Chemistry, The Central Science, 11th edition

Theodore L. Brown; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.;

and Bruce E. Bursten

Chapter 2
Atoms, Molecules,
and Ions

John D. Bookstaver Atoms,

St. Charles Community College Molecules,
1 Ions
and
Cottleville, MO
2.1 The Atomic Theory of Matter

Atoms,
Molecules,
2 Ions
and
 The Atomic Theory of Matter
• Some Greek philosophers like Democritus
believed that there was a smallest particle—
“atomos” (uncuttable)—that made up all of
nature.
• The theory that atoms are the fundamental
building blocks of matter reemerged in the early
19th century, championed by an English chemist
“John Dalton” (1804).

Atoms,
Molecules,
3 Ions
and
 Dalton's Postulates
1) Each element is composed of extremely small particles
called atoms.
For example, an atom of the element oxygen; an tome of the
element hydrogen

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Dalton's Postulates
2. All atoms of a given element are identical to
one another in mass and other properties, but
the atoms of one element are different from the
atoms of all other elements.

Atoms,
Molecules,
5 Ions
and
 Dalton's Postulates

3. Atoms of one element cannot be changed into

atoms of a different element by chemical
reactions; atoms are neither created nor
destroyed in chemical reactions.

Atoms,
Molecules,
6 Ions
and
 Dalton’s Postulates
4. Compounds are formed when atoms of
more than one element combine; a given
compound always has the same relative
number and kind of atoms.

Atoms,
Molecules,
7 Ions
and
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory

• Dalton’s theory explains several laws of

chemical combination that were known
during his time:
Law of constant composition (postulate
4)
Law of conservation of mass (postulate
3)
Atoms,
Molecules,
8 Ions
and
 Law of Constant Composition
Joseph Proust (1754–1826)

• Compounds have a definite

composition. That means that the
relative number of atoms of each
element in the compound is the same in
any sample.
• This law was discovered by Joseph
Proust.
• This law was one of the laws on which
Dalton’s atomic theory was based. Atoms,
Molecules,
9 Ions
and
 Law of Conservation of Mass
• The total mass of materials present
after a chemical reaction is the same as
the total mass before the reaction.
• This law was discovered by Antoine
Lavoisier.
• This law was one of the laws on which
Dalton’s atomic theory was based.

Atoms,
Molecules,
10 Ions
and
Law of Conservation of Mass

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Law of Multiple Proportions
• If two elements, A and B, form more than one
compound, the masses of B that combine with a
given mass of A are in the ratio of small whole
numbers.
• John Dalton discovered this law while developing
his atomic theory.
• When two or more compounds exist from the
same elements, they can not have the same
relative number of atoms. H2O vs H2O2
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2.2 The Discovery of Atomic
Structure

Atoms,
Molecules,
13 Ions
and
The Discovery of Atomic Structure

• Today we know that the atom is

composed of subatomic particles.
• Atom is composed in part of electrically
charged particles, some with positive
charge and some with negative charge.
• Particles with the same charge repel
one another, whereas particles with
unlike charges attract one another.
Atoms,
Molecules,
14 Ions
and
 Cathode Rays and Electrons
• During the mid-1800s, scientists began
to study electrical discharge through a
glass tube pumped almost empty of air.
• When a high voltage was applied to the
electrodes in the tubes, radiation was
produced between the electrodes which
is called cathode rays, originated at
negative electrode and traveled to
positive electrode. Atoms,
Molecules,
15 Ions
and
 Thomson’s Experiment
Voltage source
- +

Vacuum tube

Metal Disks Atoms,

Molecules,
16 Ions
and
 Thomson’s Experiment
Voltage source
- +

 Passingan electric current makes a

beam appear to move from the
negative to the positive end Atoms,
Molecules,
17 Ions
and
 The Electron (Cathode Rays)

• Streams of negatively charged particles were found to

emanate from cathode tubes, causing fluorescence.
• J. J. Thomson is credited with their discovery (1897). Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Cathode Rays and Electrons
• Experiment showed that cathode rays are
deflected by electric or magnetic fields in a
way consistent with their being a stream of
negative charge.
• Thomson observed that cathode rays are the
same regardless of the identity of the cathode
material.
• In paper published in 1897, Thomson (British
physicist) described cathode rays as stream
of negatively charged particles of what
became known as “electron”
Atoms,
• (1906 Nobel Prize in Physics) Molecules,
19 Ions
and
 Cathode-ray tube with perpendicular
magnetic and electric fields

