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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

PCEET205 MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION
MODULE 1 (11 HOURS)
Functional Elements of Measurements Systems- Block Schematic and brief operation of building
blocks Standards of Measurements- Static characteristics (accuracy, precision, linearity, resolution),
Need for calibration, Types of errors
Instruments- Classification; Operating Forces and Torques: deflecting, controlling and damping
torques- Gravity and spring control; air, fluid friction and eddy current damping. Measurement of
Voltage and Current- Moving Coil and Moving Iron types., Range Extension – shunts and multipliers
(Include simple problems of range extension)
MODULE 2 (11 HOURS)
Magnetic Measurement- Flux Meter, Determination of BH Curve - Hysteresis Loop (Method of
Reversal). Measurement of Resistance, Wheatstone’s Bridge, Kelvin’s Double Bridge (Simple
Problems), Loss of Charge Method, Measurement of Earth Resistance. Measurement of Inductance-
Maxwell's Inductance Bridge, Measurement of Capacitance - Schering's Bridge, Measurement of
Frequency- Wien Bridge (Include Simple Problems) Q-meter, LCR Meters (Description only)
MODULE 3 (11 HOURS)
Measurement of Power and Energy: Measurement of Power using Dynamometer type wattmeter,
Three phase Power Measurement using Two Wattmeter Method (Include Phasor Diagrams and
Expressions, Include simple problems of two wattmeter method) Measurement of Energy Using
Induction type Energy Meter, Two Element Energy Meter Instrument Transformers-CT and PT-
Principle of Operation- Range Extension
Basic Principles of Electronic multimeter, Digital Voltmeter Digital Energy Meter, TOD Meter,
Smart Metering, Bidirectional Meters (Description Only)
MODULE 4 (11 HOURS)
Block Schematic of electronic instrumentation system – role of sensors and transducers
Classification of Temperature transducers- Principle of operation of Thermistors and RTD
Classification of flow transducers- Principle of operation of Electromagnetic and ultrasonic types
Strain gauge: Basic working principle, types and applications; Measurement of angular speed and
luminous intensity Principles of Digital Data Acquisition systems - Role of Signal conditioning
systems (Basic Principles only)- Phasor Measurement Unit (Block Schematic and Description Only)
CRO, DSO and Harmonic Analyzers: Block Diagram, Basic Principles and applications only Virtual
Instrumentation Systems: Block schematic and Description only IOT and Data analytics for
Industrial Process- Case study on Smart Grid

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 MODULE 1
Functional Elements of Measurements Systems- Block Schematic and brief operation of building
blocks - Standards of Measurements- Static characteristics (accuracy, precision, linearity,
resolution), Need for calibration, Types of errors
Instruments- Classification; Operating Forces and Torques: deflecting, controlling and damping
torques- Gravity and spring control; air, fluid friction and eddy current damping. Measurement of
Voltage and Current- Moving Coil and Moving Iron types., Range Extension – shunts and multipliers
(Include simple problems of range extension)

FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

A systematic organization and analysis are more important for measurement systems. The whole
operation system can be described in terms of functional elements. The functional elements of
generalized measurement system are shown in figure.

Most of the measurement system consists of following functional elements.

1. Primary sensing element
2. Variable conversion element
3. Variable manipulation element
4. Data transmission element
5. Data storage and playback element
6. Data presentation element
1. Primary Sensing Element: The quantity is first sensed or detected by primary sensor. Then detected
physical quantity signal is converted into an electrical signal by a transducer. Transducer is defined as
a device which converts a physical quantity into an electrical quantity. Sensor is act as primary element
of transducer. In many cases the physical quantity is directly converted into an electrical quantity by a
transducer. So the first stage of a measurement system is known as a detector transducer stage. Example,
Pressure transducer with pressure sensor, Temperature sensor etc.,
2. Variable Conversion Element: The output of primary sensing element is electrical signal of any
form like a voltage, a frequency or some other electrical parameter. Sometime this output not suitable
for next level of system. So it is necessary to convert the output some other suitable form while

