Yeditepe University

Physics for Health Sciences

Chapter 8
Outline
Week Chapter Content
1-2 Ch.1 Introduction Measurement, significant figures, units, dimensions
3 Ch.2. Describing Motion: Ref. frames, displacement, velocity, acceleration
4 Kinematics in One Dimension How to solve physics problems, free fall motion
5 Ch.3 Kinematics in Vectors and scalars, vector kinematics
6 Two or Three Dimension Scientific revolution, projectile motion
7 Midterm exam .
8 Ch.4 Dynamics: Newton’s Laws Mass, weight, force, Newton’s laws of motion
9 Ch.5 Using Newton’s Laws Friction forces, uniform circular motion
10-11 Ch.7 Work and Energy Work, kinetic energy, work-energy principle
12-13 Ch.8 Conservation of Energy Potential energy, conservation of energy, power
14 Review .
Finals Final exam .
 Chapter 8
Conservation of Energy
Chapter Outline
I. Conservative and Nonconservative Forces
II. Potential Energy
III. Mechanical Energy and Its Conservation
IV. Problem Solving Using Conservation of Mechanical Energy
V. The Law of Conservation of Energy
VI. Energy Conservation with Dissipative Forces: Solving Problems
VII. Power
I. Conservative and Nonconservative Forces
We call any force a conservative force if
the work done by the force on an object moving from one point to another depends only on
the initial and final positions of the object, and is independent of the particular path taken;
or equivalently if
the work done by the force on an object moving around any closed path is zero.

We can show that the gravitational force is conservative.

𝑦 Consider we move an object of mass 𝑚 from a point to
𝐠 another by decreasing its height by ℎ. It could have
𝑚
B followed the shortest path A, or another path B. Work
done by gravity is always 𝑊G = 𝐹∥ 𝑑 = 𝐹𝑑∥ = 𝑚𝑔ℎ. It
ℎ A depends only on the vertical components of initial and
final positions, not the path taken. Thus, according to 1st
definition, force of gravity is a conservative force.
If the object drops a height ℎ by following path A, and
then goes back to initial position by following path B in
𝑥
reverse, then it will complete a closed path. In this case,
the work done by gravity throughout the closed path is
𝑊G =𝑊G,A,forward +𝑊G,B,reverse =(𝑚𝑔ℎ)+(−𝑚𝑔ℎ)=0.
So, according to 2nd definition, again, force of gravity is a
conservative force.
I. Conservative and Nonconservative Forces
Many forces, such as friction and a push or pull exerted by a person, are nonconservative,
since any work they do depends on the path.

Conservative Nonconservative
Forces Forces
Gravitational Friction
Elastic Air resistance
Electric Tension in cord
Motor or rocket
propulsion
Push or pull by
a person

For example, if you push a crate on a floor, the work 𝑊P that you do and the work 𝑊fr that
the friction does, both depend on the path. Their magnitude both increase as the length of
the path increases. Besides, if the motion of the crate completes a full closed path, ending up
where it started, both you and the friction do a nonzero work: 𝑊P > 0, 𝑊fr < 0.
II. Potential Energy
Previously we defined the kind of energy related to motion as kinetic energy.
Now we introduce another kind of energy:
Potential energy is the energy associated with forces that depend on the position or
configuration of objects relative to the surroundings.
Various kinds of potential energy can be defined, each associated with a conservative force:
 Potential energy of an object at some height (associated with gravitational force)
 Potential energy of a wound-up spring (associated with elastic spring force)
 Potential energy of a charge in an electric field (associated with electric force) *
 Potential energy of a magnet in a magnetic field (associated with magnetic force) *

* We will not cover electromagnetic forces and potential energies in this course.