• The cathode rays (electrons) originate at the cathode and accelerated

toward the anode, which has a hole in its center. A narrow beam of
electrons passes through the hole and travels to the fluorescent screen.
the electric field deflected the rays in one direction and the magnetic
field deflected them in the opposite direction. The strengths of the Atoms,
electric and magnetic fields are adjusted so their effects cancel each Molecules,
20 Ions
and
other allowing the beam to travel a straight path to the screen.
 The Electron

Thomson measured the charge/mass ratio of the

electron to be 1.76  108 coulombs/gram (C/g). Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment
Once the charge/mass
ratio of the electron was
known, measuring
either quantity allowed
scientists to calculate
the other. In 1909,
Robert Millikan
(University of Chicago)
succeeded in
measuring the charge
of an electron using Oil
Drop Experiment. Atoms,
Molecules,
22 Ions
and
(1923 Nobel Prize in Physics)
 • It used to measure the charge of the
electron.
Millikan’s Oil • Small drops of oil were allowed to
Drop fall between electrically charged
plates. The drops picked up extra
Experiment electrons as a result of irradiation by
X-rays and so became negatively
charged.
• Millikan measured how varying the
voltage between the plates affected
the rate of fall.
• From these data he calculated the
negative charge on the drops.
Because the charge on any drop
was always some integral multiple
of 1.602  10-19 C, Millikan deduced
this value to be the charge of a
single electron.
• Electron mass= 1.602  10-19 C/ Atoms,
1.76  108 C/g Molecules,
23 Ions
and
= 9.10  10-28 g
 Radioactivity
• In 1896 the French scientist Henri Becquerel
discovered that a compound of uranium
spontaneously emits high-energy radiation.
• This spontaneous emission of radiation is
called radioactivity.
• At Becquerel’s suggestion, Marie Curie
(Polish physicist) and her husband Pierre,
began experiments to isolate the radioactive
components of the compound.
• British scientist Ernest Rutherford revealed
three types of radiation: alpha (), beta (b), Atoms,
and gamma ( ) Molecules,
24 Ions
and
 Radioactivity
•The paths of  and b radiation are bent by an electric field, although in
opposite directions  radiation is unaffected by the field.
•Rutherford showed that  and b rays consists of fast moving particles.

Figure 2.8. Behavior of , b, and  in an electric field.

Atoms,
Molecules,
25 Ions
and
 Radioactivity
• Three types of radiation were discovered by
Ernest Rutherford:
– α particles (positively charged)
– β particles (negatively charged, like electrons)
– γ rays (uncharged)

Atoms,

Figure 2.8. Behavior of , b, and  in an electric field. Molecules,

and Ions
 Radioactivity
• Gamma radiation is high • Alpha particles have a positive charge and
energy radiation similar to attracted to a negative plate. Alpha particle has
X-ray; it does not consist of a charge of 2+. Each alpha particle has a mass
particles and carries no of 7400 times that of an electron.
charge. •Beta particles are high speed electrons and
can be considered the radioactive equivalent of
• Gama rays are neutral, cathode rays they are attracted to a positive
they are waves of charged plate. Beta particle has a charge of 1-
electromagnetic energy, or
photons.

Atoms,
Molecules,
27 Ions
and
 The Nuclear Model of the
Atom
• With growing evidence that the atom is
composed of smaller particles, attention
was given to how the particles fit
together.
• Thomson (1900) proposed that the
atom consisted of a uniform positive
sphere of matter in which the electrons
were embedded like raisins in a pudding
or seeds in watermelon. Atoms,
Molecules,
28 Ions
and
The Atom, circa 1900
• J.J. Thomson’s plum-
pudding model of
atom. Ernest
Rutherford proved
this model wrong
• It featured a positive
sphere of matter with
negative electrons
imbedded in it.
Atoms,
Molecules,
29 Ions
and
 The Nuclear Model of the
Atom
• Rutherford was studying the angles at which  particles were deflected,
or scattered, as they passed through a thin sheet of gold foil.
• He discovered that almost all particles passed directly through the foil
without deflection, with a few particles deflected about 1 degree.
• Ernest Marsden, an undergraduate student working in Rutherford’
laboratory, look for scattering at large angles.
• To everyone’s surprise, a small amount of scattering was observed at
large angles, with some particles scattered back in the direction
from which they had come.
• The explanation for these results was not immediately obvious,
but they were clearly inconsistent with Thomson’s plum-pudding
model
Atoms,
Molecules,
30 Ions
and
Discovery of the Nucleus

