
5
(ii) To find mean and variance, let us use the following table
x fx() xf x() xf x2()
11
251
251
25
22
254
258
25
33
259
2527
25
44
2516
2564
25
51
55
525
5
62
512
572
5
fx()/g166 /g321xf x()/g166 /g32115
25xf x2()å =585
25
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 207 16-12-2022 16:52:00

208
XII - Mathematics Mean : EX() = xf x() . /g166 /g32/g32115
2546
Variance : VX() = EX EX xf xx fx () () () ()2 2 22/g16/g11/g12 /g32/g16 /g11/g12 /g166/g166
= 585
25115
252
/g16/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 /g16 =23.40 21.16 =2.24
Therefore the mean and variance are 4.6 and 2.24 respectively.
Example 11.17
Two balls are chosen randomly from an urn containing 8 white and 4 black balls. Suppose
that we win Rs 20 for each black ball selected and we lose Rs10 for each white ball selected. Find the
expected winning amount and variance.
Solution
Let X denote the winning amount. The possible events of selection are (i) both balls are black,
or (ii) one white and one black or (iii) both are white. Therefore X is a random variable that can be
defined as
X (both are black balls) = ` 220()= ` 40
X(one black and one white ball) = ` 20− ` 10= `10
X (both are white balls) = ` ()/g16/g32 /g16 20 ` 20
Therefore X takes on the values 4010, and −20
Total number of balls n = 12
Total number of ways of selecting 2 balls = 12
21211
1266/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g32/g117
/g117/g32
Number of ways of selecting 2 black balls = 4
26/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g32
Number of ways of selecting one black ball and one white ball = 8
14
132/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g32
Number of ways of selecting 2 white balls = 8
228/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g32
Values of Random Variable X 40 10−20 Total
Number of elements in inverse images 6 32 28 66
Probability mass function is
X 40 10−20 Total
fx/g11/g126
6632
6628
661
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 208 16-12-2022 16:52:04

Probability Distributions209Mean :
 EX() = xf x() /g166 /g32/g152/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g14/g152/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g14/g16/g11/g12 /g152/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g32 406
661032
662028
660
That is expected winning amount is 0.
Variance :
EX()2 = xf x22 2 2406
661032
662028
66400() /g166 /g32/g152/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g14/g152/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g14/g16/g11/g12 /g152/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g3200
11
EX()/g11/g122 = 002=
This gives VX() = EX EX () ()2 24000
1104000
11/g16/g11/g12 /g32/g16 /g32
Therefore EX() = 0 and Var()X=4000
11.
Example 11.18
Find the mean and variance of a random variable X, whose probability density function is
fxexx
()/g32/g116 /g173
/g174
/g175/g16/g79/g79for
otherwis e0
0
Solution
Observe that the given distribution is continuous
Mean :
By definition µ = EX xfxdx () () /g32
/g16/g102/g102
/g179
= 00
0/g79/g79/g79/g79ed xx ed xxx/g16
/g16/g102/g16/g102
/g11/g12 /g14/g11/g12 /g179/g179
=0
0/g14 /g11/g12/g16/g102
/g179/g79/g79xe dxx
= 01
2/g14/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 /g79/g79 (using Gamma integral for positive integer n, xe dxnnx
n/g16
/g14/g102
/g32 /g179/g68
/g681
0)
= 1
λ
Variance :
By definition, EX()2 = xf xdx2()
/g16/g102/g102
/g179
= 00
2
0/g79/g79/g79/g79ed xx ed xxx/g16
/g16/g102/g16/g102
/g11/g12 /g14 /g11/g12 /g179/g179
= 02
0/g14 /g11/g12/g16/g102
/g179/g79/g79xe dxx
= 022
32/g14/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g32 /g79/g79/g79 (using Gamma integral for positive integer)(We can also use integration
by parts or Bernoulli’s
formula)
(We can also use integration
by parts or Bernoulli’s
formula)
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 209 16-12-2022 16:52:09

210
XII - Mathematics Therefore VarX() = EX EX() ()2 2−()
= 21 1
22
2/g79/g79 /g79/g16/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g32
Hence the mean and variance are respectively 1
λ and 1
2λ.
EXERCISE 11.4
1. For the random variable X with the given probability mass function or probability density
function as below, find the mean and variance.
(i) fxx
x/g11/g12/g32/g32
/g32/g173
/g174/g176/g176
/g175/g176
/g1761
1025
1
5013 4,
,,, (ii) fxxx /g11/g12/g32/g16/g32/g173/g174/g1754
612 3,,
(iii) f xxx()=−< < 

21 1
0()
otherwis e2
(iv) fxexx
()=>

−1
20
02for
otherwis e
2. T wo balls are drawn in succession without replacement from an urn containing four red balls
and three black balls. Let X be the possible outcomes drawing red balls. Find the probability
mass function and mean for X.
3. If µ and σ2 are the mean and variance of the discrete random variable X, and EX()/g14/g3231 0
and EX()/g14/g323 1162, find µ and σ2.
4. Four fair coins are tossed once. Find the probabili ty mass function, mean and variance for
number of heads occurred.
5. A commuter train arrives punctually at a station every half hour. Each morning, a student
leaves his house to the train station. Let X denote the amount of time, in minutes, that the
student waits for the train from the time he reaches the train station. It is known that the pdf of
X is
fxx()/g32/g31/g31/g173
/g174/g176
/g175/g1761
3003 0
0e lsewhere
Obtain and interpret the expected value of the r andom variable X.
6. The tim e to failure in thousands of hours of an electronic equipment used in a manufactured
computer has the density function
fxexx
()/g32/g33 /g173
/g174
/g175/g1630
03
elsewher e .
Find the expected life of this electronic equipm ent.
7. The probability density function of the random variable X is given by
fxxe x
xx
()/g32/g33
/g100/g173/g174
/g175/g1616 0
004for
for
find the mean and variance of X.
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability [Link] 21012th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability [Link]

Probability Distributions21111.6 Theoretical Distributions: Some Special Discrete Distributions

In the previous section we have dealt with various general probability distributions with mean
and variance. We shall now learn some discrete probability distributions of special importance.
In this section we learn the following discrete distributions.
(i) The One point distribution (ii) The Two point distribution
(iii) The Bernoulli distribution (iv) The Binomial distribution.
11.6.1 The One point distribution
The random variable X has a one point distribution if there exists a point x0 such that, the
probability mass function fx() is defined as fx PX x () ()= = =0 1.
That is the probability mass is concentrated at one point.
The cumulative distribution function is
Fxxx
xx()/g32/g16/g102/g31/g31
/g100/g31 /g102/g173
/g174
/g1750
10
0
Mean :
EX() = xf xx x
x()/g32/g117 /g32 /g166 001
Variance :
VX() = EX EX xf xx xx
x() () ()2 2 2
02
02
020 /g16/g11/g12 /g32/g16 /g11/g12 /g32/g16/g32 /g166
Therefore the mean and the variance are respectively x0 and 0.
11.6.2 The Two point distribution
(a) Unsymmetrical Case: The random variable X has a two point distribution if there exists two
values xx12and, such that
fxpx x
px x()/g32/g32
/g16/g32/g173
/g174
/g175for
for1
21 where 01<<p .
The cumulative distribution function is
Fxxx
px xx
xx()=<
≤<
≥

0
11
12
2if
if
if
Mean :
EX() = xf xx px pp xq x
x() () /g32/g117 /g14/g117 /g16/g32 /g14 /g166 12 12 1 where qp/g32/g161 .
Variance :
VX() = EX EX xf xp xq x
x() () ()2 2 2
122/g16/g11/g12 /g32/g16 /g14/g11/g12 /g166
= xp xq px qx pqxx12
22
122
212/g14 /g11/g12 /g16/g14/g11/g12 /g32/g16 /g11/g12
The mean and the variance are respectively px qx12+ and pqxx212/g16/g11/g12
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212
XII - Mathematics (b) Symmetrical Case:
When pq= =1
2, the two point distribution becomes
fxxx
xx()/g32/g32
/g32/g173
/g174/g176/g176
/g175/g176
/g1761
2
1
21
2for
for
and the cumulative distribution function is
Fxxx
xx x
xx()/g32/g31
/g100/g31
/g116/g173
/g174/g176/g176
/g175/g176
/g1760
1
2
11
12
2if
if
if
The mean and variance respectively are xx12
2+ and xx212
4/g16/g11/g12.
11.6.3 The Bernoulli distribution
Independent trials having constant probability of success p were first studied
by the Swiss mathematician Jacques Bernoulli (1654–1705). In his book The Art
of Conjecturing , published by his nephew Nicholas eight years after his death
in 1713, Bernoulli showed that if the number of such trials were large, then the
proportion of them that were successes would be close to p.
In probability theory , the Bernoulli distribution , named after Swiss
mathematician Jacob Bernoulli is the discrete probability distribution of
a random variable . A Bernoulli experiment is a random experiment, where the
outcomes is classified in one of two mutually exclusive and exhaustive ways, say
success or failure (example: heads or tails, defective item or good item, life or death or many other
possible pairs). A sequence of Bernoulli trails occurs when a Bernoulli experiment is performed
several independent times so that the probability of success remains the same from trial to trial. Any
nontrivial experiment can be dichotomized to yield Bernoulli model.
Definition 11.10: ( Bernoulli’s distribution)
Let X be a random variable associated with a Bernoulli trial by defining it as
X (success) = 1 and X(failure) = 0, such that
fxpx
qp xp ()/g32/g32
/g32/g16 /g32/g173
/g174
/g175/g31/g311
1001 where ,
then X is called a Bernoulli random variable and fx() is called the Bernoulli distribution.
Or equivalently
If a random variable X is following a Bernoulli’s distribution, with probability p of success can be
denoted as XB erp■ (), where p is called the parameter, then the probability mass function of X is
fx pp xxx() () ,, /g32/g16 /g32/g1610 11
Jacob Bernoulli
(1654 - 1705)
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 212 16-12-2022 16:52:19

Probability Distributions213 The cumulative distribution of Bernoulli’s distribution is

Fxx
qp x
x()=<
=− ≤<
≥

00
10 1
11if
if
if
Mean :
EX() = xf xp pp
x() () /g32/g117 /g14/g117 /g16/g32 /g166 10 1 ,
Note that, since X takes only the values 0 and 1, its expected value p is “never seen”.
Variance :
 VX() = EX EX xf xp
x() () ()2 2 22/g16/g11/g12 /g32/g16/g166
= 10 122 2pq pp pp q /g14/g11/g12 /g16/g32 /g16/g32() where qp/g32/g161
If X is a Bernoulli’s random variable which follows Bernoulli distribution with parameter p, the
mean µ and variance σ2 are
/g80/g32p and /g862/g32pq
When pq= =1
2, the Bernoulli’s distribution become
fxx
x()/g32/g32
/g32/g173
/g174/g176/g176
/g175/g176
/g1761
20
1
21for
for
and the cumulative distribution is
Fxx
x
x()=<
≤<
≥


00
1
201
11if
if
if
The mean and variance are respectively are 1
2 and 1
4
11.6.4 The Binomial Distribution
The Binomial Distribution is an important distribution which applies in some cases for repeated
independent trials where there are only two possible outcomes: heads or tails, success or failure,
defective item or good item, or many other such possible pairs. The probability of each outcome can
be calculated using the multiplication rule, perhaps with a tree diagram.
Suppose a coin is tossed once. Let X denote the number of heads. Then XB erp■ () , because we
get either head X/g32/g11/g12 1 or tail X/g32/g11/g12 0with probability p or 1−p.
Suppose a coin is tossed ntimes. Let X denote the number of heads. Then X takes on the values
0, 1, 2, …, [Link] probability for getting x number of heads is given by
PX xn
xppxn x() () /g32/g32/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 /g16/g161 , x = 0, 1, 2, ..., n.
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214
XII - Mathematics Xx=, corresponds to the combination of x heads in n tosses, that is n
x/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 ways of heads and
remaining nx− tails. Hence, the probability for each of those outcomes is equal to ppxn x() . 1−−
Binomial theorem is suitable to apply when n is small number less than 30.
Definition 11.11: Binomial random variable
A discrete random variable Xis called binomial random variable, if X is the number of
successes in n-repeated trials such that
(i) the n- repeated trials are independent and n is finite
 (ii) each trial results only two possible outcomes, labelled as ‘success’ or ‘failure’
(iii) the probability of a success in each trial, denoted as p, remains constant.
Definition 11.12 : Binomial distribution
The binomial random variable X equals the number of successes with probability p for a success
and qp/g32/g161 for a failure in n-independent trials, has a binomial distribution denoted by
XB np■ (, ). The probability mass function of X is
fxn
xpp xnxn x() () ,, ,,..., . /g32/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 /g16/g32/g1610 12
The name of the distribution is obtained from the binomial expansion . For constants a and b, the
binomial expansion is
abn
xabn
xn
xn x/g14/g11/g12 /g32/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184
/g32/g16/g166
0
Let p denote the probability of success on a single trial. Then, by using the binomial expansion
with ap bp /g32/g32 /g16 and1 , we see that the sum of the probabilities for a binomial random variable is 1.
Since each trial in the experiment is classified into two outcomes, {success, failure}, the distribution
is called a “bi’’-nomial.
If X is a binomial random variable which follows binomial distribution with parameters
pnand, the mean µ and variance σ2 are
/g80/g32np and /g8621/g32/g16np p ()
The expected value is in general not a typical value that the random variable can take on. It is
often helpful to interpret the expected value of a random variable as the long-run average value of the
variable over many independent repetitions of an experiment. The shape of a binomial
distribution is symmetrical when p=[Link] when n is large.
When pq= =1
2, the binomial distribution becomes
fxn
xxnxn x
() ,, ,,..., . /g32/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 /g32/g161
21
201 2
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 214 16-12-2022 16:52:26

Probability Distributions215 That is

fxn
xxnn
() ,, ,,..., . /g32/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 /g321
201 2
The mean and variance are respectively are n
2 and n
4
Example 11.19
Find the binomial distribution for each of the following.
(i) Five fair coins are tossed once and X denotes the number of heads.
 (ii) A fair die is rolled 10 times and X denotes the number of times 4 appeared.
Solution
(i) Given that five fair c oins are tossed once. Since the coins are fair coins the probability of
getting an head in a single coin is p=1
2and qp/g32/g16 /g32 11
2
Let X denote the number of heads that appear in five coins. X is a binomial random variable that
takes on the values 0, 1,2,3,4 and 5, with np= =51
2and .That is XB■ 51
2,./g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184
Therefore the binomial distribution is
fx() = n
xpp xnxn x /g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 /g16/g32/g16() ,, ,,..., 10 12
becomes
fx() = 5 1
21
201255
xxxx/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 /g32/g16
,, ,,...,.
That is fx() = 5 1
201255
xx/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 /g32 ,, ,,...,
(ii) A fair die is rolled ten times and X denotes the number of times 4 appeared. X is binomial
random variable that takes on the values 01 23 10 ,,, ,■ , with n=10 and p=1
6. That is
XB■ 101
6,./g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184
Probability of gettin g a four in a die is p=1
6 andqp/g32/g16 /g32 15
6.
Therefore the binom ial distribution is
fx() = 10 1
65601
21 010
xxxx/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 /g32/g16
,, ,,..., .
Example 11.20
A multiple choice examination has ten questions, each question has four distractors with exactly
one correct answer. Suppose a student answers by guessing and if X denotes the number of correct
answers, find (i) binomial distribution (ii) probability that the student will get seven correct answers
(iii) the probability of getting at least one correct answer.
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability [Link] 21512th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability [Link]