For example, the wound-up spring in a toy car has potential energy. The spring acquired its
potential energy since work was done on it by the person winding it. Recall that energy is the
ability to do work. As the spring unwinds, it exerts a force and does work to make the toy move.
II. Potential Energy
Gravitational Potential Energy
Consider a brick carried to a height. A person applies a force and
does work on it to lift it and gives it a gravitational potential
energy. If released, gravity does work on the brick and moves it
down. As it falls, it speeds up and its potential energy converts
into kinetic energy. Then, when it hits something it can do work.
Remember that energy is the ability to do work.
Raising a mass 𝑚 by a height ℎ, work done by the external force is
𝑊ext = 𝐅ext ⋅ 𝐝 = 𝑚 𝑔 ℎ cos 0° = 𝑚 𝑔 ℎ = 𝑚 𝑔 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ,
and work done by gravity is
𝑊G = 𝐅G ⋅ 𝐝 = 𝑚 𝑔 ℎ cos 180° = −𝑚 𝑔 ℎ = −𝑚 𝑔 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 .
When the brick is released from rest and fall freely under the action of gravity, it acquires a
velocity given by 𝑣 2 = 2 𝑔 ℎ , after falling a height ℎ (see Chapter 2). It then has kinetic
energy ½ 𝑚 𝑣 2 = ½ 𝑚 (2 𝑔 ℎ) = 𝑚 𝑔 ℎ , and if it strikes a stake it can do work on the stake
by this amount (𝑚 𝑔 ℎ).
To summarize, raising an object of mass 𝑚 by a height ℎ requires an amount of work equal to
𝑚 𝑔 ℎ . Once at height ℎ, the object’s ability to do work increases by an amount of 𝑚 𝑔 ℎ .
Therefore, we can say that the work done in lifting the object to a height has been stored as
gravitational potential energy (𝑈G ).
II. Potential Energy
Gravitational Potential Energy
We can only measure the change in gravitational potential energy
(Δ𝑈G ) indeed. In the considered case, when an object of mass 𝑚 is
raised from a vertical position 𝑦1 to another vertical position 𝑦2 ,
change in gravitational energy is equal to the negative of the work
done by gravity in the process of lifting:
Δ𝑈G = 𝑈G,2 − 𝑈G,1 = −𝑊G = 𝑚 𝑔 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚 𝑔 𝑦2 − 𝑚 𝑔 𝑦1 .
Therefore, we can define the gravitational potential energy for an
object of mass 𝑚 at a vertical height 𝑦 above some reference
point (𝑦 = 0) as:
𝑈G = 𝑚 𝑔 𝑦.

So, the gravitational potential energy is defined according to a reference point (where 𝑦 = 0).
Its value depends on where we choose the reference point. Therefore, we cannot use a
device and physically measure gravitational potential energy itself, but we can only measure
the change in gravitational potential energy.
This is valid for all kinds of potential energy. We can only measure the change in it. And in
fact, what is physically important in any situation is the change in potential energy, because it
is what equals the work done to store potential energy.
II. Potential Energy
Gravitational Potential Energy

𝑈G = 𝑚 𝑔 𝑦

Also note that, gravitational potential energy does not belong only
to the object. It is associated with the force of gravity due to Earth.
Work against Earth’s gravity has to be done on the object, in order
to store gravitational potential energy. Gravitational potential
energy is stored in the object + Earth system. It depends on the
properties of the object (𝑚), properties of Earth (𝑔), and their
common properties (𝑦, distance between them).

This is valid for all kinds of potential energy. In all situations, there is a force on the object
(main object). As for all forces, that force is exerted by another object (surrounding object). In
order to store potential energy, an external work has to be done against that force exerted by
the surrounding object on the main object. And the potential energy is stored in the system
consisting both the main object and the surrounding object. That is why potential energy is
the energy associated with forces that depend on the position or configuration of objects
relative to the surroundings.
II. Potential Energy
Potential Energy in General
Above, we defined the change in gravitational potential energy as the negative of the work
done by gravitational force when an object changes vertical position:
2
Δ𝑈G = 𝑈G,2 − 𝑈G,1 = −𝑊G = − 𝐅G ⋅ 𝑑ℓ .
1
In general, change in potential energy Δ𝑈 associated with a particular conservative force 𝐅 is
defined as the negative of the work done by that force:
2
Δ𝑈 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = −𝑊 = − 𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑ℓ .
1

