BIO2103 – Biochemistry
Lesson 2: Carbohydrates – Structure and Function
1. Define carbohydrates and describe their general empirical formula.
Answer: Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones with the general empirical formula
(CH2O)n.
2. Explain why carbohydrates are considered the most abundant biomolecules in the biosphere.
Answer: They serve as structural materials, energy storage molecules, and cellular protective
components in plants, animals, and microorganisms.
3. Differentiate monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides based on size.
Answer: Monosaccharides contain a single sugar unit; oligosaccharides contain 3–10 units;
polysaccharides contain long chains of many monosaccharide units.
4. Distinguish between aldoses and ketoses structurally.
Answer: Aldoses contain an aldehyde functional group, whereas ketoses contain a ketone functional
group.
5. Describe the significance of glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone in carbohydrate chemistry.
Answer: Glyceraldehyde is the simplest aldose, while dihydroxyacetone is the simplest ketose.
6. Define epimers and give an example.
Answer: Epimers are monosaccharides that differ in configuration at only one chiral carbon, such as
D-glucose and D-mannose.
7. Explain the formation of a hemiacetal in aldoses.
Answer: An intramolecular reaction between an alcohol and an aldehyde group forms a cyclic
hemiacetal.
8. Describe hemiketal formation in ketoses.
Answer: An intramolecular reaction between an alcohol and a ketone group forms a cyclic hemiketal.
9. Define the anomeric carbon and its importance.
Answer: The anomeric carbon is the former carbonyl carbon that becomes chiral after cyclization,
giving rise to α and β anomers.
10. Differentiate α and β anomers.
Answer: They differ in the configuration of the hydroxyl group at the anomeric carbon.
11. Explain chair conformations in pyranose sugars.
Answer: Pyranose rings adopt chair conformations where substituents occupy axial or equatorial
positions.
12. Define reducing sugars and explain why all monosaccharides are reducing sugars.
Answer: Reducing sugars have free anomeric carbons capable of reducing oxidizing agents; all
monosaccharides possess free anomeric carbons.
13. Describe the biological relevance of sugar acids.
Answer: Sugar acids such as glucuronic acid serve as precursors for proteoglycans and are involved
in detoxification pathways.
14. Define sugar alcohols and state how they are formed.
Answer: Sugar alcohols (alditols) are formed by mild reduction of monosaccharides.
15. Explain what deoxy sugars are and provide a biological example.
Answer: Deoxy sugars lack an oxygen atom in place of an –OH group; β-D-2-deoxyribose is a
component of DNA.
16. Describe amino sugars and their importance.
Answer: Amino sugars contain an acetylated amine replacing an –OH group and are important in cell
recognition and structure.
17. Define sugar esters and state their metabolic relevance.
Answer: Sugar esters contain phosphate groups and serve as key intermediates in metabolic
pathways.
18. Define disaccharides and explain glycosidic linkage formation.
Answer: Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds formed via
condensation reactions.
19. Compare starch and glycogen structurally.
Answer: Both contain α(1→4) and α(1→6) linkages, but glycogen is more highly branched than starch.
20. Distinguish amylose from amylopectin.
Answer: Amylose is a linear α(1→4) polymer, while amylopectin contains α(1→4) chains with α(1→6)
branching points.
21. Explain why glycogen is suited for rapid energy mobilization in animals.
Answer: Its extensive branching increases solubility and provides multiple sites for enzymatic
degradation.
22. Describe the structural difference between cellulose and starch.
Answer: Cellulose contains β(1→4) linkages forming rigid fibers, while starch contains α-linkages
forming helical structures.
23. Explain why humans cannot digest cellulose.
Answer: Humans lack enzymes capable of hydrolyzing β(1→4) glycosidic bonds.
24. Describe the structure and function of chitin.
Answer: Chitin is composed of β(1→4)-linked N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and provides structural support
in arthropods and fungi.
25. Define peptidoglycan and its biological significance.
Answer: Peptidoglycan is a bacterial cell wall polymer consisting of alternating β(1→4)-linked sugars
cross-linked with peptides.
26. Differentiate homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides.
Answer: Homopolysaccharides contain one type of monosaccharide; heteropolysaccharides contain
two or more types.
27. Describe the composition of agar and its application.
Answer: Agar contains agarose and agaropectin and is used as a solidifying agent in microbiological
media.
28. Explain the biological role of hyaluronate.
Answer: Hyaluronate is a glycosaminoglycan involved in lubrication of connective tissues and
extracellular matrix structure.
29. Describe the function of heparin in humans.
Answer: Heparin is a highly sulfated glycosaminoglycan that functions as an anticoagulant.
30. Discuss the role of oligosaccharides in the ABO blood group system.
Answer: Specific oligosaccharide antigens on red blood cell surfaces determine ABO blood type.