216
XII - MathematicsSolution
(i) Since X denotes the number of success, X can take the values 01 21 0 ,, ,...,
The probability for success is p=1
4 and for failure qp/g32/g16 /g32 13
4, and n=10.
Therefore X follows the binomial distribution XB■ 101
4,/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184.
This gives, fx() = 10 1
43
40121 010
xxxx/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 /g32/g16
,, ,,...,
(ii) Probability for seven correct answers is
PX()=7 = f()710
71
43
41203
471 07 3
10/g32/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 /g32/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g16

Probability that the student will get seven correct answers is 1203
43
10/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184.
(iii) Probability for at least one correct answer is
PX()≥1 = 11 10 /g16/g31 /g32/g16 /g32 PX PX () ()
= 110
01
43
401 0
/g16/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g32 13
410
/g16/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184.
Probability that the student will get for at least one correct answer is 13
410
/g16/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184.
Example 11.21
The mean and variance of a binomial variate X are respectively 2 and 1.5. Find
(i) PX()=0 (ii) PX()=1 (iii) PX()≥1
Solution
To find the probabilities, the values of the parameters n and p must be known.
Given that
Mean = np=2 and variance = =npq 15.
This gives npq
np = 15
23
4.=
q=3
4 and pq/g32/g16 /g32/g16 /g32 113
41
4
np = 2, gives np= =28. Therefore XB■ 81
4,/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 .
Therefore the binomial distribution is
PX x ()= = fxxxxx
() ,. ,... /g32/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 /g32/g168 1
43
401 288

(i) PX()=0 = f()08

01
43
43
408 08
/g32/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 /g32/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g16
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Probability Distributions217 (ii) PX()=1 = f()18

11
43
423
418 17
/g32/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g32/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g16
(iii) PX()≥1 = 11 10 13
48
/g16/g31 /g32/g16 /g32/g32 /g16/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 PX PX () ()
Example 11.22
On the average, 20% of the products manufactured by ABC Company are found to be defective.
If we select 6 of these products at random and X denotes the number of defective products find the
probability that (i) two products are defective (ii) at most one product is defective (iii) at least two
products are defective.
Solution
Given that n=6
Probability for selecting a defective product is20
100 , that is p=1
5.
Since X denotes the number defective products, X can take on the values 0126,, ,...,
The probability for defective (success) is p=1
5and for failure qp/g32/g16 /g32 14
5, and n=6
Therefore X follows the binomial distribution denoted by XB■ 61
5,./g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184
This gives fx() = 6 1
54
501266
xxxx/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 /g32/g16
,, ,,...,.
(i) Probability for two defective products is
PX()=2 = f()26
21
54
5154
526 2 4
6/g32/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 /g32/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g16

(ii) Probability for at most one defective product is

PX()≤1 = PX PX () () /g32/g14 /g32 01
=6
01
54
56
11
54
506 01 61/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 /g14/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g16/g16
=4
564
524
56 5
65/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g14/g11/g12/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184/g32/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184
Probability for at most one defective product is 24
55/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184.
(iii) Probability for at least two defective products is
PX()≥2 = 12 11 124
55
/g16/g31 /g32/g16 /g100/g32 /g16/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184 PX PX () ()
Probability for at least two defective products is 124
55
/g16/g167
/g169/g168/g183
/g185/g184.
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218
XII - MathematicsEXERCISE 11.5
1. Compute PX k ()=for the binomial distribution, Bn p (, ) where
(i) np k = = = 61
33 ,, (ii) np k = = = 101
54 ,, (iii) np k = = = 91
27 ,,
2. The probability that Mr.Q hits a target at any trial is1
4. Suppose he tries at the target
10 times. Find the probability that he hits the target (i) exactly 4 times (ii) at least one time.
3. Using binomial distribution find the mean and variance of X for the following experiments
(i) A fair coin is tossed 100 times, and X denote the number of heads.
(ii) A fair die is tossed 240 times, and X denote the number of times that four appeared.
4. The probability that a certain kind of component will survive a electrical test is 3
4. Find the
probability that exactly 3 of the 5 components tested survive.
 5. A retailer purchases a certain kind of electronic device from a manufacturer.
The manufacturer indicates that the defective rate of the device is 5%.
The inspector of the retailer randomly picks 10 items from a shipment. What is the probability
that there will be (i) at least one defective item (ii) exactly two defective items?
6. If the probability that a fluorescent light has a useful life of at least 600 hours is 0.9, find the
probabilities that among 12 such lights
(i) exactly 10 will have a useful life of at least 600 hours;
(ii) at least 11 will have a useful life of at least 600 hours;
(iii) at least 2 will not have a useful life of at least 600 hours.
7. The mean and standard deviation of a binomial variate X are respectively 6 and 2.
Find (i) the probability mass function (ii) PX()=3 (iii) PX()≥2.
8. If XB np■ (, ) such that 44 2 PX PX () ()== = and n=6. Find the distribution, mean and
standard deviation of X.
9. In a binomial distribution consisting of 5 independent trials, the probability of 1 and 2 successes
are 0.4096 and 0.2048 respectively. Find the mean and variance of the random variable.
EXERCISE 11.6
Choose the Correct or the most suitable answer from the given four alternatives :
1. Let X be random variable with probability density function
fx xx
x()=≥
<

21
013
Which of the following statement is correct?
(1) both mean and variance exist (2) mean exists but variance does not exist
(3) both mean and variance do not exist (4) variance exists but Mean does not exist.
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 218 16-12-2022 16:52:45

Probability Distributions219 2. A rod of length 2 l is broken into two pieces at random. The probability density function of
the shorter of the two pieces is
fx lxl
lx l()=<<
≤<

10
02
The mean and variance of the shorter of the two pieces are respectively
(1) ll
232
, (2) ll
262
, (3) ll,2
12 (4) ll
21 22
,
3. Consider a game where the player tosses a six-sided fair die. If the face that comes up is 6, the
player wins ` 36, otherwise he loses `k2, where k is the face that comes up { } 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 . k=
The expected amount to win at this game in ` is
(1) 19
6 (2) −19
6 (3) 3
2 (4) −3
2
4. A pair of dice numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 of a six-sided die and 1, 2, 3, 4 of a four-sided die
is rolled and the sum is determined. Let the random variable X denote this sum. Then the
number of elements in the inverse image of 7 is
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 4
5. A random variable X has binomial distribution with n = 25 and p = 0.8 then standard deviation
of X is
(1) 6 (2) 4 (3) 3 (4) 2
 6. Let X represent the difference between the number of heads and the number of tails obtained
when a coin is tossed n times. Then the possible values of X are
(1) i+2n, i = 0,1,2... n (2) 2 i–n, i = 0,1,2... n (3) n–i, i = 0,1,2... n (4) 2 i+2n, i = 0,1,2... n
7. If the function fx ax b ()=< <1
12for , represents a probability density function of a
continuous random variable X, then which of the following cannot be the value of a and b?
(1) 0 and 12 (2) 5 and 17 (3) 7 and 19 (4) 16 and 24
8. Four buses carrying 160 students from the same school arrive at a football stadium. The buses
carry, respectively, 42, 36, 34, and 48 students. One of the students is randomly selected. Let
X denote the number of students that were on the bus carrying the randomly selected student.
One of the 4 bus drivers is also randomly selected. Let Y denote the number of students on
that bus.
Then E(X) and E(Y) respectively are
(1) 5040, (2) 4050, (3)407540 ., (4) 4141,
9. Two coins are to be flipped. The first coin will land on heads with probability 0.6, the second
with Probability 0.5. Assume that the results of the flips are independent, and let X equal the
total number of heads that result. The value of E(X) is
(1) 011. (2) 11. (3) 11 (4)1
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220
XII - Mathematics 10. On a multiple-choice exam with 3 possible destructives for each of the 5 questions, the
probability that a student will get 4 or more correct answers just by guessing is
(1) 11
243 (2)10
243 (3) 1
243 (4) 5
243
11. If P(X = 0) = 1 − P(X = 1). If E(X) = 3Var(X), then P(X = 0) is
(1) 2
3 (2) 2
5 (3) 1
5 (4) 1
3
12. If X is a binomial random variable with expected
value 6 and varian ce 2.4, then P(X = 5) is
(1) 10
53
52
564





 (2) 10
53
510




(3) 10
53
52
546





 (4) 10
53
52
555






13. The random variab le X has the probability density function
fxax bx()=+< < 

01
0o therwise
and EX()=7
12, then a and b are respectively
(1) 1 and 1
2 (2) 1
2 and 1 (3) 2 and 1 (4) 1 and 2
14. Suppose that X takes on one of the values 0, 1, and 2. If for some constant k,
PX ik PX ii PX =() == − () == () = 11 201
7 for a nd , , then the value of k is
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 4
15. Which of the follo wing is a discrete random variable?
I. The number of cars crossing a particular signal in a day.
II. The number of customers in a queue to buy train tickets at a moment.
III. The time taken to complete a telephone call.
(1) I and II (2) II only (3) III only (4) II and III
16. If fxxx a()=≤≤ 

20
0o therwise is a probability density function of a random variable, then the
value of a is
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 4
17. The probability mas s function of a random variable is defined as:
x –2 –1 0 1 2
( )fx k 2k 3k 4k 5k
Then E(X) is equal to:
(1) 1
15 (2) 1
10 (3)1
3 (4) 2
3
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability [Link] 22012th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability [Link]

Probability Distributions221 18. Let X have a Bernoulli distribution with mean 0.4, then the variance of (2 X–3) is
(1) 0.24 b) 0.48 (3) 0.6 (4) 0.96
19. If in 6 trials, X is a binomial variable which follows the relation 9 P(X=4) = P(X=2), then the
probability of success is
(1)0.125 (2) 0.25 (3) 0.375 (4) 0.75
20. A computer salesperson knows from his past experience that he sells computers to one in
every twenty customers who enter the showroom. What is the probability that he will sell a
computer to exactly two of the next three customers?
(1) 57
203 (2) 57
202 (3) 19
203
3 (4) 57
20
SUMMARY
• A random variable X is a function defined on a sample space S into the real numbers ■ such
that the inverse image of points or subset or interval of ■ is an event in S, for which probability
is assigned.
• A random variable X is defined on a sample space S into the real numbers ■ is called discrete
random variable if the range of X is countable, that is, it can assume only a finite or countably
infinite number of values, where every value in the set S has positive probability with total one.
• If X is a discrete random variable with discrete values x1, x2, x3,... xn..., then the function denoted
by f(.) or p(.) and defined by f(xk) = P(X = xk) for k = 1,2,3,... n,... is called the probability mass
function of X
• The function f(x) is a probability mass function if
(i) f(xk) ≥ 0 for k = 1,2,3,... n,... and (ii) fxk
k()= ∑ 1
• The cumulative distribution function F(x) of a discrete random variable X, taking the values
x1, x2, x3,... such that x1 < x2 < x3 < … with probability mass function f(xi) is
Fx P(Xx fx xi
xxi(( ), )= )=≤∈
≤∑ ■
• Suppose X is a discrete random variable taking the values x1, x2, x3,... such that x1 < x2 < x3,...
and F(xi) is the distribution function. Then the probability mass function f(xi) is given by f(xi) =
F(xi) – F(xi–1), i = 1,2,3, ...
• Let S be a sample space and let a random variable X : S → R that takes any value in a set I of ■.
Then X is called a continuous random variable if P(X = x ) = 0 for every x in I
• A non-negative real valued function f(x) is said to be a probability density function if, for each
possible outcome x, x ∈ [a,b] of a continuous random variable X having the property
Pa xb fx dx
ab
() = ≤≤ ∫()
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 221 16-12-2022 16:52:52

222
XII - Mathematics• Suppose F(x) is the distribution function of a continuous random variable X. Then the probability
density function f(x) is given by
fxdFx
dxFx ()()() == ′, whenever derivative exists.
• Suppose X is a random variable with probability mass or density function f(x) The expected
value or mean or mathematical expectation of X, denoted by E(x) or µ is
EXxfxX
xfxx Xx()()
()d=∑
∫
−∞∞if is discrete
if is continuous

• The variance of the random variable X denoted by V(X) or σ2 (or σx2) is
V(X) = E(X – E (X))2 = E(X – µ )2
Properties of Mathematical expectation and variance
(i) E(aX + b ) = aE(X) + b, where a and b are constants
Corollary 1: E(aX) = aE(X) ( when b = 0)
Corollary 2: E(b) = b (when a = 0)
(ii) Var(X) = E(X 2) – (E(X))2
(iii) Var(aX + b ) = a2Var(X) where a and b are constants
Corollary 3: V(aX) = a2V(X) (when b = 0)
Corollary 4: V(b) = 0 (when a = 0)
• Let X be a random variable associated with a Bernoulli trial by defining it as X (success) = 1 and
X (failure) = 0, such that
fxpx
qp xp ()==
=− =

1
10where 0 < < 1
• X is called a Bernoulli random variable and f(x) is called the Bernoulli distribution.
• If X is a Bernoulli’s random variable which follows Bernoulli distribution with parameter p, the
mean µ and variance σ2 are
/g80/g32p and /g862/g32pq
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 222 16-12-2022 16:52:53

Probability Distributions223• A discrete random variable X is called binomial random variable, if X is the number of successes
in n-repeated trials such that
(i) The n- repeated trials are independent and n is finite
(ii) Each trial results only two possible outcomes, labelled as ‘success’ or ‘failure’
(iii) The probability of a success in each trial, denoted as p, remains constant
• The binomial random variable X equals the number of successes with probability p for a success
and qp/g32/g161 for a failure in n-independent trials, has a binomial distribution denoted by
XB np■ (, ). The probability mass function of X is fn
xpp xnxn x(x)( ), ,, ,..., . =

−=−10 12
• If X is a binomial random variable which follows binomial distribution with parameters p and n,
the mean µ and variance σ2 are µ = np and σ2 = np(1 – p).
ICT CORNER
[Link] or Scan the QR Code
Open the Browser, type the URL Link given (or) Scan the QR code.
GeoGebra work book named “ 12th Standard Mathematics Vol-2 ” will open. In
the left side of work book there are chapters related to your text book. Click on
the chapter named “ Probability Distributions ”. You can see several work sheets
related to the chapter. Go through all the work sheets.
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 11_Probability Distributions_29-[Link] 223 16-12-2022 16:52:54

"Young man, in mathematics you don’t understand things.