Conservative Nonconservative Note that this definition holds only for conservative
Forces Forces forces, for which the work depends only on the
initial and final points, but not on the path taken in
Gravitational Friction between. A potential energy is meaningless, and
Elastic Air resistance cannot be defined, for nonconservative forces.
Electric Tension in cord The inverse of integration is derivation. Hence we
write a conservative force as the negative of the
Motor or rocket derivative of potential energy associated with it.
propulsion In three-dimensions, we write:
Push or pull by 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
a person 𝐅 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = − 𝐢− 𝐣− 𝐤.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
II. Potential Energy
Elastic Spring Potential Energy

Potential energy can also be stored in a spring when it is

deformed. Here is how it works: An external force deforms
a spring by exerting a force (𝐹ext = 𝑘𝑥) and doing a work
( 𝑊ext ) against the spring force ( 𝐹S = −𝑘𝑥 ). By this
deformation, elastic potential energy (𝑈el ) is stored in the
spring. When released, the spring force (𝐹S ) can do work,
say on a ball.
Potential energy of the deformed spring, measured from its
equilibrium position is:
2 𝑥 1
Δ𝑈el =𝑈el 𝑥 −𝑈el 0 =− 𝐅
1 S
⋅ 𝑑ℓ=− 0
−𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑘𝑥 2 .
1
So, we write the elastic potential energy as 𝑈el 𝑥 = 2 𝑘𝑥 2 ,
referenced to relaxed state, where 𝑈el 0 = 0.
This elastic potential energy is stored in the spring by the
1
work 𝑊ext 𝑥 = 2 𝑘𝑥 2 done on the spring to deform it (see
Chapter 7), consistent with the 𝑈el 𝑥 derived above.
III. Mechanical Energy and Its Conservation
Consider a conservative system (meaning only conservative forces do work). According to
work-energy principle, net work done on the system is equal to change in the kinetic energy
of the system (see Chapter 7):
𝑊net = Δ𝐾.
Since work is done only by conservative forces, we can relate the net work to change in
potential energy (see Section 2 above):
𝑊net = −Δ𝑈.
Therefore, in a conservative system, we have 𝑊net = Δ𝐾 = −Δ𝑈, and thus
Δ𝐾 + Δ𝑈 = 0 .
The changes in kinetic and potential energies sum up to zero.
We define a quantity 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 as the total mechanical energy of the system.
Thus, in a conservative system, change in total mechanical energy is zero:
Δ𝐸 = Δ𝐾 + Δ𝑈 = 0.
This is called the principle of conservation of mechanical energy. Total mechanical energy of a
system is conserved (does not change) if only conservative forces are in action. Actually, that
is why those forces are called conservative forces; total mechanical energy is conserved under
their actions.
IV. Problem Solving Using Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Take 𝑦2 =0 at the floor level and consider a mass 𝑚 is released from rest at 𝑦1 =ℎ. Let us find 𝑣2 .

𝐾1 = 0 𝑈1 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

1
𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑦 remains constant.

1
𝐾2 = 2 𝑚𝑣22 𝑈2 = 0

Assuming only the conservative gravitational force do work (neglecting air resistance), total
mechanical energy 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 remains constant while the mass falls. The energy buckets in
figure, show how the energy converts from all PE (𝐸1 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ) into all KE (𝐸2 = 12 𝑚𝑣22 ). By the
conservation of mechanical energy (𝐸1 = 𝐸2 ), we write 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 12 𝑚𝑣22 , and obtain 𝑣2 = 2𝑔ℎ.
IV. Problem Solving Using Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Example: A dart of mass 𝑚 = 0.100 kg is pressed against the spring of a toy gun. The spring
(with stiffness constant 𝑘 = 250 N/m and negligible mass) is released after being
compressed by 6.0 cm. If the dart detaches from the spring when spring reaches its relaxed
length, what speed does the dart acquire at this point?