Ernest
Rutherford shot
 particles at a
thin sheet of
gold foil and
observed the
pattern of scatter
of the particles.

Atoms,
Molecules,
(1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry) and Ions
 The Nuclear Model of the
Atom
• Rutherford explained the results by postulating the
nuclear model of the atom.
• In which most of the mass of each gold atom and all
of its positive charge reside in a very small, extremely
dense region that called nucleus
• Most of the volume of an atom is empty space in
which electrons move around the nucleus, which
would explain why most a particles passed through
the foil without deflection.
• Subsequent experiments led to the discovery of
positive particles (proton) and neutral particles Atoms,
(neutrons) in the nucleus Molecules,
32 and Ions
 The Nuclear Atom

Since some particles

were deflected at
large angles,
Thomson’s model
could not be correct.
This led to the nuclear
view of the atom.
Rutherford discovered
the nucleus in atoms
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Rutherford’s Contribution to
the Atomic Theory

• The atom is mostly empty space.

• The nucleus is a small, dense
core with a positive charge.

Atoms,
Molecules,
34 Ions
and
 Other Subatomic Particles

• Protons were discovered by Rutherford in

1919.
• Neutrons were discovered by James
Chadwick in 1932. (1935 Noble Prize in Physics)

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2.3 The Modern View of Atomic
Structure

Atoms,
Molecules,
36 Ions
and
 The Modern View of Atomic
Structure
• The charge of electron is -1.602 10-19C “electronic charge”
• The charge of a proton is equal in magnitude, +1.602  10-19 C.
• Neutrons are electrically neutral.
• Every atom has an equal number of electrons and protons, so
atoms have no net electrical charge.
• Protons and neutrons reside in the tiny nucleus of the atom.
• The vast majority of an atom’s volume is the space in which the
electrons reside.
• The electrons are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by
electrostatic force.

Atoms,
Molecules,
37 Ions
and
 The structure of atom
• Rutherford postulated a
very small, dense positive
center with the electrons
around the outside.
• Most of the atom is space.
• Atoms are very small;
1–5 Å or 100–500 pm.
• Protons and neutrons are
found in the nucleus;
electrons travel around
the nucleus.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Subatomic Particles

• Most atoms have diameters between 1

 10-10 m and 5 10-10 m.
• Angstrom (Å) non SI unit is used for
atomic dimensions = 1  10-10 m.
• Thus the atoms have diameters of
approximately 1-5 Å.
•
Atoms,
Molecules,
39 Ions
and
 Atoms,
Molecules,
40 Ions
and
 Subatomic Particles

• Protons (+1) and electrons (–1) have a charge;

neutrons are neutral.
• Atoms have extremely small masses.
• We use atomic mass unit (amu). 1 amu=1.66054 
10-24 g
• Protons and electrons are the only particles that have
a charge.
• Protons and neutrons have essentially the same
mass.
• The mass of an electron is so small we ignore it.
Atoms,
Molecules,
41 Ions
and
Subatomic Particles

Atoms,
Molecules,
42 Ions
and
Atomic Numbers, Mass Numbers,
and Isotopes
• How do we determine which element an atom is?
• Each element has a characteristic number of
protons called element’s atomic number.
• Number of electrons equal number of protons.
• Atomic Number: the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom.
• Since atoms have no overall charge, the number
of protons equals the number of electrons in an
atom.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Symbols of Elements

Elements are symbolized by one or two

letters.

Atoms,
Molecules,
44 Ions
and
 Atomic Number

All atoms of the same element have the same

number of protons:

Atoms,
Molecules,
45 Ions
and
 Atomic Mass/Mass Number

Mass number is shown by the subscript.