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maintaining the original signal to perform the desired function the system. For example the output
primary sensing element is in analog form of signal and next stage of system accepts only in digital
form of signal. So, we have to convert analog signal into digital form using an A/D converter. Here A/D
converter is act as variable conversion element.
3. Variable Manipulation Element: The function of variable manipulation element is to manipulate
the signal offered but original nature of signal is maintained in same state. Here manipulation means
only change in the numerical value of signal.
Examples,
1. Voltage amplifier is act as variable manipulation element. Voltage amplifier accepts a small voltage
signal as input and produces the voltage with greater magnitude .Here numerical value of voltage
magnitude is increased.
2. Attenuator acts as variable manipulation element. It accepts a high voltage signal and produces the
voltage or power with lower magnitude. Here numerical value of voltage magnitude is decreased.
All these elements are performed on the signal to bring it to desired level to be accepted by the next
stage of measurement system. This process of conversion is called signal conditioning.
4. Data Transmission Element: The elements of measurement system are actually physically
separated; it becomes necessary to transmit the data from one to another. The element which is performs
this function is called as data transmission element. Example, Control signals are transmitted from earth
station to Space-crafts by a telemetry system using radio signals. Here telemetry system is act as data
transmission element.
5. Data storage and playback element: Some applications requires a separate data storage and
playback function for easily rebuild the stored data based on the command. The data storage is made in
the form of pen/ink and digital recording. Examples, magnetic tape recorder/ reproducer, X-Y recorder,
X-t recorder, Optical Disc recording etc.
6. Data presentation Element: The function of this element in the measurement system is to
communicate the information about the measured physical quantity to human observer or to present it
in an understandable form for monitoring, control and analysis purposes. Visual display devices are
required for monitoring of measured data. These devices may be analog or digital instruments like
ammeter, voltmeter, camera, CRT, printers, analog and digital computers. Computers are used for
control and analysis of measured data of measurement system.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
These performance characteristics of an instrument are very important in their selection.
Static Characteristics: Static characteristics of an instrument are considered for instruments which are
used to measure an unvarying process condition. Performance criteria based upon static relations
represent the static characteristics. (The static characteristics are the value or performance given after
the steady state condition has reached).

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Dynamic Characteristics: Dynamic characteristics of an instrument are considered for instruments
which are used to measure a varying process condition. Performance criteria based upon dynamic
relations represent the dynamic Characteristics.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree of closeness with which an instrument reading approaches
to the true value of the quantity being measured. It determines the closeness to true value of instrument
reading. Accuracy is represented by percentage of full-scale reading or in terms of inaccuracy or in
terms of error value.
Example, Accuracy of temperature measuring instrument might be specified by ±3ºC. This accuracy
means the temperature reading might be within + or -3ºC deviation from the true value.
Precision: Precision is the degree of repeatability of a series of the measurement. Precision is measures
of the degree of closeness of agreement within a group of measurements are repeatedly made under the
prescribed condition. Precision is used in measurements to describe the stability or reliability or the
reproducibility of results.
Linearity: Linearity is the best characteristics of an instrument or measurement system. Linearity of
the instrument refers to the output is linearly or directly proportional to input over the entire range of
instrument. So, the degree of linear (straight line) relationship between the output to input is called as
linearity of an instrument.

Nonlinearity: The maximum difference or deviation of output curve from the Specified idealized
straight line as shown in figure. Independent nonlinearity may be defined as

Resolution: Resolution is the smallest change in the input value that is required to cause an appreciable
change in the output. (The smallest increment in input or input change which can be detected by an
instrument is called as resolution)
ERRORS
The difference between the measured value of quantity and true value (reference value) of quantity is
called as error.

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Classification of Errors
All measurement can be made without perfect accuracy (degree of error must always be assumed). In
reality, no measurement can ever made with 100% accuracy. It is important to find that actual accuracy
and different types of errors can be occurred in measuring instruments. Errors may arise from different
sources and usually classified as follows,
1. Gross Errors
2. Systematic Errors - a) Instrumental errors i) Inherent shortcomings of instruments ii) Misuse of
instruments iii) Loading effects b) Environmental errors c) Observational errors
3. Random Errors
1. Gross Errors :
The main source of gross errors is human mistakes in reading or using instruments and in recording and
calculating measured quantity. As long as human beings are involved and they may grossly misread the
scale reading, then definitely some gross errors will be occurred in measured value.
Example, Due to an oversight, experimenter may read the temperature as 22.7°C while the actual
reading may be 32.7°C. The complete elimination of gross errors maybe impossible, one should try to
predict and correct them. Some gross errors are easily identified while others may be very difficult to
detect. Gross errors can be avoided by using the following two ways. I) Great care should be taken in
reading and recording the data, II) three or even more readings should be taken for the quantity being
measured by using different experimenters.
2. Systematic Errors
Systematic errors are divided into following three categories. i. Instrumental Errors ii. Environmental
Errors iii. Observational Errors.
a) Instrumental Errors : These errors are arises due to following three reasons (sources of error). a) Due
to inherent shortcoming of instrument b) Due to misuse of the instruments, and c) Due to loading effects
of instruments
i) Inherent Shortcomings of instruments: These errors are inherent in instruments because of their
mechanical structure due to construction, calibration or operation of the instruments or measuring
devices. These errors may cause the instrument to read too low or too high. Example, if the spring (used
for producing controlling torque) of a permanent magnet instrument has become weak, so the
instrument will always read high. Errors may be caused because of friction, hysteresis or even gear
backlash.
Elimination or reduction methods of these errors:
 The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
 The procedure of measurement must be carefully planned. Substitution methods or calibration
against standards may be used for the purpose.
 Correction factors should be applied after determining the instrumental errors.

