Lab Reports

Observation
●​ Information derived from using our senses (taste, hearing, vision, touch, smell)
●​ Qualitative data (descriptive)
○​ Observation made without numbers
●​ Quantitative data (measurement
○​ Observations made with numbers

Inference
●​ A conclusion made based on observations, prior knowledge, and reasoning

Independent Variable
●​ The variable changed by the experimenter

Dependent Variable
●​ The variable that is measured or recorded in the experiment
●​ The variable that gets changed because the independent variable changed

Control Variable
●​ Variables unchanged in an experiment
●​ You can only change 1 variable in an experiment to get the best result

Control Group
●​ The group that is not changed, kept under normal conditions
●​ Used to compare to results of the experiment
WHMIS
Lab safety and WHMIS
●​ No student should be in a lab unsupervised
●​ Never eat or drink in a lab, food might pick up harmful chemicals
●​ Do not taste or smell any chemicals in the lab
●​ Safety goggles must be worn whenever there is the potential of eye damage
●​ No loose hair/clothing
●​ Be aware of what’s going on around you

Accidents or injuries
●​ Inform a teacher
●​ If chemicals are spilled on skin or in eyes, rinse with water right away
●​ If something breaks or spills, inform a teacher immediately
●​ If fire starts, inform staff immediately
○​ STOP DROP ROLL

Hazardous Household Product Symbols

●​ Poisonous
○​ May cause sickness or death if swallowed
●​ Explosive
○​ Can explode, or give off harmful vapours.
●​ Flammable
○​ Ignites if exposed to heat or sparks
●​ Corrosive
○​ Eats or wears away other materials
Triangle → Caution
Square → Poses moderate hazard
Octagon → Poses greatest hazard

WHMIS - Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System

●​ Exploding bomb
○​ Explosion or reactivity hazards
●​ Gas cylinder
○​ Gases under pressure
●​ Health hazard
○​ May cause or suspected of causing serious health effects
●​ Flame
○​ Fire hazards
●​ Corrosion
○​ Corrosive damage to metals, as well as skin, eyes
●​ Exclamation mark
○​ May case less serious health effects or damage the ozone layer
●​ Flame over circle
○​ Oxidizing hazards
●​ Skull and crossbones
○​ Cause death or toxicity with short exposure to small amounts
●​ Environment
○​ Damage to the aquatic environment
Chemistry
Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties and the changes it undergoes

Matter is anything that

●​ Takes up space
●​ Has mass

Particle theory of matter

●​ All matter is made up of tiny particles (Atoms and molecules)
●​ All particles of the same substance are identical
●​ Particles of matter attract one another
●​ There are empty spaces between particles which are large (HUGE) compared to the
particles themselves
●​ Particles are in constant motion

Physical
●​ Qualitative physical properties
○​ A characteristic of a substance that you can observe and measure without
changing the chemical composition of the substance
○​ Texture
■​ Fine, coarse, smooth, waxy
○​ Smell / odour
■​ Sweet, spicy, pungent, odourless, burnt
○​ Density
■​ m = DV
○​ Colour
■​ Red, colourless, black
○​ State
■​ Solid, liquid, gas, plasma
○​ Lustre
■​ Shiny, dull
○​ Taste
■​ Sweet, sour, salty, bitter
○​ Clarity/Transparency
■​ Clear, cloudy, opaque, translucent
○​ Ductility (strechiness of metal)
■​ Ability to be stretched into thin wires
○​ Mallebility
■​ Ability to be hammered or shaped by bending, hammering, pressure
●​ Quantitative physical properties
○​ Hardness
■​ Measure of the resistance to scratching
 ○​ Melting point/boiling point
○​ Solubility
■​ The ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent
○​ Viscosity
■​ How well a substance flows
○​ Density
■​ Ratio of the volume and mass of a substance

Chemical
●​ Describe how matter behaves when it reacts chemically, sometimes with other
substances
●​ Reaction to vinegar
●​ Tarnishing
●​ WHMIS
○​ Combustibility
○​ Flammability
○​ Reactivity
○​ Stability
○​ Corrosiveness
○​ Toxicity
○​ Acidity
○​ Oxidicity
○​ Radioactive
○​ Alkalinity
Atoms
 ●​ Central nucleus surrounded by orbits (energy levels)
●​ Atoms are mostly empty space
●​ Atomic particles are measured in atomic mass units (amu), where one amu represents
the approximate mass of a single proton or neutron
●​ Electrons orbiting closer to the nucleus has less energy, while electrons orbiting farther
from the nucleus have more energy

Subatomic Particles:
●​ Proton (+)
○​ Nucleus
○​ Mass of 1 amu (1.67 * 10-27 kg)
●​ Neutron (no charge)
○​ Nucleus
○​ Mass of 1 amu
●​ Electron (-)
○​ Found in orbits (energy levels)
○​ Mass of around 0 amu