Take a horizontal axis 𝑥 originated at the relaxed end of

the spring. Initially, end of the spring is compressed to
𝑥1 = −0.060 m, and finally it relaxes to 𝑥2 = 0. Since
vertical positions of the objects do not change,
𝑥1 0 𝑥 gravitational potentials do not change. Initially, the dart
is at rest with 𝑣1 = 0, and finally it has a speed 𝑣2 .
(a) Initially, all the energy is potential energy stored in
1
the spring: 𝐸 = 2 𝑘𝑥12 .
1
(b) Finally, it is all kinetic energy of the dart: 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣22 .
2
Mechanical energy of the dart + spring system is conserved,
since nonconservative forces (like the normal force, air
1 1
resistance, etc.) do not do work. Therefore, 2 𝑚𝑣22 = 2 𝑘𝑥12 .

This quadratic eq. has two solutions, 𝑣2 = ±𝑥1 𝑘/𝑚, but we are looking for the positive one:
𝑣2 = −𝑥1 𝑘/𝑚 = − −0.060 m 250 N/m / 0.100 kg = 0.060 m 50/s = 3.0 m/s
V. The Law of Conservation of Energy
So, mechanical energy is conserved if only conservative forces do work.
In practice, usually there are nonnegligible work done by nonconservative forces, like friction.
If there is friction, mechanical energy cannot be conserved, but it decreases. That is why we
call these type of forces as dissipative forces.
That is why moving objects stop. Friction decreases the mechanical energy, until no kinetic
energy is left behind. If there is no kinetic energy, there is no velocity, so no displacement,
and thus, no work done by friction (or other nonconservative) forces.
Some forms of energy are related to nonconservative forces. In particular, the work done by
friction force shows itself as thermal energy: when you rub your hands together, they get
warmer. So while an object slows down under friction, its kinetic energy transforms into
thermal energy.
Other forms of energy include electromagnetic energy, nuclear energy, chemical energy, etc.
Accounting for all forms of energy (including thermal energy), we find that in any process, the
total energy of a closed system neither increases nor decreases. Energy can be transformed
from one form to another, and transferred from one object to another, but the total amount
of energy remains constant.
The above statement is called the law of conservation of energy. It cannot be derived from
Newton’s laws, but it has been tested by experiments for centuries.
VI. Energy Conservation with Dissipative Forces: Solving Problems
If there is a nonconservative force such as friction, some of the total energy becomes
converted into thermal energy (temperature of the objects involved increase).
The amount of energy that dissipates around in the form of thermal energy is equal to the
negative of the work done by friction forces. But the total energy is conserved.
The following strategy is very useful in solving problems involving dissipative forces.
VI. Energy Conservation with Dissipative Forces: Solving Problems
Example: A block of mass 𝑚 sliding along a horizontal surface strikes a massless spring with a
speed 𝑣0 and compresses the spring a maximum distance 𝑋. The spring has a stiffness
constant 𝑘. Determine the coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the surface.