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ii) Misuse of Instruments: In some cases the errors are occurred in measurement due to the fault of the
operator than that of the instrument. A good instrument used in an unintelligent way may give wrong
results. Examples, Misuse of instruments may be failure to do zero adjustment of instrument, poor initial
adjustments, using leads of too high a resistance and ill practices of instrument beyond the
manufacturer’s instruction and specifications etc.
iii) Loading Effects: The errors committed by loading effects due to improper use of an instrument for
measurement work. In measurement system, loading effects are identified and corrections should be
made or more suitable instruments can be used. Example, a well calibrated voltmeter may give a
misleading (may be false) voltage reading when connected across a high resistance circuit. The same
voltmeter, when connected across a low resistance circuit may give a more reliable reading (dependable
or steady or true value). In this example, voltmeter has a loading effect on the circuit, altering the actual
circuit conditions by measurement process. So errors caused by loading effect of the meters can be
avoided by using them intelligently.
b) Environmental Error
Environmental error occurs due to external environmental conditions of the instrument, such as effects
of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibration or external magnetic or electrostatic fields.
Elimination or reduction methods of these undesirable errors are
 Arrangements should be made to keep the conditions as nearly as constant as possible.
Example, temperature can be kept constant by keeping the instrument in the temperature-
controlled region.
 The device which is used against these environmental effects. Example, variations in resistance
with temperature can be minimized by using very low resistance temperature co-efficient of
resistive material.
 Employing techniques which eliminate the effects of these disturbances. For example, the effect
of humidity dust etc., can be entirely eliminated by tightly sealing the equipment.
 The external or electrostatic effects can be eliminated by using magnetic or electrostatic shield
on the instrument.
c) Observational Errors:
There are many sources of observational errors. As an example, the pointer of a voltmeter rests slightly
above the surface of the scale. Thus an error on account of parallax will be acquired unless the line of
vision of the observer is exactly above the pointer. To minimize parallax errors, highly accurate meters
are provided with mirrored scales.
Errors due to parallax
When the pointer’s image appears hidden by the pointer, observer’s eye is directly in line with the
pointer. Although a mirrored scale minimizes parallax error, an error is necessarily presented though it

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may be very small. So we can eliminate this parallax error by having the pointer and scale in the same
plane.
3. Random Errors
These errors are occurred due to unknown causes and are observed when the magnitude and polarity of
a measurement fluctuate in changeable (random) manner. The quantity being measure is affected by
many happenings or disturbances and ambient influence about which we are unaware are lumped
together and called as random. The errors caused by these disturbances are called random Errors. Since
the errors remain even after the systematic errors have been taken care, those errors are called as
Random Errors. Random errors cannot normally be predicted or corrected, but they can be minimized
by skilled observer and using a well-maintained quality instrument.

NEED FOR CALIBRATION

Calibration is the process of checking the accuracy of instrument by comparing the instrument reading
with a standard or against a similar meter of known accuracy. So calibration is used to find the errors
and accuracy of the measurement system or an instrument.
Calibration is an essential process to be undertaken for each instrument and measuring system regularly.
The instruments which are actually used for measurement work must be calibrated against some
reference instruments in which is having higher accuracy. Reference instruments must be calibrated
against instrument of still higher accuracy or against primary standard or against other standards of
known accuracy.
The calibration is better carried out under the predetermined environmental conditions. All industrial
grade instruments can be checked for accuracy in the laboratory by using the working standard.
Certification of an instrument manufactured by an industry is undertaken by National Physical
Laboratory and other authorized laboratories where the secondary standards and working standards are
kept.

ABSOLUTE & SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS

Absolute Instruments:
These instruments give the magnitude of the quantity under measurements in terms of physical
constants of the instrument
There is no necessity of calibrating or comparing with other instruments.
Tangent Galvanometer and Rayleigh’s current balance are example of this class.
Secondary Instruments:
These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured can only be measured by
observing the output indicated by the instrument.