The mass of an atom in atomic mass units
(amu) is the total number of protons and
neutrons in the atom.
Atoms,
Molecules,
46 Ions
and
 Isotopes
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with
different masses.
• Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons,
but the same number of protons.
• The table below lists four isotopes for carbon.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons in the nucleus

Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number

1 2 3
1H 1H (D) 1H (T)
235 238
92 U 92 U
Atoms,
Molecules,
48 Ions
and
 Atoms,
Molecules,
49 Ions
and
 Example
How many protons, neutrons and electrons are in:
a) An atom of 197AU?
197 = p + n
Atomic # =79 = # of protons
Neutral atom, so # of electrons = 79
# of neutrons = 197 – 79 = 118
b) An atom of phosphorus-31?
31 = p + n
Atomic # = 15 = # of protons
Neutral atom, so # of electrons = 15
# of neutrons = 31 -15 =16
c) An atom of 37Cl-?
37 = p + n
Atomic # = 17 = # of protons
Anion, so # of electrons = 18 Atoms,
Molecules,
# of neutrons = 37 -17 = 20 and Ions
© 2012 Pearson
 Atoms,
Molecules,
51 Ions
and
2.4 Atomic Weights

Atoms,
Molecules,
52 Ions
and
 Atomic Mass Unit (u)
• Atoms have extremely small masses.
• The heaviest known atoms have a mass of
approximately 4 × 10–22 g.
• A mass scale on the atomic level is used, where
an atomic mass unit (u) is the base unit.
 1 u = 1.66054 × 10–24 g

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
The mass spectrometer
Atomic and molecular
masses can be measured
with great accuracy with a
Mass Spectrometer.
Gaseous sample is introduced
at A and bombarded by a
stream of high-energy
electron at B, collisions then
aaccelerations and passing
between the poles of
magnet. The separation will
be according to the masses.

Atoms,
Molecules,
54 Ions
and
 The mass spectrometer
• Atomic and molecular weight can
be measured using a mass
spectrometer (below).
• The spectrum of chlorine
showing two isotopes is seen on
the right. Abundances can also
be determined this way.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atomic Weight
• Because in the real world we use large amounts of
atoms and molecules, we use average masses in
calculations.
• An average mass is found using all isotopes of an
element weighted by their relative abundances.
This is the element’s atomic weight.
• Atomic Weight = Ʃ [(isotope mass) × (fractional
natural abundance)] for ALL isotopes.
• The masses of any atom is compared to 12C
(6 protons and 6 neutrons) being exactly 12. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atoms,
Molecules,
57 Ions
and
 Sample exercise 2.4

Question: Naturally occurring chlorine is

75.78% 35Cl (atomic mass 34.969 amu) and
24.22% 37Cl (atomic mass 36.966 amu).
Calculate the atomic weight chlorine.
Answer: Atomic weight= (0.7578)(34.969 amu) + (0.2422)(36.966
amu)
= 26.50 amu + 8.953 amu
= 35.45 amu

Atoms,
Molecules,
58 Ions
and
2.5 The Periodic Table

Atoms,
Molecules,
59 Ions
and
 The Periodic Table
• Is the most significant tool that chemists use
for organizing and remembering chemical
facts.
• Is the arrangement of elements in order of
increasing atomic number, with elements
having similar properties placed in vertical
columns.
• It is a systematic catalog of the elements.
• The periodic table is a systematic
organization of the elements. Atoms,
Molecules,
60 Ions
and
Periodic Table

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Periodicity

When one looks at the chemical properties of

elements, one notices a repeating pattern of
reactivities.

Atoms,
Molecules,
62 Ions
and
 Reading the Periodic Table
• Boxes on the periodic table list the atomic number
ABOVE the symbol.
• The atomic weight of an element is listed below
the symbol on the periodic table.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Organization of the Periodic Table
• The rows (7) on the periodic table are called periods.
• Columns (18) are called groups.
• Elements in the same group have similar physical and
chemical properties.
• The first period consists of two elements
• The second and third periods consists of eight elements
• The fourth and fifth periods contain 18 elements
• The sixth period has 32 elements, but for it to fit in a page,
14 of these elements (atomic number 57-70) appear at the
bottom of the table.
• The seventh period Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Groups

These five groups are known by their names.