You just get used to them".
-John von Neumann
12.1 Introduction
■ Mathematics■ can■be■broadly■classified■into■two■categories:■ Continuous
Mathematics −■It■is■based■upon■the■results■concerning■ the■set■of■real■numbers■
which■is■uncountably infinite .■It■is■characterized■ by■the■fact■that■between■any■two■
real■numbers,■there■is■always■a■set■of■uncountably■ infinite■numbers.■For■example,■a■
function■in■continuous■ mathematics■ can■be■plotted■in■a■smooth■curve■without■break.■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■
Discrete Mathematics −■It■involves■distinct■values■which■are■either■ finite
or countably infinite ;■i.e.■between■any■two■points,■there■are■finite■or■countably■
infinite■number■of■points.■For■example,■if■we■have■a■finite■set■of■objects,■the■
function■can■be■defined■as■a■list■of■ordered■pairs■having■these■objects,■and■can■
be■presented■as■a■complete■list■of■those■pairs.
■ The■mathematicians■ who■lived■in■the■latter■part■of■the■19th and early in
the 20th■centuries■developed■ a■new■branch■of■mathematics■ called■ discrete mathematics consisting■ of■
concepts■■based■on■either■ finite or countably infinite sets■like■the■set■of■natural■numbers.■These■sets■are■
called■discrete■sets■and■the■beauty■of■such■sets■is■that,■one■can■find■that■a■one-to-one■ correspondence ■
can■be■defined■from■these■sets■onto■the■set■of■natural■numbers.■So,■the■elements■of■a■discrete■set■can■b
arranged■as■a■sequence.■This■special■feature■of■discrete■sets■cannot■be■found■in■any■uncountable■ set■like■
the■set■of■real■numbers■where■the■elements■are■distributed■continuously■throughout■without■any■gap. ■
■ Everyone■ is■aware■of■the■fact■that■the■application■ of■computers■ is■playing■an■important■role■in■
every■walk■of■our■lives.■Consequently■ the■computer science has■become■partially■a■science■of■clear■
understanding■ and■concise■description■ of■computable■ discrete■sets.■Also■the■modern■programming■
languages■are■to■be■designed■in■such■a■way■that■they■are■suitable■for■descriptions■ in■a■concise■manner.■
This■compels■the■computer■scientists■to■train■themselves■ in■learning■to■formulate■algorithms■ based■on■
the discrete sets.
■ The■main■advantage■ of■studying■discrete■mathematics■ is■that■its■results■serve■as■very■good■tools■
for■improving■ the■reasoning■ and■problems■solving■capabilities.■ Some■of■the■branches■of■discrete■
mathematics are combinatorics, mathematical logic, boolean algebra, graph theory, coding
theory etc.■Some■of■the■topics■of■discrete■mathematics■ namely■ permutations, combinations, and
mathematical induction were■already■discussed■in■the■previous■year.■In■the■present■chapter,■two■
topics■namely■ binary operations and mathematical logic of■discrete■mathematics■are■discussed.■Chapter
12Discrete Ma thematics
John von Neumann
(1903-1957)
224
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 12_Discrete [Link] 224 16-12-2022 16:53:43

Discrete Mathematics225
Symbols
∈ - belongs to.
■ - such that.
∀ - for every .
⇒ - implies.
∃ - there exists
In general, the word ‘operation’ refers to the process of operating upon either a single or more
number of elements at a time. For instance, finding the negative of an element in ■ involves a single
element at a time. So it is called an unary operation. On the other hand the process of finding the sum
of any two elements in ■ involves two elements at a time . This kind of operation is called a binary
operation. In general an operation involving nelements is called an n-ary operation, n∈■. In this
section a detailed discussion of the binary operations is presented .
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter , students will be able to
• define binary operation and examine various properties
• define binary operation on Boolean matrices and verify various properties
• define binary operation on modular classes and examine various properties
• identify simple and compound statements
• define logical connectives and construct truth tables
• identify tautology, contradiction, and contingency
• establish logical equivalence and apply duality principle
12.2 Binary Operations
12.2.1 Definitions
The basic arithmetic operations on ■ are addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (×), and
division (÷). Eminent mathematicians of the latter part of 19thcentury and in 20thcentury like Abel, Cayley,
Cauchy, and others, tried to generalize the properties satisfied by these usual arithmetic operations. To this
end they developed new abstract algebraic structures through the axiomatic approach. This new branch
of algebra dealing with these abstract algebraic structures is known as abstract algebra.
T o begin with, consider a simple example involving the basic usual arithmetic operations addition
and multiplication of any two natural numbers.
mn+∈■; mn×∈■, ∀∈ = mn,{ ,, ,...} ■ 12 3
Each of the above two operations yields the following observations:
(1) At a time exactly two elements of ■are processed.
(2) The resulting elem ent (outcome) is also an element of ■.
Any such operation defined on a nonempty set is called a binary operation or a binary
composition on the set in abstract algebra.
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 12_Discrete [Link] 22512th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 12_Discrete [Link] 2

226
XII - MathematicsDefinition 12.1
Any operation * defined on a non-empty set Sis called a binary operation on Sif the following
conditions are satisfied:
(i) The operation * must be defined for each and every ordered pair (, )ab∈ SS×.
(ii) It assigns a unique element ab∗of Sto every ordered pair (, )ab∈ SS×.
In other words, any binary operation * on Sis a rule that assigns to each ordered pair of
elements of S a unique element of S. Also * can be regarded as a function (mapping) with input in
the Cartesian product SS×and the output in S.
∗× → :SS S ; ∗= ∗∈ (, )ab ab S, where ab* is an unique element.
A binary operation defined by ∗× → :SS S; ∗= ∗∈ (, )ab ab Sdemands that the output ab∗
must always lie the given set Sand not in the complement of it. Then we say that ‘ ∗is closed on S’ or
‘S is closed with respect to ∗’. This property is known as the closure property .
Definition 12.2
Any non-empty set on which one or more binary operations are defined is
called an algebraic structure.
 Another way of defining a binary operation ∗ on S is as follows:
∀∈ ∗ ab Sa b ,, is unique and ab S∗∈ .
Note
It follows that every binary operation satisfies the closure property.
Note
The operation ∗is just a symbol which may be +×−,,, ÷, matrix addition, matrix multiplication,
etc. depending on the set on which it is defined.
For instance, though + and × are binary on ■, -is not binary operation on ■.
T o verify this, consider (, )34∈×■■ .
∗= −= −= −∉ (, )( ,) ab 34 34 1■.
Hence -is not binary operation on ■. So ■ is to be extended to ■ in order that -becomes
binary operation on ■. Thus ■ is closed with respect to +× − ,, and . Thus (,,,)■+× − is an
algebraic structure.
Observations
The binary operation d epends on the set on which it is defined.
(a) The operation – which is not binary operation on ■ but it is binary on ■. The set ■ is
extended to include zero and negative integers. We call the included set ■.
(b) The operation ÷ on ■ is not binary operation on ■. For instance, for (, )12∈×■■ ,
÷ 121
2, () =∉■. Hence ■ has to be extended further into ■.
(c) It is a known fact that the division by 0is not defined in basic arithmetic. So ÷ is binary
operation on the set ■\{} 0. Thus +× −,, are binary operation on ■ and ÷ is binary
operation on ■\{} 0.
Now the question is regarding the reasons for extending further ■ to ■and then from ■to■.
Accordingly, a number system is needed where not only all the basic arithmetic operations
+−×,, ,÷ but also to include the roots of the equations of the form “ x220−= ” and“ x210+= ”. Fig. 12.1ab
S ab*
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 12_Discrete [Link] 22612th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 12_Discrete [Link] 2

Discrete Mathematics227So,■in■addition■to■the■existing■systems,■the■collection■ of■irrational■numbers■and■imagina

(See■Chapter■3)■are■to■be■adjoined.■Consequently■ ■and then ■are■obtained.■The■biggest■number■
system ■properly■includes■all■the■other■number■systems ■,■,■,■and■as■subsets.■
■ ■ ■ ■ ■■\0{}■\0{}■\0{}
+ Binary Binary Binary Binary BinaryNot
BinaryNot
BinaryNot
Binary
-Not
BinaryBinary Binary Binary BinaryNot
BinaryNot
BinaryNot
Binary
× Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary
÷Not
BinaryNot
BinaryNot
BinaryNot■BinaryNot
BinaryBinary Binary Binary
Table12.1
Example12.1
■ Examine■ the■binary■operation■(closure■property)■of■the■following■operations■ on■the■respective■
sets■(if■it■is■not,■make■it■binary):■■
ab aa bb ab ∗= +− ∀∈ 352;,■
Solution
■ ■Since■ ×■■is■binary■operation■on■ ■■ ■ ,,ab ab ab ∈⇒ ×= ∈ and bb b×= ∈2■■ ...■(1)
The■fact■that■+■is■binary■operation■ on■■■and■(1)■⇒3ab ab ab ab =+ +∈ () ■ and
52 22222b bbbbb=++++ ∈ () ■. .... (2)
■ ■Also■ a∈■ and 3ab∈■implies■ aa b+∈3■. ■ ...■(3)
■ ■(2),■ (3),■the■closure■property■of■-on ■yield ab aa bb ∗= +− ∈ () 352■.■Since■ ab/g13
belongs■to■ ■,■*■is■a■binary■operation■on■ ■.
12.2.2 Some more properties of a binary operation
Commutative property
Any■binary■operation■∗defined■on■a■nonempty■ set■Sis■said■to■satisfy■the■commutative■
property,■if
ab ba ab S ∗= ∗∈∀, .Num ber System
Operation
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228
XII - MathematicsAssociative property
Any■binary■operation ∗defined■on■a■nonempty■set■ Sis■said■to■satisfy■the■associative■property,■if
ab ca bc abc S ∗∗ =∗ ∗∈∀ () () ,, .
Existence of identity property
An■element■ eS∈is said to be the Identity Element of■Sunder■the■binary■operation∗if■for■all■
aS∈we■have■that■ ae a ∗= and ea a ∗= .
Existence of inverse property
If■an■identity■element■ eexists■and■if■for■every■ aS∈,■there■exists■ bin Ssuch■that■ ab e ∗= and
ba e ∗= then bS∈is said to be the Inverse Element of■a.■In■such■instances,■we■write■ ba=−1.
Note
a–1■is■an■element■of■ S.■It■should■be■read■as■the■inverse■of■ a and not as 1
a.
Note
(i) The multiplicative identity is 1in ■and■it■is■the■one■and■only■one■element■with■the■property
nn nn ⋅= ⋅= ∀∈ 11 ,■.
(ii) The multiplicative inverse of■any■element,■say■2in ■is 1
2and■no■other■nonzero■rational■
number xhas■the■property■that■ 22 1 ⋅= ⋅= xx .
Note
Whenever■a■mathematical■ statement■involves■‘for■every’■or■‘■for■all’■,■it■has■to■be■proved■■for■every■
pair■or■three■elements.■It■is■not■easy■to■prove■for■every■pair■or■three■elements.■But■these■types■of■definitio
may■be■used■to■prove■the■negation■of■the■statement.■That■is,■negation■of■“for■every”■or■“for■all”■is■“there■
exists■not”.■So,■produce■one■such■pair■or■three■elements■to■establish■the■negation■of■the■statement. ■
■ The■questions■of■existence■and■uniqueness■ of■identity■and■inverse■are■to■be■examined.■■ The■
following■theorems■prove■these■results■in■the■more■general■form.
Theorem 12.1: (Uniqueness of Identity)
In■an■algebraic■structure■the■identity■element■(if■exists)■must■be■unique.
Proof
Let (, )S∗be■an■algebraic■structure.■ Assume■that■the■identity■element■of■ Sexists■in■ S.
■ It■is■to■be■proved■that■the■identity■element■is■unique.■Suppose■that■ e1 and e2be■any■two■identity■
elements■of■ S.
■ First■treat e1as the identity and e2as■an■arbitrary■element■of■ S.
■ Then■by■the■existence ■of■identity■property,■ ee ee e21 12 2 ∗= ∗=.■ ...■(1)
■ Interchanging■the■role ■of■e1and e2,■ee ee e12 21 1 ∗= ∗= . …(2)
■ From■(1)■and■(2),■ ee12=.■Hence■the■identity■element■is■unique■which■completes■the■proof.
Theorem 12.2 (Uniqueness of Inverse)
In■an■algebraic■structure■the■inverse■of■an■element■(if■exists)■must■be■unique.
Proof
Let (, )S∗be■an■algebraic■structure■and■aS∈.■Assume■that■the■inverse■of■a■exists■in■S.■■It■is■to■
be■proved■that■the■inverse■of■a■is■unique.■The■existence■of■inverse■in■Sensures■the■existence■of■the■
identity element e in S.
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Discrete Mathematics229 Let aS∈.■It■is■to■be■proved■that■the■ inverse■ a(if■exists)■is■unique.■