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These instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument or any other secondary
instrument which has already been calibrated against an absolute instrument.
A voltmeter, a glass thermometer and a pressure gauge are typical examples of secondary instruments
Working with absolute instruments for routine work is time consuming. Therefore, secondary
instruments are most commonly used. Absolute instruments are seldom used except in standard
institutions and laboratories while secondary instruments find usage almost in every sphere of
measurement.
CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS
Indicating Instruments:
The instrument which indicates the magnitude of the measured quantity by means of a dial and pointer
is known as the indicating instrument.
Example: Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter
Recording Instruments:
These instruments record continuously the variation of any electrical quantity with respect to time. In
principle, these are indicating instruments but so arranged that a permanent continuous record of the
indication is made on a chart or dial. Any electrical quantity like current, voltage can be recorded by a
suitable recording mechanism.
Example: A potentiometric type of recorder used for monitoring temperature records the instantaneous
temperatures on a strip chart recorder.
Integrating Instruments:
These instruments record the consumption of the total quantity of electricity, energy etc. during a
particular period of time. These instruments give reading for a specific period of time but no indication
of reading for a particular instant of time.
Example: Ampere-hour meter, Energy meter, kilovolt ampere hour meter.

ESSENTIALS OF INDICATING INSTRUMENTS

For satisfactory working of indicating instruments, the following torques are required.
i) Deflecting torque
ii) Controlling torque and
iii) Damping torque
Deflecting torque:
In measuring instruments, deflecting torque is the torque that causes the pointer to move from its zero
position, driven by the quantity being measured, and is essential for indicating the reading.
Deflecting torque (Td) is the torque that causes the moving system and pointer of an instrument to move
from its zero position.

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The production of deflecting torque depends on the type of instrument and its principle of operation,
utilizing effects like magnetic, thermal, or electrodynamic effects.
In a measuring instrument, deflecting torque works in conjunction with controlling torque (which limits
the pointer's movement and ensures a unique deflection for a given value) and damping torque (which
reduces oscillations and allows the pointer to settle quickly).
Types of indicating instruments:
Moving-coil instruments: Deflecting torque is directly proportional to the average value of current.
Moving iron instruments: Deflecting torque is directly proportional to the square of the rms value of
the current.
Controlling Torque
In measuring instruments, controlling torque, or restoring torque, balances the deflecting torque,
ensuring the pointer settles at a stable, accurate value proportional to the measured quantity.
Without controlling torque, the pointer would overshoot its final position and oscillate indefinitely.
The controlling torque brings the pointer to a steady-state position, allowing for a stable and accurate
reading of the measured quantity. The controlling torque also plays a crucial role in returning the pointer
to its zero position when no quantity is being measured.
The controlling torque acts in the opposite direction to the deflecting torque, which is the torque needed
to move the pointer over a calibrated scale.
The pointer comes to rest at a position where the controlling torque and deflecting torque are equal (Tc
= Td).
Controlling torque is generally provided by springs. The spring exerts a force on the pointer, which is
proportional to the deflection of the pointer from its zero position. This force helps to balance out the
deflecting force and return the pointer to its zero position.
Sometimes, gravity control is also used as a controlling system. In this case, a weight or counterbalance
is attached to the pointer, which produces a force that opposes the force of gravity and helps to return
the pointer to its zero position.
Methods of Providing Controlling Torque:
1. Gravity control - his method employs the force of gravity to create a controlling torque,
particularly useful in vertically operated instruments.
2. Spring control - This method uses springs to provide a restoring force proportional to the
deflection.
1. Gravity Control:
Gravity control is a type of control system that uses a small weight attached to the moving system
to produce a controlling torque due to gravity. The weight, known as the control weight, is positioned
in such a way that it can be adjusted to produce the appropriate amount of controlling torque.

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In a gravity control system, the control weight is positioned at the zero position of the pointer when the
system is at rest. This is the position where the controlling torque is zero and is shown as position B of
the weight in the figure.

If the system deflects, the position of the control weight also changes, as shown in the figure. The
system deflects through an angle θ. The control weight acts at a distance l from the centre. The
component Wsinθ of this weight tries to restore the pointer back to the zero position. This is the
controlling torque Tc. The equation that represents this relationship is:
TC = Wsin*l=Ksin where K = Wl = gravity constant
Now generally all meters are current sensing meters where the deflecting torque Td = Kt I where Kt is
another constant. In equilibrium position, Td = Tc and thus we have
Kt I = Ksin
I α sin
Thus the deflection is proportional to current i.e. quantity to be measured. But as it is a function of sinθ
, the scale for the instrument using gravity control is not uniform. The readings are not linear and the
scale is not evenly spaced. Therefore, instruments that use gravity control are not as accurate as those
that use other types of control systems.
Advantages of Gravity Control:
 One of the advantages of gravity control is that its performance is not time dependent. This
means that the controlling torque produced by the control weight remains consistent over time,
regardless of how long the instrument has been in use. This helps to ensure the accuracy and
precision of the instrument's readings over time.
 Another advantage is that gravity control is simple and cheap. The control weight is a small,
inexpensive component that can be easily added to a measuring instrument. This makes it an
attractive option for instruments that need to be produced at a low cost.
 The controlling torque can be varied by adjusting the position of the control weight. This allows
the instrument to be fine-tuned to match the specific requirements of the measurement. This