* 1A – 8A Main group elements
* 1B – 8B Transition metals
* Group 1B Coinage metals
Atoms,
Chemistry (IUPAC) numbers the groups from 1 through Molecules,
65 Ions
18 with no A or B designations. and
Periodic Table
• Nonmetals are on
the right side of
the periodic table
(they include H).
• They can be solid
(like carbon), liquid
(like bromine), or
gas (like neon) at
room temperature.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Periodic Table

Atoms,
Molecules,
67 Ions
and
Periodic Table

Metalloids
border the
stepped line
(stair-step
line), with the
exception of
Al, Po, and
astatine (At).

Atoms,
Molecules,
68 Ions
and
Periodic Table
• Elements on the
steplike line are
metalloids (except
Al, Po, and At).
• Their properties
are sometimes like
metals and
sometimes like
nonmetals.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Periodic Table
• Metals are on the
left side of the
periodic table.
• Some properties of
metals include
– Shiny luster
– Conducting heat
and electricity
– Solids (except
mercury)

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atoms,
Molecules,
71 Ions
and
2.6 Molecules and Molecular
Compounds

Atoms,
Molecules,
72 Ions
and
 Molecules and molecular
compounds
• Even though the atom is the smallest
representative sample of an element,
only noble-gas elements are normally
found in nature as isolated atoms.
• Most matter is composed of molecules
or ions.

Atoms,
Molecules,
73 Ions
and
Chemical Formulas
• The subscript to the right of
the symbol of an element tells
the number of atoms of that
element in one molecule of
the compound.
• The molecule of two atoms is
called diatomic molecule.
Halogen (F, Cl, Br, I),
hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen. They are clustered
on the right side of the
periodic table except for Molecules,
Atoms,

hydrogen. and Ions

 Diatomic Molecules

These seven elements occur naturally as

molecules containing two atoms.

A polyatomic molecule contains more Atoms,

Molecules,
75 Ions
and
than two atoms. O3, H2O, NH3, CH4
 Diatomic Molecules
• These seven elements occur naturally as
molecules containing two atoms:
– Hydrogen
– Nitrogen
– Oxygen
– Fluorine
– Chlorine
– Bromine
– Iodine
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Molecules and Chemical
Formulas
Molecular compounds
are composed of
molecules contain more
than one type of atom.
Most molecular
substances contain only
nonmetals.

Atoms,
Molecules,
77 Ions
and
 Molecular and Empirical
Formulas
• Chemical formulas that indicate the actual numbers
of atoms in a molecule are called molecular
formulas.
• Molecular formulas give the exact number of atoms
of each element in a compound.
• Chemical formulas that give only the relative number
of atoms of each type in a molecule are called
empirical formulas.
• The subscripts in empirical formula are the smallest
possible whole-number ratios.
Atoms,
Molecules,
78 Ions
and
 Molecular and Empirical
Formulas
• The molecular formula for hydrogen peroxide
is H2O2 whereas its empirical formula is
HO.
• The molecular formula for ethylene is
C2H4 and the empirical formula is CH2
• H2O the molecular and empirical are
identical.
Atoms,
Molecules,
79 Ions
and
 Types of Formulas
• Empirical formulas give the lowest whole-number ratio of
atoms of each element in a compound.
• Molecular formulas give the exact number of atoms of each
element in a compound.
• If we know the molecular formula of a compound, we
can determine its empirical formula. The converse is
not true without more information
molecular empirical
H 2O H 2O

C6H12O6 CH2O

O3 O
Atoms,
Molecules,
N 2H 4 NH2 and Ions
 Atoms,
Molecules,
81 Ions
and
Types of Formulas

Atoms,
Molecules,
82 Ions
and
Picturing Molecules
• Structural formulas show the
order in which atoms are
bonded. Atoms represented by
their symbols and lines are used
to represent the bonds that hold
atoms together.
• Structural formulas show the
order in which atoms are
attached. They do NOT depict
the three-dimensional shape of
molecules.

Atoms,
Molecules,
83 Ions
and
Picturing Molecules
• Perspective drawings, ball-
and-stick models, and space-
filling models show the three-
dimensional order of the atoms
in a compound.
• Solid line is bond in plane of
page.
• Dashed wedge is bond behind
page.
• Wedge is bond out of page.

