POLARIZATION
• Interference and diffraction are the phenomena that confirm the wave nature of light. But
the phenomenon could not establish whether light waves are longitudinal (or) transverse.
• When the phenomenon of polarization was discovered, it was established that light waves
are transverse in nature.
• Polarization is a property of waves that describes the orientation of their oscillations.
• In a transverse wave if all the vibrations are confined in a single direction, it is said to be
polarized.
POLARISATION
The process of converting unpolarized light into polarized light is called polarization.
(or)
The process of converting Ordinary light into extraordinary light is called polarization.
The light which vibrates in a single plane is called polarized light.
The light which vibrates in more than one plane is called unpolarized.
Polarizer: The material which is used for polarization is called polarizer.
Analyzer: The material that is used to analyze the polarized light is called the analyzer.
Calcites, Quartz, Tourmaline, and Nichol’s prism are examples of polarizers and analyzer.
Plane of Vibration: The plane in which the electric vector (E) vibrates, is called the plane of
vibration. Plane of Polarization: The plane which is perpendicular to the plane of vibration is
called the plane of
Polarization.
Polarization of light waves:
• Let us consider two identical tourmaline crystals P1 & P2 which cut their planes are parallel to
their crystallographic axes.
• When a beam of light passes through either of the plates, the emergent beam doesn’t differ.
• Where P1 is fixed and P2 is gradually rotated, it is found that the intensity of transmitted light
becomes maximum when both crystals are parallel to each other.
• The intensity decreases gradually the on rotating crystal P 2 and becomes zero when the crystals
are right angle to each other.
• By this above experiment, we can conclude that the light shows the one-sidedness property
which is only possible when the waves are transverse.
When ordinary light is passed through a pair of tourmaline crystal plates with their planes
parallel to each other, then the maximum intensity is obtained. When their planes are
perpendicular to each other, the intensity is zero. This shows that light is a transverse wave
motion.
Types of polarization: The types of polarization can be classified into three types, They are.
1. Linearly plane polarised light
2. Circularly plane-polarized light
3. Elliptically polarised light
Linearly plane polarised light:
When the amplitudes of electric (E) vectors of light change, but orientation remains constant, then
the path traced by electric vectors is a straight line. Hence, that polarized light is said to be linearly
plane-polarized light.
(or)
When the light wave propagates through any medium, if the vibrations of electric field vector are
parallel and follow the same plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation, the wave is said
to be plane polarised.
Circularly polarized light:
The projection of a wave on a plane intercepting the axis of propagation gives a circle with the
amplitude vector remaining constant.
I.e. The vector rotates in the clockwise direction with respect to the direction of propagation; it
results in right, circularly polarized light while the rotation anti-clockwise direction results in left
circularly polarized light.
(or)
When the coherent source of light waves of equal magnitude and perpendicular to each other
superpose, the magnitude of the resultant vector remains constant, but rotates about the direction
of the propagation such that it goes on sweeping a circular helix in space during the propagation.
Circularly polarised light.
Elliptically polarized light:
The projection of a wave on a plane intercepting the axis of propagating gives an ellipse and the
amplitude vector is not constant but varies periodically.
(or)
When the two coherent light waves of unequal magnitude and different in phase superpose, the
magnitude of their resultant electric vector changes with time and this vector also rotates about the
direction of propagation.
The tip of the electric vector sweeps a flattened helix in space and trace s an ellipse in a plane
perpendicular to the direction of the ray.
Methods of projection of plane-polarized light:
1. Polarization by reflection
2. Polarization by refraction (Pile of plates)
3. Polarization by double refraction (Birefringence)
Polarization by Reflection (Brewster’s Law) :
Polarization by Reflection
Brewster performed the experiment to study the polarization of light by reflection at different
surfaces.
And observed that for a particular angle of incidence known as the angle of polarization, the
reflected light is completely polarized in the plane of incidence,
i.e., having a plane of vibration perpendicular to the plane of incidence.
Brewester proved that the tangent of the angle of polarization (p), is numerically equal to the
refractive index (µ) of the medium.
i.e., µ = tan p.
A beam of unpolarized light is incident on a glass surface at a polarizing angle p.
The polarizing angle for air-glass is 57 o.
Apart of the incident light is reflected while a part is refracted. Let r be the angle of refraction.
µ = tan p……. (1)
from Snells Law,
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒑
µ = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 ………… (2)
Comparing 1 & 2
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒑
tan p = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒑
=
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝒑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
Sin r = cos p
= sin (90 o – p)
r = 90 – p
r + p = 90 o
Therefore, the reflected and refracted rays are at right angles to each other.
Polarization by Refraction (Pile of plates):
• We know that when unpolarized light is incident at a polarizing angle the reflected light is
completely plane polarized and transmitted light contains a greater proportion of light
vibrating parallel to the plane of incidence.
• If the process of reflection at a polarizing angle is repeated using no. of plates all inclined
at a polarizing angle, finally the transmitted light becomes purely plane polarized.
• Such an arrangement is known as pile of plates.
Polarization by Double Refraction:
When a beam of ordinary unpolarized light is passed through the calcite crystal, the refracted
light is split into two rays i.e., ordinary and extraordinary ray.
Ordinary ray: The ray that always obeys the laws of refraction and has vibrations perpendicular
section is known as ordinary ray.
Extraordinary ray: The ray that doesn’t obey the laws of refraction and has vibrations in the
principal section is called an extraordinary ray.
These both the rays are plane polarized. This phenomenon is known as double refraction.