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 can be useful for instruments that measure a wide range of quantities or for instruments that
need to be used in different environments.
 The performance of gravity control is not temperature dependent. This means that the
controlling torque produced by the control weight remains consistent regardless of the ambient
temperature. This helps to ensure the accuracy and precision of the instrument's readings, even
in environments where the temperature may fluctuate.
Disadvantages of Gravity Control:
 One of the main disadvantages of gravity control is that the scale is non-uniform, which means
that the readings are not evenly spaced. This can make it more difficult to take accurate
readings, especially if the instrument is measuring a wide range of quantities.
 Another disadvantage is that the system must be used in a vertical position only, and it must be
properly levelled. This means that the instrument must be placed on a flat surface and adjusted
so that it is perfectly level. If it is not properly levelled, it can cause serious errors in the
measurement.
 Due to delicate and proper levelling required, gravity control is not commonly used for
indicating instruments and portable instruments. Indicating instruments are those that have a
pointer and a scale and are used to display a measurement. Portable instruments are those that
can be easily carried and used in different locations. Because of the sensitivity required to level
and adjust the instrument, it is not practical for these types of instruments.
2. Spring Control:
Spring control is a type of control system that uses two hair springs attached to the moving system
to exert a controlling torque. The spring control is widely used in measuring instruments to control the
movement of the pointer.

To use spring control in an instrument, certain requirements must be met. These include:
1. The spring should be non-magnetic so it doesn't get affected by magnetic fields.

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 2. The spring should be free from mechanical stress, meaning it should not be stretched or
compressed in any way.
3. The spring should have a small resistance and sufficient cross-sectional area to produce the
correct amount of controlling torque.
4. It should have low resistance temperature coefficient, which means that the spring's resistance
should not change significantly with changes in temperature.
5. The springs are usually made of non-magnetic materials like silicon bronze, hard-rolled silver
copper, platinum silver, and German silver. For most instruments, phosphor bronze spiral
springs are used. Flat spiral springs are used in almost all indicating instruments.
In the spring control system, the inner end of the spring is attached to the spindle, while the outer end
is attached to a lever or arm that is actuated by a set of screws mounted at the front of the instrument.
This allows for easy zero setting of the instrument. The controlling torque provided by the instrument
is directly proportional to the angular deflection of the pointer.
The controlling torque produced by spiral springs is given by,
Tc = Ks
where Tc is the controlling torque, θ is the angular deflection of the pointer
The spring control is very popular and is used in almost all indicating instruments. This is because it
provides a uniform scale for the instrument, meaning that the readings are evenly spaced. This makes it
easy to take accurate readings, especially if the instrument is measuring a wide range of quantities.
Additionally, the spring control system ensures that the pointer returns to its initial position when the
current is removed, making it ready for the next measurement.
Advantages of Spring Control:
 A uniform scale is present since the current flowing is proportional to deflections. This means
that the readings are evenly spaced and easy to take accurate readings, especially if the
instrument is measuring a wide range of quantities.
 High accuracy can be obtained with spring control. The spring control system ensures that the
pointer returns to its zero position, and the scale of the instrument is uniform, making it easy to
take accurate readings.
 This method of providing controlling torque is simple. The spring control system uses two small
springs to exert a force that is proportional to the angular deflection of the pointer, which helps
to balance out the deflecting force caused by the current being measured.
 The system can be used in any position. Unlike gravity control, the instrument can be placed in
any position and still function correctly.
 Spring control is most preferable and is commonly used in many systems. Due to its advantages,
spring control is widely used in almost all indicating instruments, making it a widely accepted
and preferred method for controlling the movement of the pointer on a measuring instrument.

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Disadvantages of Spring Control:
 The spring control torque depends upon temperature changes. As the temperature changes, the
spring's properties also change which can affect the controlling torque produced by the spring.
This can make the instrument less reliable in environments where the temperature fluctuates.
 The spring control system requires a high cost. The spring control system uses high-quality and
precise springs which can be expensive, making it a more costly option when compared to other
control systems.
 Controlling torque cannot be varied. In spring control system, the controlling torque is directly
proportional to the angular deflection of the pointer, and it cannot be varied after the instrument
is set up. This means that the instrument cannot be fine-tuned to match the specific requirements
of the measurement.
Damping Torque
Damping torque in measuring instruments is essential for quickly and accurately bringing the pointer
to rest after a measurement, by opposing the oscillations and settling the pointer to its final position.
Damping torque is a torque that opposes the motion of the moving system in a measuring instrument,
preventing it from oscillating around the final reading and allowing for a quick and stable indication.
Without damping, the pointer would continue oscillating due to inertia, making it difficult to obtain a
quick and accurate reading.
The damping torque is designed to reduce the oscillations and bring the pointer to rest quickly and
without overshooting the final position.
Types of Damping:
 Air friction damping: Uses air resistance to oppose the motion of a vane or piston.
 Fluid friction damping: Employs a fluid (like oil) to resist the movement of a disc or
vane.
 Eddy current damping: Utilizes eddy currents induced in a conducting material to
create a damping force.
Examples:
PMMC (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil) instruments: Often use eddy current damping.
Moving iron instruments: May use air friction damping.
Electro-static voltmeters: May use fluid friction damping.
1. Air Friction Damping:
This arrangement consists of a light aluminum piston which is attached to the moving system as shown
in the figure below:

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The piston moves in a fixed air chamber. It is close to one end. The clearance between the piston and
wall chambers is uniform and small. The piston reciprocates in the chamber when there are oscillations.
When the piston moves into the chamber, the air inside is compressed and the pressure of air developed
due to friction opposes the motion of the pointer.
There is also opposition to the motion of the moving system when the piston moves out of the chamber.
Thus the oscillations and the overshoot gets reduced due to to and fro motion of the piston in the
chamber providing necessary damping torque. This helps in settling down the pointer to its final steady
position very quickly.
2. Fluid Friction Damping
Fluid friction damping may be used in some instruments. The method is similar to ar friction damping,
only air is replaced by working fluid. The friction between the disc and fluid is used for opposing the
motion. Damping force due to fluid is greater than that of air due to viscosity. The disc is also called a
vane.

The arrangement is shown in the figure. It consists of a vane attached to the spindle which is completely
dipped in the oil. The frictional force between the oil and the vane is used to produce the damping
torque, which opposes the oscillating behaviour of the pointer.
Advantages of the Fluid Friction damping Method:
1. Due to the more viscosity of the fluid, more damping is provided.
2. The oil can also be used for insulation purposes.

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 3. Due to the upthrust of oil, the load on the bearings is reduced, thus reducing the frictional errors.
Disadvantages of the Fluid Friction damping Method:
1. This can be only used for instruments that are in a vertical position.
2. Due to oil leakage, the instruments can not be kept clean.

Eddy Current Damping

This is the most effective way of proving to damp. It is based on Faraday’s law and Lenz’s law.
When a conductor moves in a magnetic field cutting the flux, e.m.f. gets induced in it and the direction
of this e.m.f. is so as to oppose the cause producing it.
n this method, an aluminum disc is connected to the spindle. The arrangement of the disc is such that
when it rotates, it cuts the magnetic flux lines of a permanent magnet. The arrangement is shown in the
figure.

When the pointer oscillates, the aluminum disc rotates under the influence of the magnetic field of the
damping magnet. So discs cut the flux which causes an induced e.m.f in the disc. The disc is a closed
path hence induced e.m.f. circulated current through the disc called eddy current.
The direction of such eddy current is so as opposed to the cause producing it. The cause is relative
motion between the disc and the field. Thus it produces an opposing torque so as to reduce the
oscillations of the pointer. This brings the pointer to rest quickly. This is the most effective and efficient
method of damping.

PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT

The permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) instrument is the most accurate type for dc
measurements.

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Moving coil: The moving coil is wound with many turns of enamelled or silk covered copper wire. The
coil is mounted on a rectangular aluminium former which is pivoted on jewelled bearings. The coils
move freely in the field of a permanent magnet. Most voltmeter coils are wound on metal frames to
provide the required electro-magnetic damping. Most ammeter coils, however, are wound on non-
magnetic formers, because coil turns are effectively shorted by the ammeter shunt. The coil itself,
therefore, provides electro-magnetic damping.
Magnet systems: Owing to development of materials like Alcomax and Alnico, which have a high
coercive force, it is possible to use smaller magnet lengths and high field intensities. The flux densities
used in PMMC instruments vary from 0.1 Wb/sq-m to 1 Wb/sq-m. Thus, in small instruments it is
possible to use a small coil having small number of turns and hence a reduction in volume is achieved.
Alternatively in instruments having a large-scale length it is possible to increase the air gap length to
accommodate large number of turns.
Control: When the coil is supported between two jewel bearings the control torque is provided by two
phosphor bronze hair springs. These springs also serve to lead current in and out of the coil. The control
torque is provided by the ribbon suspension. This method is comparatively new and is claimed to be
advantageous as it eliminates bearing friction.