Atoms,
Molecules,
84 Ions
and
Picturing Molecules
• Ball-and-stick models show
atoms as spheres and bonds as
sticks. Atoms are identified by
color and sometimes the
symbols are superimposed on
the balls.
• A space-filling model shows the
relative sizes of the atoms but
the angles between atoms were
difficult to see than in ball and
stick model.
Atoms,
Molecules,
85 Ions
and
2.7 Ions and Ionic Compounds

Atoms,
Molecules,
86 Ions
and
 Ions and Ionic Compounds
• The nucleus of an atom is uncharged by
chemical processes, but some atoms
can readily gain or lose electrons.
• If electrons are removed from or added
to an atom, a charged particle called an
“ion” is formed.
• Ion with positive charge is a cation
• Ion with negative charge is an anion
Atoms,
Molecules,
87 Ions
and
 Ions
• Consider sodium atom of 11 protons and 11
electrons. It loses one electron, the resulting
cation has 11 protons and 10 electrons
therefore the net charge of the cation is 1+
represented by a superscript (Na+ ).
• Chlorine of 17 protons and 17 electrons ,can
gain an electron to produce an anion of 1- (Cl-
).

• The chemical properties of ions are very

different from that of its associated atom. Atoms,
Molecules,
88 Ions
and
 Predicting ionic charges
• Elements can obtain stable arrangement, as
the noble gases, by losing or gaining
electrons.
• The periodic table is very useful for
remembering ionic charges, the charges
related to their positions in the table.
• Group 1A (alkali metals) form 1+ ions. Group
2A (alkaline earths) form 2+
• Group 7A (halogens) form 1- ions. Group 6A
form 2- ions Atoms,
Molecules,
89 Ions
and
 Ions

• In general, metal atoms tend to lose electrons to form

monatomic cations (at the left side of the periodic chart).
• Monatomic anions are formed by nonmetals, except the noble
gases (on the right side of the periodic chart).

Atoms,
Molecules,
90 Ions
and
Common Cations

Atoms,
Molecules,
91 Ions
and
Common Anions

Atoms,
Molecules,
92 Ions
and
 Polyatomic Ions
• Sometimes a group of atoms will gain or
lose electrons. These are polyatomic ions.
• A polyatomic cation:
– Ammonium ≡ NH4+
• A polyatomic anion:
– Sulfate ≡ SO42–

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atoms,
Molecules,
94 Ions
and
 Atoms,
Molecules,
95 Ions
and
 Ionic compounds
• A great deal of chemical activity
involves the transfer of electrons from
one substance to another.
• Because of opposite charge (Na+ and
Cl- ions bind together to form sodium
chloride NaCl as example of ionic
compound.

Atoms,
Molecules,
96 Ions
and
 Ionic compounds
• Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are generally
formed between metals and nonmetals.
• Electrons are transferred from the metal to the
nonmetal. The oppositely charged ions attract
each other.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
• The ionic compounds are arranged in three-
dimensional structures as shows for NaCl.
• Because there is no discrete “molecule” of
NaCl we are able to write an empirical
formula. This is true for most other ionic
compounds.
Atoms,
Molecules,
98 Ions
and
 Ionic compounds
• In general cations are metal ions and
anion are nonmetals ions.
• The formula is usually the same as the
empirical formula.
• The sum of the charges on the cation(s)
and anion(s) in each formula unit must
equal zero.

• H2O is composed of nonmetal only. Atoms,

Molecules,
99 Ions
and
 Atoms,
Molecules,
100
and Ions
 Sample exercise 2.9
• Which of these compounds would you
expect to be ionic.
– N2O, Na2O, CaCl2, SF4
• We predict that Na2O, CaCl2 are ionic
compounds because they are composed of
metal combined with a nonmetal. While
N2O and SF4 are molecular compounds
because they are composed of nonmetals

Atoms,
Molecules,
101
and Ions
 Writing Formulas

• Because compounds are electrically neutral,

one can determine the formula of a
compound this way:
– The charge on the cation becomes the subscript
on the anion.
– The charge on the anion becomes the subscript
on the cation.
– If these subscripts are not in the lowest whole-
number ratio, divide them by the greatest common
Atoms,
factor. Molecules,
and Ions
 Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2012 Pearson
 Atoms,
Molecules,
104
and Ions
2.8 Naming inorganic
compounds

Atoms,
Molecules,
105
and Ions
Naming inorganic compounds

• The names and chemical formulas of

compounds are essential vocabulary in
chemistry.
• The system used in naming substances
is called chemical nomenclature, from
the Latin words nomen (name) and
calare (to call).