There are two types of crystals:
Uniaxial: It has only one direction (optic axis) along the ray’s travel will the same velocities.
Ex: Calcite, Tourmaline and Quartz
Biaxial: There are two directions along which the velocities are same.
Ex: Topaz, Aragonite…etc.
Now the calcite crystal is rotated slowly in the direction it is observed that one image remains
stationary/constant while the other rotates in the direction of rotation of crystal.
The stationary images is known as ordinary image while the rotating one is extra-ordinary images.
• AB of unpolarized light incident on the calcite crystal at an angle of incident i.
• Inside the crystal, the ray breaks up into ordinary rays and extraordinary rays.
• The ordinary ray traveling along BD makes an angle of refraction r 1 with extraordinary
traveling along BC refraction r 2.
• The refractive indices of ordinary ray and extraordinary rays can be expressed as,
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒊
µo = and µe = .
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟐
1.O-ray obey Snell’s law and e-ray does not obey Snell’s law.
2. Velocity of o-ray is same in all directions and velocity of e-ray is different in different directions.
3. The velocities of o-ray and e-ray are same along the optic axis inside the crystals.
4. The velocity of o-ray is more in quartz (positive) crystal and velocity of e-ray is more in calcite
(negative) crystal.
5. For positive crystals ellipsoid is within the sphere and for negative crystals sphere is within the
ellipsoid is shown in the figure.
NICOL’s PRISM
Nicol’s Prism is a good polarizer as well as good analyzer. Nicol’s prism is working on the basic
principle of Total Internal Reflection.
Working Principle:
Total Internal Reflection
When the light travels from a denser medium to rarer medium, if the angle of incidence is greater
than the critical angle, the light totally reflected in the denser medium, this phenomenon is called
Total Internal Reflection.
Description of Nicol’s Prism:
1. Nicol’s prism is an important optical instrument, used to produce plane polarized light.
2. It was invented by William Nicol in 1828, hence it was called Nicol’s prism.
3. It was made from calcite crystal by cemented two pieces of calcite with Canada balsam (µ=1.55).
4. Nicol’s Prism eliminates O-ray by total internal reflection and produce only the polarized light.
5. Nicol’s Prism is a good polarizer as well as good analyser.
Construction of Nicol’s Prism:
[Link] length of the calcite crystal is taken 3 times of its width.
2. Grounded angles of the principal section of calcite is 68 0 and 112 0 instead of 71 0 & 109 0.
3. the crystal cut into two pieces by a plane perpendicular to the principal section PR and QS.
3. The calcite crystal cuts along its diagonal. After polished two faces cemented together in its
original positions with Canada balsam is called Nicol’s Prism.
4. Canada balsam is a transparent cement with refractive index µ = 1.55.
5. Canada balsam layer and optic axis makes an angle 90 0 and 48 0 with the end face of principal
section is as shown in the figure.
Working of Nicol’s Prism:
When a beam of ordinary light is incident on a Nicol’s prism, the refracted light splits up into two
refracted rays, one is ordinary ray and another is extraordinary ray. This is called double refraction
of light.
When a beam of light AB enters the faces PR, it is doubly refracted in to ordinary beam BO and
Extraordinary beam BE.
1. Both o-ray and e-ray travels towards the Canada balsam.
2. When the angle of incidence of the o-ray is greater than the critical angle (θc= 69 0 ) at Canada
balsam, that o-rays totally reflects into the same medium by total internal reflection.
refractive index of Canada balsam is µ = 1.55
for calcite crystal, µ 0 = 1.6504, µ e = 1.4864
𝟏.𝟓𝟓
Critical angle (θc) = sin−1 ( ) = 690
𝟏.𝟔𝟓𝟖𝟒
3. When e-ray is incident on the Canada balsam, it can easily transmit through canada balsam.
4. Finally, by eliminating O-ray Nicol’s prism produce e-ray only is shown in the figure.
5. Hence Nicol’s Prism is a good polarizer as well as good analyser.
Half wave plate :
Half wave plate is the thickness of the crystal plate at which the path difference between o -ray and
λ
e-ray inside the crystal is equal to .
𝟐
Consider a light of wavelength ‘λ’ falls normally on a crystal surface; the refracted light splits up
into o-ray and e-rays.
λ
Let ‘t’ is the thickness of crystal at which path difference of o -ray and e-ray is , then
𝟐
λ
Path difference of o-ray and e-ray = ……….1
𝟐
optical path of o-ray = µ ot,
optical path of e-ray = µ et
optical path difference between o-ray & e-ray = (µo - µe) t……..2
Form 1 & 2,
𝛌
(µo - µe) t = 𝟐
𝛌
t =
𝟐(µ𝒐 −µ𝒆 )
Quarter wave plate:
Quarter wave plate is the thickness of the crystal plate at which the path difference between o -ray
λ
and e-ray inside the crystal is equal to .
𝟒
Consider a light of wavelength ‘λ’ falls normally on a crystal surface; the refracted light splits up
into o-ray and e-rays.
λ
Let ‘t’ is the thickness of crystal at which path difference of o -ray and e-ray is , then
𝟒
Path difference of o-ray and e-ray = λ/4……………1
optical path of o-ray = µ ot,
optical path of e-ray = µ et
optical path difference between o-ray & e-ray = (µo - µe) t……..2
Form 1 & 2,
λ
(µo - µe) t = 𝟒
𝛌
t =
𝟒(µ𝒐 −µ𝒆 )