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Damping: Damping torque is produced by movement of the aluminium former moving in the magnetic
field of the permanent magnet.
Pointer and scale: The pointer is carried by the spindle and moves over a graduated scale. The pointer
is of light-weight construction and, apart from those used in some inexpensive instruments has the
section over the scale twisted to form a fine blade. This helps to reduce parallax errors in the reading of
the scale. In many instruments such errors may be reduced further by careful alignment of the pointer
blade and its reflection in the mirror adjacent to scale.
Torque equation:
The torque for a moving coil instrument is
Td = NBI dI = GI where G = a constant.
The spring control provides a restoring (controlling) torque
Tc = Kθ where K – spring constant.
For final steady deflection, Tc =Td or GI = Kθ
Final steady deflection, θ = (G/K) I
As the deflection is directly proportional to the current passing through the meter (K and G being
constants) we get a uniform (linear) scale for the instrument.
Advantages and Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments
The main advantages of PMMC instruments are:
 The scale is uniformly divided.
 The power consumption is very low
 The torque-weight ratio is high which gives a high accuracy.
 A single instrument may be used for many different current and voltage ranges by using
different values for shunts and multipliers.
 Since the operating forces are large on account of large flux densities, the errors due to stray
magnetic fields are small.
 Self-shielding magnets make the core magnet mechanism particularly useful in aircraft and
aerospace applications, where a multiplicity of instruments must be mounted in close proximity
to each other.
The chief disadvantages are:
 These instruments are useful only for dc. The torque reverses if the current reverses. If the
instrument is connected to ac, the pointer cannot follow the rapid reversals and the deflection
corresponds to mean torque, which is zero. Hence these instruments cannot be used for ac.
 The cost of these instruments is higher than that of moving iron instruments.

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MOVING IRON INSTRUMENT
Moving-Iron or MI instruments can be classified as
 Attraction-type moving-iron instruments
 Repulsion-type moving-iron instruments

Attraction-type moving-iron instruments

The current to be measured, in general, is passed through a coil of wire in the moving-iron instruments.
In case of voltage measurement, the current which is proportional to the voltage is measured. The
number of turns of the coil depends upon the current to be passed through it. For operation of the
instrument, a certain number of ampere turns is required. These ampere turns can be produced by the
product of few turns and large current or reverse.
Attraction-type Moving-Iron Instruments The attraction type of MI instrument depends on the attraction
of an iron vane into a coil carrying current to be measured. A soft iron vane IV is attached to the moving
system. When the current to be measured is passed through the coil C, a magnetic field is produced.
This field attracts the eccentrically mounted vane on the spindle towards it. The spindle is supported at
the two ends on a pair of jewel bearings. Thus, the pointer PR, which is attached to the spindle S of the
moving system is deflected. The pointer moves over a calibrated scale. The control torque is provided
by two hair springs S1 and S2 in the same way as for a PMMC instrument; but in such instruments
springs are not used to carry any current. Gravity control can also be used for vertically mounted panel
type MI meters. The damping torque is provided by the movement of a thin vane V in a closed sector-
shaped box B, or simply by a vane attached to the moving system. Eddy current damping can not be
used in MI instruments owing to the fact that any permanent magnet that will be required to produce
Eddy current damping can distort the otherwise weak operating magnetic field produced by the coil. If
the current in the fixed coil is reversed, the field produced by it also reverses. So the polarity induced
on the vane reverses. Thus whatever be the direction of the current in the coil the vane is always be
magnetized in such a way that it is attracted into the coil. Hence such instrument can be used for both
direct current as well as alternating current.

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Repulsion-type Moving-Iron Instruments
In the repulsion type, there are two vanes inside the coil. One is fixed and the other is movable. These
are similarly magnetised when the current flows through the coil and there is a force of repulsion
between the two vanes resulting in the movement of the moving vane. Two different designs for moving
iron instruments commonly used are as follows: Radial Vane Type In this type, the vanes are radial
strips of iron. The fixed vane is attached to the coil and the movable one to the spindle of the instrument.
The instrument pointer is attached to the moving vane spindle. As current flows through the coil, the
generated magnetic field induces identical polarities on both the fixed and moving vane. Thus, even
when the current through the coil is alternating (for AC measurement), there is always a repulsion force
acting between the like poles of fixed and moving vane. Hence deflection of the pointer is always in the
same direction irrespective of the polarity of current in the coil. The amount of deflection depends on
the repulsion force between the vanes which in turn depends on the amount of current passing through
the coil. The scale can thus be calibrated to read the current or voltage directly.