■ Suppose■that ahas■two■inverses,■say,■ a1,■a2.
■ Treating a1as■an■inverse■of agives■ aa aa e ∗= ∗=11■ …(1)
■ Next■treating■ a2■as■the■inverse■of agives■ aa aa e ∗= ∗=22 …(2)
aa ea aa aa ae aa11 12 12 22 =∗ =∗ ∗= ∗∗ =∗ = () () ■(by■(1)■and■(2)).
■ So, aa12=.■Hence■the ■inverse■of■ ais■unique■which■completes■the■proof.
Example 12.2
■ Verify■ the■(i)■closure■property,■(ii)■commutative■ property,■(iii)■associative■ property■(iv)■existence■
of■identity■and■(v)■existence■of■inverse■for■the■arithmetic■operation■ +on ■.
Solution
 (i) mn+∈■,∀∈mn,■. Hence+is■a■binary■operation■on■ ■.
■ (ii)■Also mn nm mn += +∀ ∈,,■.■So■the■commutative■property■is■satisfied
(iii) ∀∈ ++ =+ + mnpm np mn p ,, ,( )( ) ■ .■Hence■the■associative■property■is■satisfied.
■ (iv)■ me em me += += ⇒= [Link]∃∈0■■() () mm m += += 00 .■Hence■the■existence■
of■identity■is■assured.
■ (v)■ mm mm mm mm += += ⇒= −∀ ∈∃ −∈ '' '. , 0T hus ■■ ■
mm mm +− =− += () () 0.■Hence,■the■existence■of■inverse■property■is■also■assured.■Thus■
we■see■that■the■usual■addition■ +on ■satisfies■all■the■above■five■properties.
Note that the additive identity is 0and the additive inverse ■of■any■integer■ mis-m.
Example 12.3
■ Verify■ the■(i)■closure■property,■(ii)■commutative■ property,■(iii)■associative■ property■(iv)■existence■
of■identity■and■(v)■existence■of■inverse■for■the■arithmetic■operation■ - on ■.
Solution
(i)■Though■-is not binary on ■; it is binary on ■.■To■check■the■validity■of■any■more■properties■
satisfied■by■–■on■ ■,■it■is■better■to■check■them■for■some■particular■simple■values.■
(ii)■Take■ m=4,■n=5 and () () mn−= −= − 45 1and () () nm−= −=54 1.
Hence () () mn nm −≠ −.■So■the■operation■ -■is■not■commutative■on■ ■.
■ (iii)■In■ order■to■check■the■associative■ property,■let■us■put■mn= =45, and p=7 in both
()mn p-- and mn p--() .
() () () mn p−− =− −=−− =− 45 71 78■ …(1)
mn p−− =− −= += () () () 45 74 26 . …(2)
■ ■■From■(1)■and■(2),■it■follows■that■ mn pm np ()– –– –≠ () .
■ ■■Hence■–■is■not■associative■on■ ■.
■ (iv)■Identity■does■not■exist■(why?).
■ (v)■Inverse■does■not■exist■(why?).
Example 12.4
■ Verify■ the■(i)■closure■property,■ (ii)■commutative■ property,■ (iii)■associative■ property■
(iv)■existence■ of■identity■and■(v)■existence■ of■inverse■for■the■arithmetic■ operation■+ on
■e=■the■set■of■all■even■integers.
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230
XII - MathematicsSolution
■ ■Consider■the■set■of■all■ even integers ■■e kk=∈{} = −−−{} 2 642 024 6 | ...,,,, ,,, ,....
■ Let■us■verify■the■properties■satisfied■by■ +on ■e.
(i)■The■sum■of■any■two■even■integers■is■also■an■even■integer.■
■ ■■Because xy xme ,∈⇒ =■ 2and yn=2,■mn,∈■.
■ ■■So■ xy mn mne += += + () () ∈ 22 2 ■. Hence +is■a■binary■operation■on ■e.
(ii) ∀∈xye,■,() () () () () xy mn nm nm yx += += += += + 22 22 .
■ ■■So■ +has■commutative■property.■
■ (iii)■Similarly■it■can■be ■seen■that ∀∈xy ze,,■,■() () xy zx yz ++ =+ +.
■ ■■Hence■the■associative■property■is■true.■■ ■■■■■
■ (iv)■■Now■take■ xk=2,■then■ 22 20 ke ek ke += += ⇒= .
Thus∀∈ ∃∈ xee■■,0 ■xx x += += 00 .
■ ■■So,■ 0is the identity element.
■ (v)■■Taking■ xk=2 and ′x■as■its■inverse,■we■have■ 20 22 kx xk xk += =+ ⇒= − '' ' . i.e.,
xx'=− .
■■ ■■Thus■ ∀∈ ∃−∈ xxee■■, ■xx xx +− =− += () () 0
Hence -xis■the■inverse■of■ xeÎ■.
Example 12.5
■ Verify■ the■(i)■closure■property,■ (ii)■commutative■ property,■ (iii)■associative■ property■
(iv)■existence■ of■identity■and■(v)■existence■ of■inverse■for■the■arithmetic■ operation■+ on
■o=■the■set■of■all■odd■integers.
Solution
■ Consider■ the■set■■o■of■all■odd integers ■■o kk=+ ∈ {} =− −− {} 21 53 1135 : ..., ,, ,,,,.... +is
not a binary operation on■o■because■when■ xm yn xy mn =+ =+ += ++ 21 21 22 ,, () ■is■even■for■
all m and n.■For■instance,■consider■the■two■odd■numbers■ 37,∈■o.■Their■sum■ 37 10 +=is■an■even■
number.■In■general,■if■x,■y∈■0,■then■ xy+() ∉■0.■Other■properties■ need■not■be■checked■as■it■is■not■
a■binary■operation.
Example 12.6
■ Verify■ (i)■closure■property■(ii)■commutative■ property,■and■(iii)■associative■■ property■of■the■
following■operation■on■the■given■set.
ab aa bb∗= ∈ () ∀;,■(exponentiation■property)
Solution
■ (i)■It■is■true■that ab aa bb∗= ∈ ∈∀■■;, .■■So■∗ is a binary operation on ■.
(ii) ab ab∗= and ba ba∗=.■Put,■ a=2 and b=3. Then ab∗= =283■but■ba∗= =392
■ ■So■ ab∗■need■not■be■equal■to ba∗. Hence ∗ does not have commutative property .
■ (iii)■Next■consider■ ab ca bacbc∗∗ =∗ = () ()().■Take■ ab= =23, and c=4.
Then ab c ∗∗ =∗ ∗= = () ()23 42 238 14
■ ■But■ ab ca ca aabbcbc bc∗∗ =() ∗= () == = ()()212
Hence ab ca bc ∗∗() ≠∗() ∗.■So■ ∗ does not have associative property on ■.
Note: This■binary■ operation■has■no■identity■and■no■inverse.■(Justify).
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Discrete Mathematics231Example 12.7

■ Verify■ ■ (i)■closure■property,■ (ii)■commutative■ property,■ (iii)■associative■ property,■
(iv)■existence■of■identity,■and■(v)■existence■of■inverse■for■following■operation■on■the■given■set.■
mn mn mnmn ∗= +− ∈ ;,■ mn mn mnmn ∗= +− ∈ ;,■
Solution
(i)■■The■output■ mn mn+ - is■clearly■an■integer■and■hence ∗ is a binary operation on ■.
(ii) mn mn mn nm nmnm ∗= +− =+ −= ∗,∀∈mn,■.■So■∗ has commutative property .
■ (iii)■Consider■ ()mn p∗∗=()mn mn p +− ∗=() () mn mn pm nm np +− +− +−
= mn pm nmpnpm np ++ −− −+ ■...■(1)
■ ■■Similarly■ mn p∗∗()=mn pnp ∗+ − () = mn pnpm np np ++ −− +− () ()
= mn pnpm nmpm np ++ −−−+ ... (2)
■ ■■From■(1)■and■(2),■we■see■that■ mn pm np ∗∗ =∗ ∗ () () . Hence ∗ has associative property .
■ (iv)■An■integer■ e■is■to■be■found■such■that■
me em m ∗= ∗=,∀∈m■⇒+ − me me=m
⇒−em()1=0⇒e = 0 or m=1.■But■ mis■an■arbitrary■integer■and■hence■need■not■be■
equal■to■1.■So■the■only■possibility■ ise=0.■Also■ m∗0=0∗=mm ,∀∈m■. Hence 0 is the
identity element and hence the existence of identity ■is■assured.
■ (v)■An■element■ ′∈m■is■to■be■found■such■that■ mm∗′= ′∗= = mm e 0,∀∈m■.
mm∗′=0⇒+ ′− ′ mm mm=0⇒′m=m
m-1.■When■ m=1, ′m■is■not■defined.
■ ■■■When■ mm= ′ 2, mm= ′ 2, is■an■integer.■But■except■ m=2, ′mneed■not■be■an■integer■for■all■values■of■
m. Hence inverse does not exist in ■.
12.2.3 Some binary operations on Boolean Matrices
Definition 12.3
A■Boolean Matrix is■a■real■matrix■whose■entries■are■either■ 0or 1.
■ Note■ that■the■boolean■entries■0■and■1■can■be■defined■in■several■ways.■In■electrical■switch■to■
describe■“on■and■off”,■in■graph■theory,■the■“adjacency■ matrix”■etc■,■the■boolean■entries■0■and■1■are■
used.■We■consider■the■same■type■of■Boolean■matrices■in■our■discussion.■
■ The■following■two■kinds■of■operations■on■the■collection■of■all■boolean■matrices■are■defined.■
Let Aaij = and Bbij =■be■any■two■boolean■matrices■of■the■same type . Then their join∨and
meet∧are■defined■as■follows:
Definition 12.4: Join of A and B
AB∨ = ab ab cij ij ij ij ij ∨=∨=
where■ cij = 11 1
00 0,
,if either o r
if both andab
abij ij
ij ij==
==


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232
XII - MathematicsDefinition 12.5: Meet of A and B
AB∧= ab ab cij ij ij ij ij∧=∧=
where cab
abijij ij
ij ij===
==

11 1
00 0,
,.if both and
if either o r
It is clear that ab ab ∨() = {}max, ; ab ab ∧() = {}min, , ab,,∈{}01.
Example 12.8
Let A=

01
11, B=

11
01 be any two boolean matrices of the same type. Find AB∨ and
AB∧ .
Solution
AB∨ = 01
1111
010111
10 1111
11

∨

=∨∨
∨∨

=


AB∧ = 01
1111
010111
10 1101
01

∧

=∧∧
∧∧

=


Properties satisfied by join and meet
Let ■ be the set of all boolean matrices of the same type. We only state the properties of meet
and join.
Closure property
AB,∈■ , AB ab abij ij ij ij ∨= ∨= ∨∈ [] [] [] ■ . (Because, abij ij∨() is either 0or 1 ∀ij,. ∨ is a
binary operation on ■ .
Associative property
AB C ∨∨() =AB CA BC ,, , AB CA BC ,, , ■ . ∨ is associative.
Existence of identity property
∀∈A■ , ∃the null matrix 0∈■ ■AA A ∨= ∨= 00 . The identity element for ∨ is the null
[Link] of inverse property
For any matrix A∈■ , it is impossible to find a matrix
B∈ ■ ■AB BA ∨=∨= 0. So the inverse does not exist.
Similarly , it can be verified that the operation meet ∧ satisfies (i) closure property
(ii) commutative property (iii) associative property (iv) the matrix U=

11
11 exists as the identity in
■ and (v) the existence of inverse is not assured.
12.2.4 Modular Arithmetic
Having discussed the properties of operations like basic usual arithmetic operations, matrix
addition and multiplication, join and meet of boolean matrices, one more new operation called the
Modular Arithmetic is discussed in this section . The modular arithmetic refers to the process of
dividing some number aby a positive integer n ( > 1), called modulus, and then equating a with the
remainder bmodulo n and it is written as ab n ≡(mod ), read as ‘a is congruent to b modulo n’.
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Discrete Mathematics233 Here ab≡(mod n) means ab nk −= ⋅for some integer k and b is the least
non-negative integer when a is divided by n.
For instance, 25 47 20 23 13 ≡− ≡− ≡ (mod ), (mod )( mod)and 15 05≡(mod ), etc. Further the
set of integers when divided by n, leaves the remainder 0121,,,,■n-. In the case of ■5,
[]0 = ■■,, ,, ,, ,, −− − {} 15 10 505 10 15
[]1 = …− −− … {}, ,,, ,,, 1494 16 11
[]2 = {],, ,,,, , …− −− … 13 83 2712
[]3 = …− −− … {},, ,,,, , 12 72 3813
[]4 = …− −− … {},, ,, ,, ,. 11 61 49 14
W e write this as ■5 01 234 ={}[],[],[],[],[]. In each class, any two numbers are congruent
modulo 5.
Before 2007, modular arithmetic is used in 10-digit ISBN (International Standard Book Number)
numbering system. For instance, the last digit is for parity check. It is from the set
{,,,,, ,,,,,} 012345678 9X. In ISBN number, 81-7808-755- 3, the last digit 3 is obtained as
1*8+2*1+3*7+4*8+5*0+6*8+7*7+8*5+9*5=8+2+21+32+0+48+49+40+45=245 ≡31 1 (mod ).
Alternatively , the weighted sum is calculated in the reverse manner
9*8+8*1+7*7+6*8+5*0+4*8+3*7+2*5+1*5=245 = 3 (mod 11).
In both ways, we get t he same check number 3.
After 2007, 13-digit ISBN numbering has been followed. The first 12 digits (from left to right) are
multiplied by the weights 3,1,3,1,…. starting from right to left. Then the weighted sum is calculated. The higher multiple of 10 is
For instance, consider the ISBN Number: 978-81-931995-6- [Link] 12 digits from left to right.
978819319956
131313131313
9 21 8 24 1 27 3 3 9 27 5 18
The total of last row is 155. The nearest (higher) integer in multiples of 10 is 160. The difference 160-155=5. The additive inver
T wo new operations namely addition modulo nn,+ and multiplication modulo nn,× are
defined on the set ■nof all non-negative integers less than n under modulo arithmetic.
Definition 12.6
(i) The addition modulo n is defined as follows.
Letabn ,∈■. Then
abn+= the remainder of ab+on division by n.
(ii) The multiplication modulo n is defined as follows.
Let abn ,∈■. Then
abn×= the remainder of ab× on division by n
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234
XII - MathematicsExample 12.9
V erify (i) closure property, (ii) commutative property, (iii) associative property,
(iv) existence of identity, and (v) existence of inverse for the operation +5on ■5 using table
corresponding to addition modulo 5.
Solution
It is known that ■5 01 234 ={}[],] ,] ,] ,] [ [ [ [ . The table corresponding to addition modulo 5 is as
follows: We take reminders {,,,,} 01234 to represent the classes {[],[],[],[],[]} 01 234 .
+50 1 2 3 4
001234
112340
223401
334012
440123
Table12.2
(i) Since each box in the table is filled by exactly one element of ■5, the output ab+5 is
unique and hence +5 is a binary operation.
(ii) The entries are symmetrically placed with respect to the main diagonal. So +5 has
commutative property.
(iii) The table cannot be used directly for the verification of the associative property. So it is to
be verified as usual.
For 2, 3, 4 ∈ ■5, then 23 40 4455 5 ++ =+ = () (mod 5)
and 23 42 24 555 5 ++() =+ =()mod.
Hence 23 42 3455 55 +() += ++() .
Proceeding like this one can verify this for all possible triples and ultimately it can be shown
that +5 is associative.
(iv) The row headed by 0 and the column headed by 0 ∈ ■5 are identical. Hence the identity
element is 0.
(v) The existence of inverse is guaranteed provided the identity 0 exists in each row and each
column. From Table12.2, it is clear that this property is true in this case. The method of
finding the inverse of any one of the elements of ■5, say 2 is outlined below.
First find the position of the identity element 0 in the III row headed by 2. Move horizontally
along the III row and after reaching 0, move vertically above 0 in the IV column, because 0 is in the III row and IV column. The
23 055+= (mod ). In this way,
the inverse of each and every element of ■5 can be obtained. Note that the inverse of 0 is
0,that of 1 is 4, that of 2 is 3, that of 3 is 2 , and, that of 4 is 1.
Example 12.10
Verify (i) closure property, (ii) commutative property, (iii) associative property,
(iv) existence of identity, and (v) existence of inverse for the operation ×11 on a subset A={,,,,} 1345 9
of the set of remainders {,,,,, ,,,,,} 012345678 910.
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Discrete Mathematics235Solution
The table for the operation ´11 is as follows.
×11 1 3 4 5 9
113459
339145
441593
554931
995314
Table12.3
Following the same kind of procedure as explained in the previous example, a brief outline of the
process of verification of the properties of ×11 on A is given below.
(i) Since each box ha s an unique element of A, ×11 is a binary operation on A.
(ii) The entries are symmetrical about the main diagonal. Hence ×11 has commutative property .
(iii) As usual, the associative property can be seen to be true.
(iv) The entries of both the row and column headed by the element 1 are identical. Hence 1 is the
identity element.
(v) Since the identity 1 exists in each row and each column, the existence of inverse property
is assured for ×11. The inverse of 1 is 1, that of 3 is 4, that of 4 is 3, 5 is 9 , and, that of 9 is 5.
EXERCISE 12.1
1. Determine whethe r ∗is a binary operation on the sets given below.
(i) ab ab ∗= .o n■ (ii) ab ab A ∗= () ={} min, ,,,, on 1 2345
(iii) ab ab ∗=() is binary on ■.
2. On ■, define ∗ by mn mn mnnm∗() =+ ∀∈:,■. Is ∗ binary on ■?
3. Let ∗ be defined on ■by ()ab ab ab ∗= ++ −7. Is ∗ binary on ■? If so, find 37
15∗−