Periodic table of elements

●​ Atomic number
○​ Number on top left or on top
○​ Number of protons
○​ Unique to each atom
○​ Number of electrons in a neutral atom
●​ Element symbol
○​ Abbreviation of r a chemical element
○​ Letter in the middle of the box
○​ Unique to each atom
○​ Derived from Latin name
●​ Element name
○​ Under element symbol
●​ Atomic mass
○​ On the bottom of the box
○​ Average atomic mass (u)
○​ Related to number of protons and neutrons
●​ Mass number
○​ Protons + Neutrons (nucleons) in an atom

Neutral atoms
●​ Protons = Electrons
Isotopes:
●​ Atoms of the same element (constant number of protons) that have a different number
of neutrons

Ion
●​ Number of protons and electrons are not equal
●​ Calculated by: Protons - Electrons
●​ If there are more protons, there should be a positive charge
●​ If there are more electrons, there should be a negative charge
Periodic Table of Elements
 ●​ Periodic table is a table of elements
●​ Element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into a simpler chemical
substance by any physical or chemical means
●​ Compounds are any pure substance that is composed of two or more different
elements
●​ Elements are the building blocks of all substances

Metals vs Non metals

●​ Bold line that resembles a downward staircase separates metals and non-metals
●​ Elements located along the staircase line are called metalloids
○​ Have properties of both metals and non-metals
○​ The look like metals (shiny) but are brittle (shatter when struck)
○​ Semiconductors
○​ Often behave like non metals in chemical reactions
●​ Metals
○​ Located on left and central parts of the periodic table
○​ Shiny lustre that we identify as metallic
○​ Malleable and ductile
○​ Eg. Copper, Silver, Gold
○​ Lithium, sodium, and potassium are metallic when freshly cut
○​ Easy to shape, and are good conductors of thermal energy
●​ Non-metals
○​ Dull, brittle, and shatters easily if pounded or stretched
○​ Poor conductors of thermal energy and electricity
○​ Good insulators
○​ Elements that are not metallic
○​ Upper right portion of the periodic table
○​ Mostly gases and dull powdery solids
○​ Only liquid non-metal is bromine (element 35)

Chemical families
●​ Same column = same group or chemical family (up and down)
●​ Elements in the same row show increasing or decreasing reactivity (right to left)
○​ Group 1 alkali metals are more reactive than Group 2
○​ Group 17 halogens are more reactive than group 16 elements
○​ Rows = Periods
■​ Cycles
●​ First column from the left are called alkali metals (Group 1 elements)
○​ Lithium, sodium, potassium
○​ Shiny, silvery, and soft
○​ Highly reactive
●​ Second column to the left are elements called alkaline earth metals (Group 2
elements)
○​ Beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium
○​ Shiny and silver, but not as soft or reactive as the alkali metals
○​ Burn with bright, colourful flames
○​ Often used in fireworks
●​ Elements in the column on the far right of the periodic table are called noble gases
(Group 18 elements)
○​ Stable nature or unreactivity of these elements
○​ Low density of helium
○​ Neon for neon outdoor signs
○​ Colourless, odourless, and tasteless, they glow brightly when an electrical
current is passed through them
○​ Argon glows blue, krypton glows pink, and xenon glows purple
○​ With exception of radon, noble gases are also non-toxic
●​ Column left of the noble gases are called halogens (Group 17 elements)
○​ Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine
○​ Rarely found in elemental form due to their reactive nature
○​ Form compounds with alkali metals
○​ Can be poisonous in large amounts
○​ Halogen lamps burn at extremely high temperatures, must be kept away from
flammable materials
GUESS method
25cm x 15 cm x 50 cm
0.4 g/ cm3

Mass

m = DV

m = 18,750 cm3 * 0.4 g / cm3

The mass of the block of wood is 7,500 grams or 7.5 kilograms

Given
Unknown
Equation
Substitute
Solution and statement

m=DV
1041.6
Physical and Chemical Changes
Physical change:
●​ Changes the form or state of the substance
●​ Chemical composition is not changed, nothing new is formed/created
●​ Most could be reversed (not always easily)
●​ Ex. Changes of state

Chemical change:
●​ Changes a substance into something else (new particles)
●​ New substance is formed with different properties that the original
●​ Final product is completely different from original substance and starting materials
●​ Most of the time cannot be undone
●​ Ex. WHMIS
●​ Evidence
○​ New colour
○​ New solid material called precipitate (only for liquids) is formed when combining
liquids
○​ New gas is formed (bubbles)
○​ Light is produced or heat is released
○​ New odour is detected

Station Reactants Evidence of chemical change

1 Magnesium and oxygen Bright light formed when

chemicals were mixed
Change in colour (silver to white)

2 Sulphuric acid and calcium Bubbled of new substance

carbonate (corrosive substance)
Melting appearance

3 Vinegar and bromothymol Changes in colour (clear +

blue greenish blue = off yellow)
clear

4 Copper(II) sulfate and Precipitate (solid)

potassium hydroxide Cloudy looking substance
Started settling down a little bit

5 Copper(II) chloride and Black (sandy looking) particles

aluminum falling from aluminum
Bubbles
Changes in colour

6 Barium hydroxide and Test tube (mixture) became cold

ammonium chloride Unpleasant odour