Atoms,
Molecules,
106
and Ions
Naming inorganic compounds

• For most substances, we rely on a set

of rules that leads to an informative and
unique name for each substance, a
name based on the composition of the
substance.
• The rules for chemical nomenclature
are based on the division of substances
into categories.
Atoms,
Molecules,
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and Ions
 Naming inorganic
compounds
• The major division is between organic
and inorganic compounds.
• Organic: contain carbon and hydrogen
often in combination with oxygen,
nitrogen or other elements.
• All other are inorganic compunds

Atoms,
Molecules,
108
and Ions
 Chemical Nomenclature
• The system of naming compounds is called
chemical nomenclature.
• We will learn how to name:
1) Ionic compounds
2) Acids
3) Binary Molecular Compounds
4) Simple Organic Compounds
– Alkanes
– Alcohols

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Names and formulas of ionic
compounds
• Ionic compound consists of metals ions
combined with nonmetal ions.
1. Cations
a. Cations formed from metal atoms have the
same name as metal: Na+ sodium ion; Zn2+
zinc ion.
b. If a metal can form cations with different
charges, the positive charge is indicated by a
roman numeral in parentheses following the
name of the metal. Fe 2+ iron(II) ion; Fe3+ ironMolecules,
Atoms,

110
and Ions
(III) ion.
 Names and formulas of ionic
compounds
 Most metals that form cations with
different charges are transition metals
(in the middle of the periodic table from
group 3B to group 2B)
• The metals that form only one cation
are group 1A & 2A, as well as Al3+ and
two transition metal ions Ag+ and Zn2+
Atoms,
Molecules,
111
and Ions
 Names and formulas of ionic
compounds
• An older method still widely used for
distinguishing between differently
charged ions of metal uses the ending –
ous and –ic added to the root of the
element’s Latin name.
• Fe2+: ferrous ion/ Fe3+: ferric ion
• Cu+: cuprous ion / Cu2+: cupric ion
Atoms,
Molecules,
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and Ions
 Names and formulas of ionic
compounds
c. Cations formed from nonmetal atoms
have names that end in –ium
• NH4+: ammonium ion
• H3O+: hydronium ion

Atoms,
Molecules,
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and Ions
Common Cations

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Names and formulas of ionic
compounds
2. Anions
a. The names of monoatomic anions are
formed by replacing the ending of the
name of the element with –ide.
• H-: hydride; O2-: oxide ion; N3- nitride ion
• A few polyatomic anions also have
names ending in –ide. OH-: hydroxide
ion; CN-: cyanide ion; O22-: peroxide ion
Atoms,
Molecules,
115
and Ions
Common Anions

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Patterns in Oxyanion
Nomenclature
b. Polyatomic anions containing oxygen
have names ending in either –ate or –ite
and are called oxyanions. The –ate is
used for the most common oxyanion of
the element and –ite is used for an
oxyanion that has the same charge but
one O atom fewer.
NO3-: nitrate ion; NO2-: nitrite ion
2- 2- Atoms,
SO4 : sulfate ion; -SO3 : sulfite ion Molecules,
117 and Ions
 Patterns in Oxyanion
Nomenclature
• Prefixes are used when the series of oxyanions of an
element extends to four numbers, as with halogens.
• Prefix per indicates one more O atom than oxyanion
ending –ate.
• hypo- indicates one O atom fewer than the oxyanion
ending in –ite
• ClO4-: perchlorate ion
• ClO3-: chlorate ion
• ClO2-: chlorite ion
• ClO-: hypochlorite ion Atoms,
Molecules,
118
and Ions
 Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
• The one with the second fewest oxygens ends in -ite.
– ClO2− : chlorite
• The one with the second most oxygens ends in -ate.
– ClO3− : chlorate
• The one with the fewest oxygens has the prefix hypo- and
ends in -ite.
–ClO− : hypochlorite
• The one with the most oxygens has the prefix per- and ends
in -ate.
–ClO4− : perchlorate

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature

• C& N both period 2 element, have only three O

atoms each, whereas the period 3 elements P, S, and
Cl have four O atoms.
• Note that ionic charge increases from right to left.
• The composition and charges of common oxyanions
are related to their location in the periodic table.