.
4. LetAa bab =+ ∈ {: ,} 5 ■. Check whether the usual multiplication is a binary operation on
A.
5. (i) Define an operation ∗on ■as follows: ababab ∗=+

 ∈ ∀2;, ■. Examine the closure,
commutative, and associative properties satisfied by ∗ on ■.
(ii) Define an operation ∗on ■as follows: ababab ∗=+

 ∈ ∀2;, ■. Examine the
existence of identity and the existence of inverse for the operation ∗ on ■.
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236
XII - Mathematics 6.■Fill■in■the■following■table■so■that■the■binary■operation■ ∗on A abc={, ,}is■commutative.
∗abc
ab
bcba
cac
7.■Consider■the■binary■operation■ ∗■defined■on■the■set■ A abc d={, ,, }■by■the■following■table:
∗abcd
aacbd
bdabc
ccdaa
ddbac
■ ■■Is■it■commutative■and■associative?
8. Let A=



10 10
01 01
10 01,B=



01 01
10 10
10 01,■C=



11 01
01 10
111 1 be any three boolean matrices
of■the■same■type.■Find■(i)■ AB∨ (ii) AB∧ (iii) AB C ∨() ∧■■(iv)■ AB C ∧() ∨.
9. (i) Let Mxx
xxxR =

∈−



:{ }0 and let ∗■be■the■matrix■multiplication.■ Determine■
whether Mis■closed■under■∗.■■If■so,■examine■the■commutative■ and■associative■ properties■
satisfied■by■ ∗ on M.
(ii) Let Mxx
xxxR =

∈−



:{ }0 and let ∗■be■the■matrix■multiplication.■ Determine■
whether Mis■closed■under■∗.■■If■so,■examine■the■existence■of■identity,■existence■of■
inverse■properties■for■the■operation■ ∗ on M.
 10. (i) Let Abe ■\1{}.■Define■∗ on A by xy xy xy ∗= +−.■Is■∗ binary on A?■If■so,■
examine■the■commutative■and■associative■properties■satisfied■by■ ∗ onA.
(ii) Let Abe ■\1{}.■Define■∗ on A by xy xy xy ∗= +−.■Is■∗ binary on A?
If■so,■examine■the■existence■of■identity,■existence■of■inverse■properties■for■the■operation
∗ on A.
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Discrete Mathematics23712.3 Mathematical Logic

■ George■ Boole■was■a■self-taught■ English■Mathematician,■ Philosopher■ and■
Logician.■His■results■on■Boolean Algebra involving■the■binary■numbers■play■an■
important■ role■in■various■fields,■particularly■ more■in■computer■applications.■ He■
introduced■ the■idea■of■Symbolic■Logic■and■contributed■ a■lot■of■results■to■the■fast■
development■of■Mathematical■Logic.■
■ The■reputed■Greek■philosopher■ Aristotle■(384-322BC(BCE))■ wrote■the■first■book■
on■logic.■The■famous■German■philosopher■ and■mathematician■ Gottfried■Leibnitz■of■
17thcentury■framed■the■idea■of■using■symbols■in■Logic.■Later■this■idea■was■realized■
by■George■Boole■and■Augustus■de■Morgan■in■19th century.■George■Boole■established ■
the■fact■that■logic■is■very■much■related■to■mathematics■ by■linking■logic,■symbols,■and■
algebra■together.■Mathematical■Logic■was■developed■in■the■late■19thand early 20thcenturies.■
■ In■1930■the■researchers■ noticed■(Neumann’s■ statement■in■his■death■bed:■ 0 and 1 are going to
rule the world )■that■the■binary■numbers■0■and■1■could■be■used■to■analyze■electrical■circuits■and■thus■
used■to■design■electronic■ computers.■ Today■digital■computers■ and■electronic■ circuits■are■designed■
to■implement ■this■binary■arithmetic.■ We■study■Mathematical■ Logic■as■the■language■and■deductive■
system■of■Mathematics■and■Computer■Science.
■ Generally■ Logic■is■the■study■of■valid■reasoning.■ But■mathematical■ logic■allows■us■to■represent■
knowledge■ in■a■precise■mathematical■ way■and■it■also■allows■us■to■make■valid■inferences■ using■a■set■of■
precise■rules.■It■is■regarded■as■a■powerful■tool■for■computer■science■because■it■is■mainly■used■to■verify■
the■correctness■of■programs.
12.3.1 Statement and its truth value
■ The■simplest■part■of■Mathematical■ Logic■is■the■Propositional Logic and■its■building■blocks■
are■statements■ or■propositions.■ Mostly■communication■ needs■the■use■of■language■through■which■we■
impart■our■ideas.■ They■are■in■the■form■of■sentences.■
■ There■are■various■types■of■sentences■like
■ (1)■Declarative■(Assertive■type)
■ (2)■Imperative■(A ■command■or■a■request■type)
■ (3)■Exclamatory■(Emotions,■excitement■type)
■ (4)■Interrogative■(Question■type)
■ (5)■Open■type
Definition 12.7
Any■ declarative sentence is called a statement or a proposition which■is■either■ true or false
but■not■both.
■ Any■ imperative sentence such■as■exclamatory,■ command■ and■any■interrogative sentence
cannot■be■a■proposition.
The truth value of■a■statement■refers■to■the■truth■or■the■falsity■of■that■particular■statement.■■
The truth■value■of■a■true■statement■is■true and it is denoted by T or■1. The■truth■value■of■a■false■
statement is false and it is denoted by F or 0.
■ An■ open sentence is■a■sentence■whose■truth■can■vary■according■to■some■conditions,■ which■are■
not■stated■in■the■sentence.■■ For■instance,■(i)■x×=73 5■is■an■open■sentence■whose■truth■value■
depends■on■value■of■x.■That■is,■if■x=5,■it■is■true■and■if■x/g1225,■it■is■false.■(ii)■He is a bad person .
This■is■an■open■sentence.■Opinion■varies■from■individual■to■[Link]■Boole■
(1815-1864)
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238
XII - MathematicsExample 12.11
Identify the valid state ments from the following sentences.
(1) Mount Everest is the highest mountain of the world.
(2) 34 8 += .
(3) 751 0 +> .
(4) Give me that book.
(5) ()10 7−=x .
 (6) How beautiful this flower is!
(7) Where are you going?
(8) W ish you all success.
(9) This is the beginning of the end.
Solution:
The truth value of the sentences (1) and (3) are T, while that of (2) is F. Hence they are statements.
The sentence (5) is true for x=3 and false for x/g1223 and hence it may be true or false but not
both. So it is also a statement.
The sentences (4), (6), (7), (8) are not statements, because (4) is a command, (6) is an exclamatory,
(7) is a question while (8) is a sentence expressing one’s wishes and (9) is a paradox.
12.3.2 Compound Statements, Logical Connectives, and Truth Tables
Definition 12.8: (Simple and Compound Statements)
Any sentence which cannot be split further into two or more statements is called an atomic
statement or a simple statement. If a statement is the combination of two or more simple
statements, then it is called a compound statement or a molecular statement. Hence it is clear
that any statement can be either a simple statement or a compound statement.
Example for simple statements
The sentences (1), (2), (3) given in example 12.11 are simple statements.
Example for Compond statements
Consider the statemen t, “1 is not a prime number and Ooty is in Kerala”.
Note that the above statement is actually a combination of the following two simple statements:
p: 1 is not a prime number.
q: Ooty is in Kerala.
Hence the given statem ent is not a simple statement. It is a compound statement.
From the above discussions, it follows that any simple statement takes the value either T or F.
So it can be treated as a variable and this variable is known as statement variable or propositional
variable . The propositional variables are usually denoted by p, q, r, ....
Definition 12.9 : (Logical Connectives)
To connect two or more simple sentences, we use the words or a group of words such as
“and”, “or”, “if-then”, “if and only if”, and “not”. These connecting words are known as logical
connectives.
In order to construct a compound statement from simple statements, some connectives are
used. Some basic logical connectives are negation (not), conjunction (and) and disjunction(or).
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Discrete Mathematics239Definition 12.10

A■statement formula ■is■an■expression■ involving■one■or■more■statements■ connected■ by■some■
logical■connectives.■
Definition 12.11: (Truth Table)
A■table■showing■the■relationship■ between■truth■values■of■simple■statements■ and■the■truth■values■
of■compound■statements■formed■by■using■these■simple■statements■is■called■ truth table .
Definition12.12
(i) Let pbe■a■simple■statement.■ Then■the■negation■of■p■is■a■statement■whose■truth■value■is■
opposite■to■that■ofp.■It■is■denoted■by■¬p,■read■as■not [Link]■truth■value■of■¬p is T, ifp
is F,■otherwise■it■is■ F.
(ii) Let pand qbe■any■two■simple■statements.■ The■ conjunction of■pand qis obtained by
connecting■ pand qby■the■word■ and.■It■is■denoted■by■pq∧,■read■as■‘p■conjunction■ q’■
or■‘p hat q’.■The■truth■value■of■pq∧ is T,■whenever■both■ pand qare Tand it is F
otherwise.
(iii) The disjunction ■of■any■two■simple■statements■ pand qis■the■compound■ statement■obtained■
by■connecting ■pand qby■the■word■‘or’.■It■is■denoted■by■pq∨,■read■as■‘p■disjunction■ q
’■or■‘pcup■ q’.The■truth■value■of■pq∨is F,■whenever■both■ pand qare Fand it is T
otherwise.
Logical Connectives and their Truth Tables
(1) Truth Table for NOT [ ¬] (Negation)
Truth Table for ¬ p
p¬■p
TF
FT
Table■12.4
(2) Truth table for AND [ ∧∧] (Conjunction)
Truth Table for pqÙ
p q pq∧∧
TTT
TFF
FTF
FFF
Table■12.5
(3) The truth tables for OR [ ∨∨] (Disjunction)
Truth Table for pq∨∨
p q pq∨∨
TTT
TFT
FTT
FFF
Table■12.6
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240
XII - MathematicsExample 12.12
Write■the■statements■ in■words■corresponding■ to■¬ p, pq∧,pq∨and q∨¬p, where■ p■is■‘It■is■
cold’■and■ qis■‘It■is■raining.’ ■
Solution
■ (1)■¬p :■It■is■not■cold.■
(2) pq∧■ :■It■is■cold■and■raining.
■ (3)■ pq∨■ :■It■is■cold■or■raining.
(4) q∨¬p■:■It■is■raining■or■it■is■not■cold
Observe■that■the■statement■formula■■p■has■only■1■variable■ pand■its■truth■table■has■221=()
rows.■Each■of■the■statement■formulae■ pq∧ and pq∨■has■two■variables■ pand q.■The■truth■table■
corresponding■ to■each■of■them■has■4=()22■rows.■In■general,■it■follows■that■if■a■statement■formula■
involves■ n■variables,■then■its■truth■table■will■contain■ 2nrows.
Example 12.13
■ How■many■rows■are■needed■for■following■statement■formulae?
(i) pt ps ∨¬ ∧∨ ¬() (ii) pq rs tv ∧() ∨¬ ∨¬() () ∧¬ ∧()
Solution
(i) pt ps ∨¬() ∧∨ ¬()contains■3■variables■ ps,,and■ t.■Hence■the■corresponding■ truth■table■will■
contain 283=■rows.■
(ii) () () () pq rs tv ∧∨ ¬∨ ¬∧ ¬∧ () ■contains■6■variables■ pqr st,,,,,■and■ v. Hence the
corresponding■truth■table■will■contain■ 26 46=■rows.
Conditional Statement
Definition 12.13
■ The■conditional■ statement■of■any■two■statements■ pand qis■the■statement,■ “If■p,■then■ q” and
it is denoted by pq→ . Here pis called the hypothesis or antecedent and qis called the
conclusion or consequence .pq→is■false■only■if■ pis■true■and■ qis■false.■Otherwise■it■is■true.
Truth table for pq→
p q pq→→
TTT
TFF
FTT
FFT
Table■12.7
Example 12.14
Consider■ pq→:■If■today■is■Monday,■then■4■+■4■=■8.
■ Here■the■component■statements■ p and q■are■given■by,■
p:■Today■is■Monday;■ q:■4■+■4■=■8.■
■ The■truth■value■of■ pq→ is T■because■the■conclusion■ q is T.
■ An■important■point■is■that■ pq→■should■not■be■treated■by■actually■considering■ the■meanings■of■
p and q■in■English.■ Also■it■is■not■necessary■that■ pshould■be■related■to■ qat all.
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Discrete Mathematics241Consequences
From■the■conditional■ statement■ pq→,■three■more■conditional■ statements■ are■derived.■They■are■
listed■below.
(i) Converse statement qp→.
(ii) Inverse statement ¬→¬ pq .
(iii) Contrapositive statement ¬→¬ qp .
Example 12.15
■ Write■ down■the■(i)■conditional■ statement■(ii)■converse■statement■(iii)■inverse■statement,■ and■
(iv)■contrapositive■statement■■for■the■two■statements■ pand qgiven■below.
p:■The■number■of■primes■is■infinite. q:■Ooty■is■in■Kerala.
Solution
■ Then■ the■four■types■of■conditional■ statements■ corresponding■ to■p and qare■respectively■ listed■
below.
(i) pq→:■(conditional■ statement)■ “If■the■number■of■primes■is■infinite■ then Ooty■is■in■Kerala”.■
(ii) qp→■:■(converse■statement)■“ If Ooty■is■in■Kerala■ then the■number■of■primes■is■infinite”■
(iii) ¬→¬ pq■(inverse■statement)■ “If the■number■of■primes■is■not infinite■ then Ooty is not in
Kerala”.
■ (iv)■ ¬→¬ qp■(contrapositive■ statement)■ “If Ooty is not in■Kerala■ then the■number■of■primes■is■
not■infinite”.
Bi-conditional Statement
Definition 12.14
The bi-conditional statement of■any■two■statements■ p and qis■the■statement■“p■if■and■only■
if■q” and is denoted by pq↔.■Its■truth■value■is■T,■whenever■both■ p and qhave■the■same■truth■
values,■otherwise■it■is■false.
Truth table for pq«
p q pq«
TTT
TFF
FTF
FFT
Table■12.8
Exclusive OR (EOR)[ ∨∨]
Definition 12.15
Let p and q be■any■two■statements.■ Then■ pEOR qis■such■a■compound■ statement■that■its■
truth■value■is■decided■by■either■ p or qbut■not both.■It■is■denoted■by■p■q.■The■truth■value■of■
p■qis T whenever■either■ p or qis T, otherwise■it■is■ F. The■truth■table■of■ p■qis■given■below.
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242
XII - MathematicsTruth Table for p pq∨∨(() ) q
p q p pq∨∨(() ) q
TTF
TFT
FTT
FFF
Table■12.9
Example 12.16
■ Construct■the■truth■table■for■ pq pq ∨() ∧∨ ¬() .
p q ¬ q r :pq∨∨(() ) s: pq∨∨¬¬(() ) rÙs
TTFFTF
TFTTFF
FTFTFF
FFTFTF
Table■12.10
■ Also■the■above■result■can■be■proved■without■using■truth■tables.■This■proof■will■be■provided■after■
studying■the■logical■equivalence.■
12.3.3 Tautology, Contradiction, and Contingency
Definition 12.16
A■statement■is■said■to■be■a■tautology if■its■truth■value■is■always■ Tirrespective■ of■the■truth■
values■of■its■component■statements.■It■is■denoted■by■ ■.
Definition 12.17
A■statement■is■said■to■be■a■contradiction ■if■its■truth■value■is■always■ F irrespective■ of■the■truth■
values■of■its■component■statements.■It■is■denoted■by■ ■.
Definition 12.18
A■statement■which■is■neither■a■tautology■nor■a■contradiction■is■called■ contingency
Observations
■ 1.■For■ a■tautology,■ all■the■entries■in■the■column■corresponding■ to■the■statement■formula■will■
contain T.
■ 2.■For■ a■contradiction, ■all■the■entries■in■the■column■corresponding■ to■the■statement■formula■will■
contain F.
■ 3.■The■ negation■of■a■tautology■is■a■contradiction■ and■the■negation■of■a■contradiction■ is■a■tautology.
4 . The■disjunction■ of■a■statement■ with■its■negation■is■a■tautology■and■the■conjunction■ of■a■
statement■with■its■negation■is■a■contradiction.■ That■is■pp∨¬ is a tautology and pp∧¬ is a
contradiction . This■can■be■easily■seen■by■constructing■their■truth■tables■as■given■below.■
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Discrete Mathematics243Example for tautology