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Co-axial Vane Type I In these type of instruments, the fixed and moving vanes are sections of coaxial
cylinders. Current in the coil magnetizes both the vanes with similar polarity. Thus the movable vane
rotates along the spindle axis due to this repulsive force. Coaxial vane type instruments are moderately
sensitive as compared to radial vane type instruments that are more sensitive. Moving iron instruments
have their deflection is proportional to the square of the current flowing through the coil. These
instruments are thus said to follow a square law response and have nonuniform scale marking.
Deflection being proportional to square of the current, whatever be the polarity of current in the coil,
deflection of a moving iron instrument is in the same direction. Hence, moving iron instruments can be
used for both DC and AC measurements.
Torque Equation of Moving Iron Instruments:
Let,
Td = Deflection torque in N-m
θ = Deflection in radians
L = Inductance in Henry
I = Initial current
dI = Change in initial current
dL = Change in inductance
dθ = Change in deflection
The voltage drop across the ammeter is given by,

The energy consumed by the meter,

For a small increment in current (dI), the deflection is increased by dθ. We know that the energy
stored by the inductance of the meter = 1/2 LI2. Therefore, new energy storage due to increment
in current,
= 1/2 (L + dL)(I + dI)2
The change in stored energy is,

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Neglecting the second and third order differential terms, we get change in stored energy as,
= LIdI + 1/2 I2 dL ...(2)
We have work done = Td × dθ = Td. From the law of conservation of energy, we have,
Energy consumed = Work done + Change in stored energy
Substituting equations 1, 2, and 3 in 4, we get,

From the above, we can say deflecting torque produced is proportional to the square of the
current. For ac measurement, the readings obtained will be the RMS value of the current or
voltage. Due to square law response of the instrument, the scale of moving iron instruments is
not uniform.
Advantages of MI Instruments
 Robust construction and relatively cheap
 Suitable for measuring both dc and ac
 Can withstand overload momentarily
Disadvantages of MI Instruments
 As the deflection is proportional to I2, the scale of the instrument is not uniform. It is
cramped in the lower end and expanded in the upper portion.
 It is affected by stray magnetic fields.
 There is hysteresis error in the instrument. The hysteresis error may be minimized by using
the vanes of nickel-iron alloy.
 When used for measuring ac the reading may be affected by variation of frequency due to the
change in reactance of the coil, which has some inductance. With the increase in frequency
iron loses and coil impedance increases.
 Since large amount of power is consumed to supply I2R loss in the coil and magnetic losses in
the vanes, it is not a very sensitive instrument.

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RANGE EXTENSION OF VOLTMETER USING MULTIPLIER
A multiplier is employed for extension of a voltmeter’s range. A multiplier is a resistance of high value
connected in series with the voltmeter. The combination then is connected across the circuit whose
voltage is to be measured. The multiplier limits the current through the voltmeter and value of its
resistance be calculated as under.

Let,
 Rm = Internal resistance of the meter
 Rs = Resistance of multiplier
 Im = Full-scale deflection current of meter
 V = Voltage being measured
 Vm = Full deflection voltage of the meter

The construction of multiplier should meet the following requirements,

 The resistance of the multiplier should be time-invariant.
 The temperature coefficient of resistance should be small.
 They should be non-inductively wound for ac meters.
In practice, the multipliers are made up of materials that have negligible temperature coefficients like
manganin and constantan. These also reduce the errors due to temperature changes.
EXTENSION OF RANGE OF AMMETER USING SHUNTS:
In measuring instrument, shunt refers to a low resistance which is connected in parallel to the basic
meter as shown below. It acts as a diverter, and the maximum percent of current measured will be passed
through it.

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Essential Requirements for the Construction of Shunts :
The essential requirements for the construction of shunts are as follows,
 The coefficient of the temperature of the shunt and the instrument coil should be equal as far as
possible and should be very low.
 As the maximum percent of current is being diverted through the shunts, they should not
produce excess heat.
 Their resistance should be time-invariant.
 In the case of ac instruments, the time constant of the shunt and the instrument coil should be
equal.
 They should have low thermoelectric emf with copper.
Let,
Im = Full deflection current of the basic meter
Ish = Current through shunt
Rm = Internal resistance of the basic meter
Rsh = Resistance of the shunt
I = Current being measured
m = Multiplying factor
As the shunt is connected in parallel to the basic meter, the voltage drops across the shunt will be equal
to that of a basic meter.

he ratio of I and Im is called the multiplying factor m.

i.e., m = I/Im ...(4).
Substituting equation 4 in 3 we get,

The meter deflection θ is directly proportional to the meter current Im.

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i.e., θ ∝ Im ∝ I
So, the meter deflection is directly proportional to the total current being measured. Hence, by
connecting a proper value of shunt and calibrating the meter scale in terms of m × Im = I the range of
an ammeter can be extended.
A moving coil ammeter reading up to 1 ampere has a resistance of 0.02 ohm. How could this
instrument be adopted to read current up to 100 amperes?
Full-scale deflection current of the ammeter, Im = 1 A
Current to be measured, I = 100 A
Resistance of ammeter, Rm = 0.02 ohm

m = 100 / 1 = 100A
Rsh = 0.000202Ω
A moving coil voltmeter reading up to 20 mV has a resistance of 2 ohms. How this instrument can
be adapted to read voltage up to 300 volts.
Ans: R = 29998 Ω

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