Atoms,
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and Ions
Names and formulas of ionic compounds

C. Anions derived by adding H+ to an

oxyanion are named by adding as a prefix
the word hydrogen or dihydrogen, as
appropriate.
CO32- : Carbonate ion
HCO3-: Hydrogen carbonate ion
Po43-: phosphate ion
H2PO4- : Dihydrogen phosphate ion
Atoms,
Molecules,
121
and Ions
Names and formulas of ionic compounds

3. Ionic Compounds
• Names of ionic compounds consist of
the cation name followed by the anion
name.
• CaCl2: calcium chloride
• Al(NO3)3: aluminum nitrate
• Cu(ClO4)2: copper(II) perchlorate or
cupric perchlorate
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Molecules,
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and Ions
 Atoms,
Molecules,
123
and Ions
 Atoms,
Molecules,
124
and Ions
 Names and formulas of acids

• Acids are an important class of hydrogen-containing

compounds, they are named in special way.
• Acid is a molecule yield hydrogen ions (H+) when
dissolved in water.
• It will written with H as the first element as HCl,
H2SO4

• It composed of anion connected to enough H+ ions to

neutralize the anion’s charge. Thus H2SO4 ion
requires two H+.
• The name of the acid is related to the name of its
anion Atoms,
Molecules,
125
and Ions
Names and formulas of acids

1. If the anion in the

acid ends in -ide,
change the ending to -ic
acid and add the prefix
hydro- .
– HCl: hydrochloric acid
– HBr: hydrobromic acid
– HI: hydroiodic acid

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Acid Nomenclature

• If the anion in the acid

ends in –ite, change –
ite to -ous acid.
– HClO: hypochlorous
acid
– HClO2: chlorous acid

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Acid Nomenclature

• If the anion in the acid

ends in -ate, change
the ending to -ic acid.
– HClO3: chloric acid
– HClO4: perchloric acid

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atoms,
Molecules,
129
and Ions
 Names and formulas of binary molecular
compounds

• The procedures used for naming binary

molecular compounds are similar to those
used for naming ionic compounds.
1. The name of the element father to left in the
periodic table (closest to the metals) is usually
written first. An exception occurs when the
compound contains oxygen and chlorine,
bromine, or iodine (any halogen except
fluorine), in which case oxygen is written last.
Atoms,
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and Ions
2. If both elements are
in the same group, the
lower one is named first.
3. The name of the
second element is given
an –ide ending.
4. Greek prefixes are
used to indicate the
number of atoms of
each element. Atoms,
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and Ions
 Examples

• CL2O: dichlorine monoxide

• N2O4: dinitrogen tetroxide
• NF3: nitrogen trifluoride
• P4S10: tetraphosphorus decasulfide

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Molecules,
132
and Ions
2.9 Some simple organic
compounds

Atoms,
Molecules,
133
and Ions
 Some simple organic
compounds
• The study of carbon is called organic
chemistry.
• Compounds that contain carbon and
hydrogen often in combination with oxygen,
nitrogen, or other element are called organic
compounds.
• Organic chemistry has its own system of
nomenclature.
• Each alkane has a name that end in -ane
Atoms,
Molecules,
134
and Ions
 Alkanes
• Compounds contain only carbon and
hydrogen are called hydrocarbon.
• The simplest hydrocarbons are alkanes.
• The smallest alkanes are methane(CH4)

Atoms,
Molecules,
135
and Ions
 Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Some derivatives of alkanes
• Alcohol is obtained by replacing H atom
of alkane with an –OH group. It is
named by adding –ol ending.
• Methanol, ethanol.
• Alcohols have properties are very
different from the properties of the
alkanes from which they are obtained.

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and Ions
Thank you

Atoms,
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and Ions