p ¬p pp∨∨¬¬
TFT
FTT
Table■12.11
■ Since■the■last■column■ of■■pp∨¬contains■only■ T,■■pp∨¬is■a■tautology.
Example for contradiction
p¬ p p∧∧¬p
TFF
FTF
Table■12.12
■ Since■the■last■column■ contains■only■ F,■pp∧¬ is a contradiction.
Note
All■the■entries■in■the■last■column■of■Table■12.10■are■F and hence pq pq ∨() ∧∨ ¬() is a
contradiction.
Example for contingency
p q pq↔↔ ¬ q pq→→¬¬¬ q¬ ¬¬→→¬¬ ()pq¬ q) ()pq↔↔ ∧∧ ¬ ¬¬→→¬¬ ()pq¬ q)
TTTFFTT
TFFTTFF
FTFFTFF
FFTTTFF
Table■12.13
■ In■the■above■truth■table,■the■entries■in■the■last■column■are■a■combination■ of■T and F.■The■given■
statement■is■neither■a■tautology■nor■a■contradiction.■It■is■a■contingency.
12.3.4 Duality
Definition 12.19
The dual of■a■statement■ formula■is■obtained■by■replacing■ ∨ by ∧∧,■∧∧ by ∨,■Tby F
Fby T. A■dual■is■obtained■by■replacing■ ■(tautology) by ■(contradiction) ,■and,■ ■by ■.
Remarks
■ (1)■The■symbol■ ¬ is■not■changed■while■finding■the■dual.
■ (2)■Dual■of■a■dual■is■the■statement■itself.
■ (3)■The■special■statements■ ■■(tautology)■and■ ■■(contradiction)■are■duals■of■each■other.
(4) Tis■changed■to■ F■and■vice-versa.■■
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244
XII - MathematicsPrinciple of Duality
If■a■compound■ statement■ S1contains only ¬,■∧,■and■∨ and statement S2 arises■from■ S1by
replacing■ ∧ by ∨,■and,■∨ by ∧ then S1is■a■tautology■if■and■only■if■ S2is a contradiction.
For example
■ (i)■The■dual■of■ () () pq rs ∨∧ ∧∨ ■ is () () pq rs ∧∨∨∧ ■.
■ (ii)■The■dual■of p∧[¬qp q ∨∧ ∨ () ¬r] is p∨ [¬qp q ∧∨ ∧ ()¬r].
12.3.5 Logical Equivalence
Definition 12.20
Any■two■compound■ statements■ Aand Bare said to be logically equivalent or■simply■ equivalent
if■the■columns■corresponding■ to■Aand Bin■the■truth■table■have■ identical truth values .■The■logical■
equivalence■of■the■statements■ A and Bis denoted by AB≡or AB⇔ .
■ From■ the■definition,■ it■is■clear■that,■if■A and Bare■logically■equivalent,■ then■ABÛ■must■be■
a tautology .
Some Laws of Equivalence
1. Idempotent Laws
(i) pp p ∨≡ (ii) pp p ∧≡ .
Proof
p p pp∨∨ pp∧∧
TTTT
FFFF
Table■12.14
■ In■the■above■truth■table■■for■both■ p,■pp∨ and pp∧■have■the■same■truth■values.■Hence■
pp p ∨≡ and pp p ∧≡ .
2. Commutative Laws
(i) pq qp ∨≡ ∨ (ii) pq qp ∧≡ ∧.
Proof (i)
p q pq∨∨ qp∨∨
TTTT
TFTT
FTTT
FFFF
Table■12.15
■ The■columns■corresponding■to■ pq∨ and qp∨ are identical. Hence pq qp ∨≡ ∨.
■ Similarly■(ii)■ pq qp ∧≡ ∧■can■be■proved.
3. Associative Laws
(i)pq rp qr ∨∨() ≡∨() ∨ (ii) pq rp qr ∧∧() ≡∧() ∧.
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Discrete Mathematics245Proof
The truth table require d for proving the associative law is given below.
p q r pq∨ ∨ qr∨ ∨ pq r ∨ ∨(() )∨ ∨ pq r ∨∨∨ ∨(() )
TTTTTTT
TTFTTTT
TFTTTTT
TFFTFTT
FTTTTTT
FTFTTTT
FFTFTTT
FFFFFFF
Table 12.16
The columns correspo nding to pq r ∨() ∨ and pq r ∨∨() are identical.
Hence pq rp qr ∨∨() ≡∨() ∨.
Similarly , (ii) pq rp qr ∧∧() ≡∧() ∧ can be proved.
4. Distributive Laws
(i) pq rp qp r ∨∧ ≡∨ ∧∨ () () () (ii) pq rp qp r ∧∨ ≡∧ ∨∧ () () ()
Proof (i)
p q r qr∧ ∧ pq r ∨∨∧∧() pq∨ ∨ pr∨ ∨ () () pq pr ∨∨∧∧∨∨
TTTTTTTT
TTFFTTTT
TFTFTTTT
TFFFTTTT
FTTTTTTT
FTFFFTFF
FFTFFFTF
FFFFFFFF
Table 12.17
The columns corresponding to pq r ∨∧() and () () pq pr∨∧ ∨ are identical. Hence
pq rp qp r ∨∧ ≡∨ ∧∨ () () () .
Similarly (ii) pq rp qp r ∧∨ ≡∧ ∨∧ () () () can be proved.
5. Identity Laws
(i) p∨■≡■ and p∨■≡p (ii) p∧■≡pand p∧■≡■
Proof (i)
p ■ ■ p∨ ∨■ p∨ ∨■
TTFTT
FTFTF
Table12.18
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246
XII - Mathematics (i) The entries in the columns corresponding to p∨■ and ■ are identical and hence they are
equivalent. The entries in the columns corresponding to p∨■ and p are identical and hence
they are equivalent.
Dually
(ii) p∧■≡p and p∧■≡■ can be proved.
6. Complement Laws
(i) pp∨¬ ≡■and pp∧¬ ≡■ (ii) ¬■≡ ■ and ¬■≡ ■
Proof
p ¬p ■ ¬■ ■ ¬■ pp∨∨¬¬ pp∧∧¬¬
TFTFFTTF
FTTFFTTF
Table 12.19
(i) The entries in the columns corresponding to pp∨¬ and ■ are identical and hence they are
equivalent. The entries in the columns corresponding to pp∧¬ and ■are identical and
hence they are equivalent.
(ii) The entries in the columns corresponding to ¬■and ■ are identical and hence they are
equivalent. The entries in the columns corresponding to ¬■and ■ are identical and hence
they are equivalent.
7. Involution Law or Double Negation Law
¬(¬■ p) ≡ p
Proof
p¬■p¬(¬■ p)
TFT
FTF
Table 12.20
The entries in the columns corresponding to ¬¬()p and p are identical and hence they are
equivalent.
8. De Morgan’s Laws
(i) ¬∧()pqº ¬∨¬pq (ii) ¬∨() ≡¬ ∧¬ pq pq
Proof of (i)
p q ¬p ¬q pq∧ ∧ ¬¬∧ ∧(() ) pq ¬¬∨∨¬¬pq
TTFFTFF
TFFTFTT
FTTFFTT
FFTTFTT
Table 12.21
The entries in the columns corresponding to ¬∧()pq and ¬∨¬pq are identical and hence they
are equivalent. Therefore ¬∧()pq º ¬∨¬pq . Dually (ii) ¬∨() ≡¬ ∧¬ pq pq can be proved.
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Discrete Mathematics2479. Absorption Laws

(i) pp qp ∨∧ ≡ () (ii) pp qp ∧∨ ≡ ()
p q pq∧∧ pq∨∨ pp q ∨∨∧ ∧(() ) pp q ∧∧∨ ∨(() )
TTTTTT
TFFTTT
FTFTFF
FFFFFF
Table■12.22
■ (i)■The■entries■in■the■ columns■corresponding■to■ pp q ∨∧() and p are identical and hence they
are■equivalent.
■ (ii)■The■ entries■in■the■columns■corresponding■ to■pp q ∧∨() and p are identical and hence they
are■equivalent.
Example 12.17
Establish■the■equivalence■property: pq pq →≡ ¬∨
Solution
p q ¬p p → q ¬¬∨∨pq
TTFTT
TFFFF
FTTTT
FFTTT
Table■12.23
■ The■entries■in■the■columns■corresponding■to■ pq→ and ¬∨pq are identical and hence they are
equivalent.
Example 12.18
■ Establish■the■equivalence■property■connecting■the■bi-conditional■with■conditional:
pq pq qp ↔≡ →∧ → () ()
Solution
p q pq→→ qp→→ pq↔↔ () () pq qp →→∧∧→→
TTTTTT
TFFTFF
FTTFFF
FFTTTT
Table■12.24
■ The■entries■in■the■columns■corresponding■ to■pq↔and () () pq qp →∧ → are identical and
hence■they■are■equivalent.
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248
XII - MathematicsExample 12.19
Using the equivalence property, show that pq pq pq ↔≡ ∧∨ ¬∧¬ () () .
Solution
It can be obtained by using examples 12.17 and 12.18 that
pq↔ ≡ () () ¬∨ ∧¬ ∨ pq qp ... (1)
≡ () () ¬∨ ∧∨ ¬ pq pq (by Commutative Law) ... (2)
≡ (( )) (( )) ¬∧ ∨¬ ∨∧ ∨¬ pp qq pq (by Distributive Law)
≡ () () () () ¬∧ ∨¬ ∧¬ ∨∧∨∧ ¬ pp pq qp qq (by Distributive Law)
≡ ■∨¬∧¬ ∨∧ ∨ () () pq qp ■; (by Complement Law)
≡ () () ¬∧¬∨ ∧ pq qp ; (by Identity Law)
≡ () () pq pq ∧∨ ¬∧¬; (by Commutative Law)
Finally (1) becomes pq« º () () pq pq ∧∨ ¬∧¬.
EXERCISE 12.2
1. Let p : Jupiter is a planet and q : India is an island be any two simple statements. Give
verbal sentence describing each of the following statements.
(i) ¬p (ii) pq∧¬ (iii) ¬∨pq (iv) pq→¬ (v) pq↔
2. W rite each of the following sentences in symbolic form using statement variables pand q.
(i) 19 is not a pri me number and all the angles of a triangle are equal.
(ii) 19 is a prime number or all the angles of a triangle are not equal
(iii) 19 is a prime number and all the angles of a triangle are equal
(iv) 19 is not a pri me number
3. Determine the tru th value of each of the following statements
(i) If 62 5 += , then the milk is white.
(ii) China is in Eu rope or 3 is an integer
(iii) It is not true t hat 55 9 += or Earth is a planet
(iv) 1 1 is a prime number and all the sides of a rectangle are equal
4. Which one of the following sentences is a proposition?
(i) 47 12 += (ii) What are you doing? (iii) 38 1nn≤∈,■
(iv) Peacock is ou r national bird (v) How tall this mountain is!
5. W rite the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of each of the following implication.
(i) If x and y are numbers such that xy=, then xy22=
(ii) If a quadrilate ral is a square then it is a rectangle
6. Construct the trut h table for the following statements.
(i) ¬∧¬pq (ii) ¬∧ ¬ ()pq (iii) ()pq q ∨∨ ¬ (iv) () () ¬→ ∧↔ pr pq
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Discrete Mathematics249 7.■ Verify■whether■the■following■ compound■ propositions■ are■tautologies■ or■contradiction