We define the system as composed of the block, the

𝐅N
spring, and the surface. Mechanical energy of the
system consists of the kinetic energy 𝐾 = ½ 𝑚 𝑣 2 of 𝑣 = 𝑣0 𝐅S 𝑣=0
the block, the potential energy 𝑈 = ½ 𝑘 𝑥 2 of the
𝐅fr
spring, and the thermal energy of the block and the
surface. Here, 𝑣 is the speed of the block, and 𝑥 is
𝑚𝐠
the amount of deformation of the spring.
Forces acting on the block are leftward 𝐹fr and 𝐹S , upward 𝐹N , and downward 𝑚𝑔.
As the mass slides, some of the mechanical energy turns into thermal energy: temperatures
of the block and the surface increase. Amount of dissipated thermal energy is equal to
negative of the work done by friction force: −𝑊fr = −𝐹fr 𝑥 = 𝜇k 𝐹N 𝑥.
Newton’s 2nd law in vertical direction results in 𝐹N = 𝑚𝑔. Therefore, −𝑊fr 𝑥 = 𝜇k 𝑚 𝑔 𝑥.
Initial energy of the system when the mass strikes the spring: 𝐸1 = ½ 𝑚 𝑣02
Final energy of the system at the point of maximal compression: 𝐸2 = ½ 𝑘 𝑋 2 − 𝑊fr (𝑋)
𝑚 𝑣02 − 𝑘 𝑋 2
Conservation of energy: 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 ⇒ ½ 𝑚 𝑣02 = ½ 𝑘 𝑋2 + 𝜇k 𝑚 𝑔 𝑋 ⇒ 𝜇k =
2𝑚𝑔𝑋
VII. Power
Power is the rate at which work is done.
Work done in a process involves the transformation of energy from one object to another. In
example, when you push a cart, you do work on the cart. The chemical energy in your body is
transferred into the kinetic energy of the cart.
Whenever work is done, energy is transferred from one object to another.
Therefore, power can also be defined as the rate at which energy is transformed.

Average power, 𝑃, equals the work 𝑊 done divided by the time 𝑡 it takes to do it: 𝑃 = 𝑊/𝑡;
or the amount of transferred energy 𝐸 divided by the time 𝑡 it takes to transfer it: 𝑃 = 𝐸/𝑡.
Instantaneous power can be written as time derivatives: 𝑃 = 𝑑𝑊/𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝐸/𝑑𝑡.
In SI units, power is measured by J/s defined as watt (W): 1 W = 1 J/s.

It is often convenient to write the power of a force 𝐅 in terms of the velocity 𝐯 of the object.
Since 𝑃 = 𝑑𝑊/𝑑𝑡 and 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑ℓ, then 𝑃 = 𝐅 ⋅ (𝑑ℓ/𝑑𝑡). And here 𝑑ℓ/𝑑𝑡 = 𝐯 is the
velocity of the object. Therefore, instantaneous power of a force acting on an object is the
scalar product of the force and the velocity of the object: 𝑃 = 𝐅 ⋅ 𝐯.
VII. Power
Example: A 60-kg jogger runs up a long flight of stairs in 4.0 s. The vertical
height of the stairs is 4.5 m. (a) Estimate the jogger’s average power output.
(b) How much energy did this require?
The work done by the jogger is against gravity, and equals 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦.
𝑊 𝑚𝑔𝑦 60 kg 9.81 m/s2 4.5 m
(a) 𝑃 = = = = 662.2 𝑊 ⇒ 𝑃 = 0.66 kW
𝑡 𝑡 4.0 s
(b) 𝐸 = 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦 = 𝑊 = 60 kg 9.81 m/s 2 4.5 m ⇒ 𝐸 = 2.6 kJ
The person had to transform more energy than this 𝐸. Total energy transformed by a person
or an engine always includes some thermal energy. (Recall how hot you get running up stairs.)

Example: Calculate the power required of a car of mass 𝑚 = 1400 kg while it climbs a hill of
𝜃 = 10° at a steady speed of 𝑣 = 80 km/h. Assume that the average total retarding force on
the car (air resistance and friction) is 𝐹R = 700 N throughout.
Newton’s 2nd law in 𝑥 direction:
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 − 𝐹R − 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0
So, the force needed is: 𝐹 = 𝐹R + 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝐹 = 700 N + 1400 kg 9.81 m/s 2 0.174 = 3.09 kN
1000 m/km
𝑃 = 𝐅 ⋅ 𝐯 = 𝐹𝑣 = 3.09 kN 80 km/h 3600 s/h
𝑃 = 69 kW (Assuming all numbers have two sig. figures.)
Reference
C. D. Giancoli, Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics (Pearson, 2008) 4th ed.