contingency
 (i) () () pq pq ∧∧ ¬∨ (ii) ()pq pq ∨∧ ¬ () →
(iii) () () pq pq →↔ ¬→■ (iv)■ () () () pq qr pr →∧ → () →→
8.■ Show■that■(i)■ ¬∧ ≡¬∨¬ ()pq pq (ii) ¬→ ≡∧¬ ()pq pq .
9.■ Prove■that■■ qp pq →≡¬→¬
10.■ Show■that■ pq® and qp®are■not■equivalent
11.■ Show■that■ ¬↔ ≡↔¬ ()pq pq
12.■ Check■whether■the■statement■ pq p®®()■is■a■tautology■or■a■contradiction■ without■using■
the■truth■table.
13.■ Using■truth■table■check■whether■the■statements ¬∨ ∨¬∧ () () pq pq and ¬p are■logically■equivalent.
14.■ Prove pq rp qr →→() ≡∧ → () ■without using■truth■table.
15.■ Prove■that■ pq rp qr →¬∨¬ ∨¬∨ ≡ () ()using■truth■table.
EXERCISE 12.3
Choose the correct or the most suitable answer from the given four alternatives.
1.■A■binary■operation■on ■a■set■ Sis■a■function■from
■ ■(1)■ SS® (2) SS S ×() → (3)■SS S →×() (4) SS SS ×() →×()
2.■Subtraction■is■not■a■binary■operation■in
■ ■(1)■ ■ (2) ■■ (3)■■ (4) ■
3.■Which■one■of■the■following■is■a■binary■operation■on■ ■?
■ ■(1)■Subtraction■ (2)■Multiplication■ (3)■Division■ (4)■ All■the■above
4.■In■the■set■■■of■real■numbers■‘*’■is■defined■as■follows.■Which■one■of■the■following■is■not■a■
binary■operation■on ■?
■ ■(1)■ ab∗= min ()ab× (2) ab∗=■max (, )ab
■ ■(3)■ ab a∗= (4) ab ab∗=
5.■The■operation■ *defined■by■ abab∗=7■is■not■a■binary■operation■on
■ ■(1)■ ■+ (2) ■■ (3)■■ (4) ■
6.■In■the■set■ ■■define ab ab ab ■=+ +.■For■what■value■of■y,■ 35 7 ■■y() =?
■ ■(1)■ y=2
3 (2) y=−2
3■ (3)■ y=−3
2 (4) y=4
7.■If■ab ab ∗= +22■on■the■real■numbers■then■ * is
■ ■(1)■commutative■but■not■associative■ (2)■associative■but■not■commutative
■ ■(3)■both■commutative ■and■associative■ (4)■neither■commutative■nor■associative
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 12_Discrete [Link] 249 16-12-2022 16:55:04

250
XII - Mathematics 8.■■Which■one■of■the■following■statements■has■the■truth■value T?
■ ■(1)■ sinxis■an■even■function.
■ ■(2)■Every■square■matrix■is■non-singular
■ ■(3)■The■product■of■complex■number■and■its■conjugate■is■purely■imaginary
(4) 5is■an■irrational ■number
9.■■Which■one■of■the■following■statements■has■truth■value F?
■ ■(1)■Chennai■is■in■India■or■ 2■is■an■integer
■ ■(2)■Chennai■is■in■India■or■ 2■is■an■irrational■number
■ ■(3)■Chennai■is■in■China■or■ 2■is■an■integer
■ ■(4)■Chennai■is■in■China■or■ 2■is■an■irrational■number
10.■If■a■compound■ statement■involves■3■simple■statements,■ then■the■number■of■rows■in■the■truth■
table is
■ ■(1)■9 (2) 8■ (3)■6 (4) 3
11.■Which■one■is■the■inverse■of■the■statement■ () () pq pq ∨→ ∧?
■ ■(1)■ () () pq pq ∧→ ∨ (2) ¬∨ →∧ () () pq pq
■ ■(3)■ () () ¬∨¬→ ¬∧¬ pq pq (4) () () ¬∧¬→ ¬∨¬ pq pq
12.■■Which■one■is■the■contrapositive■of■the■statement■ ()pq r∨→?
■ ■(1)■ ¬→¬∧¬ rp q () (2) ¬→ ∨ rp q ()
■ ■(3)■ rp q →∧() (4) pq r→∨()
13.■The■truth■table■for ()pq q ∧∨ ¬is■given■below
p q () () pq ¬q ∧∨
T T (a)
T F (b)
F T (c)
F F (d)
Which■one■of■the■following■is■true?
(a) (b) (c) (d)
■ ■(1)■ T T T T
(2) T F T T
■ ■(3)■ T T F T
(4) T F F F
14.■In■the■last■column■of■the■truth■table■for■¬∨ ¬()pq■the■number■of■final■outcomes■of■the■truth■
value■ ''F are
■ ■(1)■1■ (2)■2■ (3)■3■ (4)■4
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 12_Discrete [Link] 250 16-12-2022 16:55:08

Discrete Mathematics251 15.■Which■one■of■the■following■is■incorrect?■For■any■two■propositions■ pand q,■we■hav

■ ■(1)■¬■¬∨ ≡¬∧¬ ()pq pq (2) ¬■¬∧ ≡¬∨¬ ()pq pq
■ ■(3)■¬■¬∨ ≡¬∨¬ ()pq pq (4) ¬■¬¬≡ ()pp
16.
p q pq p ∧→¬ ()
T T (a)
T F (b)
F T (c)
F F (d)
■ ■Which■one■of■the■following■is■correct■for■the■truth■value■of■■ pq p ∧() →¬ ¬■p?
(a) (b) (c) (d)
■ ■(1)■ T T T T
(2) F T T T
■ ■(3)■ F F T T
(4) T T T F
17.■The■dual■of■ ¬■¬∨ ∨∨ ∧¬ () [( )] pq pp r is
■ ■(1)■■¬■¬∧ ∧∨ ∧¬ () [( )] pq pp r (2) () [( )] pq pp r ∧∧ ∧∨ ¬
■ ■(3)■■¬■¬∧ ∧∧ ∧ () [( )] pq pp r (4) ¬■¬∧ ∧∧ ∨¬ () [( )] pq pp r
18.■■The■proposition■ pp q ∧¬∨ () is
■ ■(1)■a■tautology■ ■ (2)■a■contradiction
■ ■(3)■logically■equivalent■to■ pqÙ■ (4)■logically■equivalent■to■ pqÚ
19.■■Determine■the■truth■value■of■each■of■the■following■statements:
(a) 42 5+= and63 9+= (b) 32 5+= and 61 7+=
(c) 45 9+= and12 4+= (d) 32 5+= and 47 11+=
(a) (b) (c) (d)
■ ■(1)■ F T F T
(2) T F T F
■ ■(3)■ T T F F
(4) F F T T
20.■Which■one■of■the■following■is■not■true?
■ ■(1)■Negation■of■a■negation■of■a■statement■is■the■statement■itself.
■ ■(2)■If■the■last■column■ of■the■truth■table■contains■only■ T■then■it■is■a■tautology.
■ ■(3)■If■the■last■column■ of■its■truth■table■contains■only■ F then it is a contradiction
■ ■(4)■If■ p and q are■any■two■statements■then ■pq«is■a■tautology.
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 12_Discrete [Link] 251 16-12-2022 16:55:11

252
XII - MathematicsSUMMARY
■ (1)■■A■binary operation *■on■a■non-empty■ set■S■is■a■rule,■which■associates■ to■each■ordered■pair■
(, )ab■of■elements■ ab, in S■an■unique■element■ ab* in S.
(2) Commutative property: Any■binary■operation■ *defined■on■a■nonempty■set■Sis■said■to■satisfy■
the■commutative■property,■if ab ba ab S ∗= ∗∈∀,, .
■ (3)■ Associative property: Any■binary■operation *defined■on■a■nonempty■ set■Sis■said■to■satisfy■
the■associative■property,■if ab ca bc abc S ∗∗ =∗ ∗∈∀ () () ,, , .
(4) Existence of identity property: An■element■ eSÎis said to be the Identity Element of■Sunder■
the■binary■operation■ *■if■for■all■ aSÎwe■have■that■ ae a∗= and ea a∗= .
(5) Existence of inverse property: If■an■identity■element■ eexists■and■if■for■every■ aSÎ,■there■
exists■ b in S■such■that■ ab e∗= and ba e∗= then bSÎsaid to be the Inverse Element of■a.
In■such■instance,■we■write■ ba=−1.
■ (6)■ Uniqueness of Identity: In■an■algebraic■structure■the■identity■element■(if■exists)■must■be■
unique.
(7) Uniqueness of Inverse: In■an■algebraic■structure■the■inverse■of■an■element■(if■exists)■must■be■
unique.
■ (8)■ A■Boolean Matrix is■a■real■matrix■whose■entries■are■either■ 0or 1.
■ (9)■ Modular arithmetic: Let n be■a■positive■integer■greater■than■1■■called■the■modulus.■We■say■
that■two■integers■ a and b■are■congruent■ modulo■ n■if■b − a■is■divisible■by■n.■■In■other■words■
ab≡(mod n) means ab nk −= ⋅for■some■integer■ kand b is the least non-negative integer
reminder when■ a ■is■divided■by■ n. ()01≤≤ − bn
■(10)■ Mathematical■logic■is■a■study■of■reasoning■through■mathematical■symbols.
■(11)■ Let pbe■a■simple■statement.■ Then■the■negation■of■p■is■a■statement■ whose■truth■value■is■
opposite■to■that■ofp.■It■is■denoted■by■p,■read■as not [Link]■truth■value■of■■p is T, ifpis
F,■otherwise■it■is■ F.
■(12)■ Let■ p and q■be■any■two■simple■statements.■ The■ conjunction of■p and q is obtained by
connecting■ p and q■by■the■word■ and.■It■is■denoted■by■pq∧,■read■as■‘p■■conjunction■ q’■or■
‘p hat q’.■The■truth■value■of■pq∧ is T,■whenever■both■ p and q are T and it is F■otherwise.
■(13)■ The■ disjunction ■of■any■two■simple■statements■ pand qis■the■compound■ statement■obtained■by■
connecting■ pand qby■the■word■‘or’.■It■is■denoted■by■pq∨,■read■as‘p■disjunction■ q’■or■‘p
cup■q’.The■truth■value■of■ pq∨ is F,■whenever■both■ pand qare Fand it is Totherwise.
■(14)■ The■ conditional statement of■any■two■statements■ p and q■is■the■statement,■ ‘If■p,■then■ q’■
and it is denoted by pq→ . The statement pq→■has■a■truth■value■ F■when■ q■has■the■truth■
value■ F and p■has■the■truth■value■ T;■otherwise■it■has■the■truth■value■ T.
■(15)■ The■ bi-conditional statement of■any■two■statements■ p and qis■the■statement■‘p■if■and■only■
if■q’■and■is■denoted■by■pq↔ The statement pq↔■has■the■truth■value■ T■whenever■both■ p and
q■have■identical■truth■values;■otherwise■has■the■truth■value■ F.
■(16)■ A■statement■is■said■to■be■a■tautology if■its■truth■value■is■always■ Tirrespective■ of■the■truth■
values■of■its■component■statements.■It■is■denoted■by■ ■.
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 12_Discrete [Link] 252 16-12-2022 16:55:17

Discrete Mathematics253 (17) A statement is said to be a contradiction if its truth value is always F irrespective of the truth
values of its component statements. It is denoted by ■.
(18) A statement which is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called contingency.
(19) Any two compound statements Aand Bare said to be logically equivalent or simply equivalent
if the columns corresponding to A and B in the truth table have identical truth values. The
logical equivalence of the statements A and Bis denoted by AB≡ or AB⇔ . Further note
that if A and Bare logically equivalent, then AB↔ must be a tautology.
(20) Some laws of equivalence:
Idempotent Laws: (i) pp p ∨≡ (ii) pp p ∧≡ .
Commutative Laws: (i) pq qp ∨≡ ∨ (ii) pq qp ∧≡ ∧.
Associative Laws: (i) pq rp qr ∨∨() ≡∨() ∨(ii) pq rp qr ∧∧() ≡∧() ∧.
Distributive Laws: (i) pq rp qp r ∨∧ ≡∨ ∧∨ () () ()
(ii) pq rp qp r ∧∨ ≡∧ ∨∧ () () ()
Identity Laws: (i) p∨■ ≡■ and p∨■≡p
(ii) p∧■ ≡pand p∧■≡■
Complement Laws : (i) pp∨¬≡■ and pp∧¬ ≡■
(ii) ¬ ■ ≡ ■ and ¬ ■≡ ■
Involution Law or Double Negation Law: ¬(¬p) ≡ p
De Morgan’ s Laws: (i) ¬∧ ≡¬∨¬ ()pq pq (ii) ¬∨ ≡¬∧¬ ()pq pq
Absorption Laws: (i) pp qp ∨∧ ≡ () (ii) pp qp ∧∨ ≡ ()
ICT CORNER
[Link] or Scan the QR Code
Open the Browser, type the URL Link given (or) Scan the QR code.
GeoGebra work book named “ 12th Standard Mathematics Vol-2 ” will open.
In the left side of work book there are chapters related to your text book. Click
on the chapter named “ Discrete Mathematics”. You can see several work sheets
related to the chapter. Go through all the work sheets.
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 12_Discrete [Link] 25312th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_CH 12_Discrete [Link] 2

254
XII - MathematicsChapter 7
EXERCISE 7.1
(1) (i) 21m/s (ii) 15 m/s and 27 m/s
 (2) (2)(i) 5sec (ii) 128 ft/s (iii)160 ft/s
(3) (i) 1,2 sec (ii) 34 m (iii) –6 ms/2, 6 m / s2
(4) 75 units (5)1
2kg/m,1
6kg/m
(6) 20π[Link]/s (7) 2πkm/s (8)9
10πm/min
(9) (i)−8
3 m/s (ii)[Link].m/sec (10) 70km/hr.
EXERCISE 7.2
(1) (i) 7 (ii) ∞ (2)10,()
(3) 03,() and 42 5,−() (4) 21,−() and −()21,
(5) (i) 22xy+= ;xy−=21 (ii) 22xy−= −;xy+=24
(iii) xy−= 0;xy+= π (iv)42 5 xy+= ;24 5 xy−= −
(6) 12 15 xy−= ;12 17 xy−= − (7) xy+=27 ;xy+= − 21
(8) 27 14 coss in tx ty ( )+( )= ; 72 45 sinc os sincos tx ty tt ( )−( )= (9) tan−()13
EXERCISE 7.3
(1) (i) not continuous at x=0 (ii) not continuous at x=π
2 (iii) ff27()≠ ()
(2) (i)1
2 (ii) −+22 2 (iii)9
4
(3) (i) not continuous at x=0 (ii) not differentiable at x=−1
3
(4) (i) ±2
3 (ii) 7
(6) 320km (8) No. Since ′() fx cannot be [Link] any point in 02,() .
EXERCISE 7.4
(1) (i) exxx=+ ++ 1122
■ (ii) sinxxxx x=− +− +35 7
35 7■
(iii) cosxxxx=− +− + 124 624 6
■
(iv) log1234234
−( )=− ++ ++

 xxxx x■
(v) tan−()=− +− +135 7
35 7xxxx x■ (vi) cos223 45 6
12
22
42
6xxx x=− +− +■
(2) logxx xx x =−( )−−( )+−( )−−( )+ 11
211
311
4123 4■
(3) 2
211
141
241
3423
+−

−−

−−

+

 xx xππ π■
 (4) fx xx ()=− −() +−() 112ANSWERS
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_Answers.indd 254 16-12-2022 19:23:15

Answers255EXERCISE 7.5
(1) 1
2 (2) 2 (3) ∞ (4) 1 (5) 0 (6) 0
(7) -3
2 (8) 1 (9) e (10) 1 (11) 1
e
EXERCISE 7.6
(1) (i) absolute maximum = −1, absolute minimum = −26
(ii) absolute maximum = 16, absolute minimum = −1
(iii) absolute maximum = 9, absolute minimum = −9
8
(iv) absolute maximum = 33
2, absolute minimum = 0
(2) (i) strictly increasing on −∞−() ,2 and 1,∞() , strictly decreasing on −()21,
local maximum = 20 local minimum = −7
(ii) strictly decreasing on −∞() ,5and 5,∞() . No local extremum.
(iii) strictly increasing on −∞∞(),. No local extremum.
(iv) strictly decreasing on 01,() , strictly increasing on 1,∞() . local minimum =1
3
(v) strictly increasing on 04,π

,3
45
4ππ,

, and 7
42ππ,

.
strictly decreasing on ππ
43
4,

and 5
47
4ππ,

. local maximum=11
2at x=π
4,5
4π.
local minimum=9
2at x=3
4π, 7
4π.
EXERCISE 7.7
(1) (i) concave upwards on −∞() ,2and 4,∞() . Concave downwards on 24,()
■ ■■ ■Points■of■inflection■ 21 6,−() and 40,()
(ii) concave upwards on 3
47
4ππ,

. Concave downwards on 03
4,π 

and 7
42ππ,


■ ■■ ■Points■of■inflection■3
40π,

and 7
40π,


(iii) concave upwards on 0,∞() . Concave downward on −∞() ,0
■ ■■ ■■Points■of■inflection■ 00,()
(2) (i)local minimum = −2 ; local maximum = 2 (ii)local minimum = −1
e
(iii)local minimum = 0 ; local maximum =1
2e
(3) strictly increasing on −∞−() ,1and 1
2,∞

. strictly increasing on −

11
2,
local maximum = 6 , local minimum = −3
4
concave downwards on −∞−

 ,1
4; concave upwards on −∞

1
4,.
■ ■ point■of■inflection −

1
421
8,
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_Answers.indd 255 16-12-2022 19:23:30

256
XII - MathematicsEXERCISE 7.8
(1) 6 , 6 (2) 25 25, (3) 50 (4) 1002m (5) 9cm ,6cm (6) 1200m
(7) 10 2102, (9) 2r,r
2 (10) 6cm , 6cm ,3cm (11) 32≠π■,0
EXERCISE 7.9
(1) (i) x=−1,x=1,y=1 (ii) x=−1,yx=− 1, (iii) y=−3,y=3
(iv) yx=− 9,x=−3
EXERCISE 7.10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(1) (2) (2) (2) (1) (2) (3) (4) (3) (1)
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(3) (4) (3) (4) (2) (3) (3) (1) (4) (3)
Chapter 8
Exercise 8.1
1. (i) 3.0074 2. (i) 24.73 (ii) 1.9688 (iii) 2.963
3. (i) 74x− (ii) 94
5−x (iii) x+1
4
4. (i)0.0225π■cm2, (ii) 0.006 cm2 (iii) 0.6%
5. (i) V olume decreases by 80≠π■ cm3 (ii) Surface area decreases by 16≠π■ cm2 6. 1%
Exercise 8.2
1. (i) 21 28 7
342
2() ()
()−−
−xx
xdx (ii) 4
32
321
3cos
(s in )x
xdx
+ (iii) ex xx xd xxx257 2225 12 1−+−− −− [( )cos() sin( )]
2. (i) 0.7 (ii) 0.18 3. (i) ∆f=3 125 . , df=20. (ii) ∆f=011 ., df=01.
4. 3.0013029 5. (i) 6
π cm (ii) 40
π% 6. 30≠π■ mm3 7. 0.4π■ mm2 8. 8000
9. (i) ■3 words (ii) ■1 word 10. 5.25π■cm2 , 4.76% 1 1. 60 cm3, 61.2 cm3
Exercise 8.3
1. 1
8 2. 1 4. cos( ) 1
Exercise 8.4
1. (i) 27, −14 (ii) 11, −4 (iii) 2, 0, 4 (iv) ee2221 18 log, log () − () +()
3. xy
xyyx
yxz22
222
223−−+ , , 6yz 4. 322 2
33 3xy z
xy z++()
++()
5. (i) exy+6, 6y, xey, exy+6
(ii) −
+()15
532xy, −
+()25
532xy, −
+()9
532xy, −
+()15
532xy (iii) 3, 22 55− cosx, 0, 3
10. (i) 72 84 0040 05 005 200022xy xy xy ++ −− − .. . (ii) 24, −48, Keeping y constant and
increasing x increases profit.
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_Answers.indd 25612th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_Answers.indd 256 25/11/2024 17:28:3725/11/2024 17:

Answers257Exercise 8.5
1. 67 7 xy−− 2.−+ + ()xy20 16 3. 21
2xy dx xy dy −() +− +


4. yz dx xz dy yx dz +() ++() ++()
Exercise 8.6
1. ee tt et tttt t23 1243sins in coss in cos ++ + () , 1
2. 11 21 62232 22 2+() +() −+ () + et et te et t tt ttcoss insins incos
3. 42et 4. −− []−et tt222sinc os 5.18 33 43ee se ss sss s−+ − coss in sincos, 15
6. e
e12+, 3
1221 e
ee++−tan
7. te ts ts stst2222 sinc os () + () , du
dtse tt ss tst= () + () 2222sinc os s , esinc os 12 1 ()+ () ,
e21 1 sinc os ()+ () 
8. 35 322 22 33 2se ee ss es ett tt t() ,( ), /g16/g14/g16/g16 9. 21 2 uv+() , 22uv−() , 3, −3
2
Exercise 8.7
1. (i) not homogeneous (ii) Homogeneous, deg.3 (iii) homogeneous, deg.0
(iv) not homogeneous 2. Degree 3 3. Degree 1 6. 5
Exercise 8.8
12345678
(2) (2) (2) (4) (3) (2) (4) (2)
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(4) (1) (2) (3) (2) (4) (1)
Chapter 9
Exercise 9.1
1. 0.6 2. 0.855 3. 0.375
Exercise 9.2
1. (i) 13
2 (ii) 25
3
Exercise 9.3
1. (i) 1
45
3log (ii) p
8 (iii) p
21- (iv) eπ
2 (v) 8
21 (vi) 1
2
2. (i) 0 (ii) p (iii) p-2
4 (iv) 0 (v) 0 (vi) 13
10 (vii) p
4
(viii) π
82log (ix) pp22−() (x) p
8 (xi) π2
2
Exercise 9.4
1. 3
819
82--e 2. 1
2121
9p+

 3. 1414+−

eππ 4. -p
4
Exercise 9.5
1. (i) p
26 (ii). p
65
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258
XII - MathematicsExercise 9.6
1. (i) 63
512π (ii) 16
35 (iii) 5
64p (iv) 8
45 (v) p
32 (vi) 64
35 (vii) 1
24 (viii) 1
60
Exercise 9.7
 1. (i) 5
36! (ii) 29 (2) 1
8
Exercise 9.8
1. 7.5 2. 2 3. 15 4. 36 5. 22 6. log 2 7. 9
2 8. yes, 16
3 9. 4
3 10. 4
343π+()
Exercise 9.9
1. 4
5p 2. p
414−−e 3. 8p 4. 2
15π 5. 14
33πm 6. 1000
33πcm
Exercise 9.10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(1) (3) (3) (4) (4) (3) (3) (3) (2) (1)
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(4) (2) (2) (4) (4) (4) (3) (4) (2) (1)
Chapter 10

Exercise 10.1

Exercise 10.1
1. (i) 1,1 (ii) 3,2 (iii) 2, does not exist (iv) 1, 2 (v) 1,4
(vi) 2,2 (vii) 2,6 (viii) 2, does not exist (ix) 3,1 (x) 1, 1

Exercise 10.2

Exercise 10.2
1. (i) dQ
dtkQ= (ii) dP
dtkP P =− ()500000 (iii) dP
dTkP
T=2 (iv) dx
dtx=+2
25400 2. dr
dtk=−

Exercise 10.3

Exercise 10.3
1. (i) dy
dx2
20= (ii) dx
dy2
20= 2. rdy
dxxdy
dxy222
1+





=−


3. xx ydy
dxy2220+− = 4. 203ay y′′+′= 5. xy y ′−− = 22 0 6. xy xyy yy ′+ ′′−′=20
 7. dy
dxy2
264= [Link] yx xy ′′+ ′+− −= 22 02

Exercise 10.4

Exercise 10.4
2. (i) m=−2 (ii) m=23, 3. 24 82yx=+

Exercise 10.5

Exercise 10.5
1. FF kVekt
M=−() 2. ke vgx
k 22
212−

=− 3. yx
x=−
+1
1
4. (i) sins in−−=+11yx C (ii)yx C tan−=1 (iii) siny
xa−

=1 (iv)eexCxy++ =−4
4
(v) ex Cy+() = 1sin (vi) sinx
yenxc 

=+ (vii) 32 5323
2 yx C =− −() + (viii) sinl og ye xCx=+
12th_Maths_Vol 2_EM_Answers.indd 258 16-12-2022 19:24:17

Answers259 (ix) secs in yx C =+2 (x)1

2xy xy xy xC +() ++ () +() =+ sinc os

Exercise 10.6

Exercise 10.6
1. sinl ogy
xCx

= 2. yex
y=C3
33 3. eC yx
y=log 4. 3223xy yC+=
5. xy xy C22−= 6. Cx ey
x=

tan 7. yx ey
x+=33 8. xe0 3 =±

Exercise 10.7

Exercise 10.7
1. yx Cx =+sinc os 2. yx
xCx =
−+−()−− sin1
221
2
11 3. yx xx C +() =+ coss in
4. yxxxx xC22 21242 4 /g14/g11/g12 /g32/g14 /g14/g14 /g14/g14 log 5. xy yC252=+
 6. xy xx C sinc os+= 7. yeeCxx
sinsin
−−
=+112
2 8. yx
xxx xC112
3+
−

=+ +

9. xy yC +=−tan1 10. yxxC logcos+=2

2 11. 2242yx aC xa =+() ++ ()
12. yxxxC 122
43+() =− +sin 13. 42 422yx xx xC =− + log 14. xyxxxC244
41 6=− + log
15. 2332xy x=+

Exercise 10.8

Exercise 10.8
1. After 10 hours the number of bacteria as 9 tim es the original number of bacteria.
2. Pt
=

 3000004
340 3. iC eRt
L=− 4. ve=10
2 5. Pe=100000 075 .
6. 9
1010
8 % of the radioactive element will remain after 1000 years.
7. (i) 65 33 .°C (ii) 51.91 mts
8. (i) TF■151°
(ii) t=22 523 . . She drunk the coffee between 10.22 am and 10.30 am approximately.
9. 20° 10. xet
=−

−
100 13
50

Exercise 10.9

Exercise 10.9
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A (1) (2) (3) (2) (2) (3) (3) (2) (2) (3)
Q 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A (3) (3) (1) (1) (2) (3) (2) (4) (2) (4)
Q 21 22 23 24 25
A (1) (1) (2) (2) (1)
Chapter 11
EXERCISE 11.1
(1) Values of Random Variable 0 1 2 3 Total
Number of points in inverse image 1 3 3 1 8
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260
XII - Mathematics(2) Values of Random Variable 0 1 2 3 Total
Number of points in inverse image 10 40 30 4 84
(3) Values of Random Variable –20 5 30 Total
Number of points in inverse image 28 48 15 91
(4) Values of Random Variable 4 5 6 7 8 Total
Number of points in inverse image 1 4 10 12 9 36
EXERCISE 11.2
(1) fxx
x()==
=

1
803
3
812for
for ,
, (2) (i) x 2 4 6 8 10 Total
fx() 1
364
3610
3612
369
361
(2) (ii) Fxx
x
x
x()=<
≤<
≤<
≤<02
1
3624
5
3646
15
3668
27
36for
for
for
for
for 881 0
11 0≤<
≤< ∞

x
x for (iii) 13
18 (iv) 31
36
(3) fxx
x
x(),
, ==
=
=

1
413
1
1604
3
82for
for
for , Fxx
x
x
x()=<
≤<
≤<
≤<00
1
1601
5
1612
11
1623
15
16for
for
for
for
for 334
14≤<
≤< ∞

x
x for
(4) (i) 8 (ii) Fxx
x
x
x()=<
≤<
≤<
≤< ∞

00
1
801
3
812
12for
for
for
for  (iii) 7
8
(ii) PX<() =10 35. (iii) PX≥() =20 40.(5) (i) x -1 0 1 2 3
fx()0.15 0.20 0.25 0.25 0.15
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Answers261 (6) (i) 1

6 (ii)17
36 (iii)5
6
(7) (a) x 0 1 2 3 4
fx() 1
21
101
51
101
10
(b) 4
5 (c)2
5
EXERCISE 11.3
(1) 4
(2) (i)0.16 (ii) 0.3 (iii) 0.75
 (3) (i) 1
400 (ii)Fxx
xx
x()=<
−≤ ≤
>

0 200
4001
2200 600
1 600for
for
for
(iii) 1
2
(4) (i) 1
3 (ii) 13--ex
(iii)11--e (iv) e-5
3 (v) 14
3--e
(5) (i)Fxx
xxx
xxx
x()=≤−
++ −≤ <
−+ +≤ <
≤

01
21
210
21
201
112
2
 
 (ii) 0.75
(6) (i) fx Fxx
xx
x() ()=′=<
+() ≤<
≤

