Estimation of SoC

Coulomb-counting method

 To estimate how much charge is left in a battery (SoC), we can measure the amount
of electrical current that flows into or out of the battery over time. This is called
current integration or Coulomb counting.
 By using data from the battery manufacturer or results from standard charging tests,
we can figure out what fraction of charge remains in the battery.
 This method works well for most types of batteries, especially when the load is
stable and the current measuring device is accurate.
 However, if there is even a small error in current measurement, it can add up over
time and affect accuracy.
 Also, factors like self-discharge (the battery losing charge on its own) and Peukert’s
law (which shows battery performance changes with different loads) can lead to
incorrect SoC estimates.
 That’s why this method is often used together with other methods, such as the Open
Circuit Voltage (OCV) method, to correct or calibrate the estimated charge level.
 Similarly, the State of Health (SoH) of a battery can be estimated by comparing the
battery’s current charge-discharge behavior with its original specifications using this
method.

OCV

Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) – Simple Explanation

 Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) is the voltage of a battery when it has been at rest for a
long time with no load connected.
 There is a strong relationship between OCV and the State of Charge (SoC) of the
battery.
 However, measuring OCV accurately is difficult in practice, because the battery
needs to rest for a long time (sometimes more than 6 hours) to get a stable voltage
reading.
 This delay is caused by internal capacitive components in the battery, which slow
down how quickly the voltage settles.
 So, waiting hours to measure OCV every time is not practical, especially in real-
world applications.
 To solve this, engineers use OCV estimation methods instead of direct
measurement.
 One popular method is the GM (1,1) Grey Model, which is simple, reliable, and
works well for predicting OCV.
 Another method, the Observability-Gramian-Based (OGB) method, works better
across a wide range of load currents.
 The relationship between OCV and SoC is non-linear, meaning voltage does not
change evenly with charge level.
 A typical voltage vs. SoC graph shows how voltage changes with different
charge/discharge speeds (called C-rates), especially for a 40 Ah lithium iron
phosphate battery.
 For better SoC estimation, advanced techniques like the Sigma Point Kalman Filter
are used, which perform better than traditional Kalman filters.
3. Impedance-based methods

Impedance-Based Method – Simple Explanation

 Impedance-based methods are used to understand and predict how a battery behaves
under different conditions using both experiments and prediction techniques.
 These methods often require a large amount of experimental data, such as:
o Voltage vs. current,
o Voltage vs. charge,
o Time-related behavior,
o And how the battery responds to changing environmental conditions (like
temperature).
 The dynamic behavior of the battery (how it responds in real-time) is represented by
an impedance model, which is similar to an electrical circuit that also includes the
battery’s open-circuit voltage (OCV).
 One advanced impedance method is called Electrochemical Impedance
Spectroscopy (EIS):
o This technique studies how the battery’s internal electrochemical system
behaves under different conditions to estimate the State of Charge (SoC).
 There are also simpler circuit-based models, such as:
o The Thevenin model, which uses basic circuit elements to represent battery
behavior,
o And the runtime electrical model, which focuses on how the battery
performs during charging and discharging in real-time.
 All these models help in accurately estimating the battery's SoC using electrical
characteristics.

4. Recursive and machine-learning approaches

Recursive & Machine Learning Methods in Battery Management – Human

English

 Recursive and machine learning methods are used in Battery Management Systems
(BMS) to make battery modeling more accurate and reliable.
 These methods work by using the battery's past data and its current state to make
smart predictions.
 In BMS that use Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs), the system learns the actual
behavior of the battery over time.
 This means the modeling is done continuously during battery operation, and it
keeps getting better with time.
 As the battery's behavior changes, these changes are measured as State of Health
(SoH).
 These are known as advanced (state-of-the-art) techniques for estimating both State
of Charge (SoC) and SoH.
 Thanks to the development of fast processing units, these complex methods can now
be run on a single small chip.
 Some smart models like:
o The adaptive battery model with predictor/corrector observer, and
 o The online subspace parameter estimation method
have shown very accurate results compared to real battery measurements.
 Because of their accuracy and usefulness, these approaches have gained a lot of
interest among engineers and researchers and are expected to keep evolving in the
future.

RUL (Remaining Useful Life)

 From the user’s perspective, another important factor is RUL – Remaining Useful
Life, which tells how long the battery will continue to work properly.
 RUL is very similar to SoH, as both give an idea of the battery’s health.
 One method of estimating RUL uses the initial internal resistance of the battery —
because as the battery ages, its resistance increases, which can help predict how much
life is left.

SoC and SoH

The SoH and SoH are two states of batteries estimated in a BMS. The estimation is through the
battery voltage, current, temperature measurement and other battery parameters and specification.
1 SoC

The SoC is to measure the energy capacity as a percentage of the rated capacity. Therefore, it is
equivalent to the fuel gauge of a petrol vehicle

State of Charge (SoC) – Human English Explanation

 SoC (State of Charge) tells us how much charge is stored in the battery.
 It is usually shown in percentage or fraction (e.g., 100% means the battery is fully
charged).
 SoC is calculated using:
o Sampling time (Dt)
o Efficiency factor (k)
o Current (i) – which is positive while charging and negative while
discharging
o Battery capacity (Q) at the time of measurement

Why SoC is Important

 SoC plays a very important role during both charging and discharging:
o While discharging, it shows the remaining energy in the battery, which helps
estimate how far the vehicle can still travel.
o While charging, it helps the charger decide:
 How much current to supply
 When to stop charging
SoC Helps Protect the Battery

 SoC also helps the Battery Management System (BMS) protect the battery.
 For example, during braking or slowing down, electric vehicles recover energy
(regeneration).
o If the battery SoC is already high, the BMS redirects the extra energy to
components like dumping resistors to avoid overcharging.

SoC is Difficult to Measure Directly

 SoC cannot be measured directly like voltage or current.

 This is because it depends on complex chemical reactions inside the battery.
 It is also affected by:
o Temperature
o Current
o Voltage
o Driving conditions (like speed)

Coulomb Counting Method

 The basic method to estimate SoC is called Coulomb Counting (multiplying current
with time).
 But this method is not very accurate for Li-ion batteries because:
o The middle part of the discharge curve is very flat, so even small errors in
measurement can lead to large SoC errors.
 Also, simple power measurement does not consider the effects of temperature and
battery aging, which can also affect SoC accuracy.

How SoC is Monitored

 To estimate SoC accurately:

o Sensors are installed to measure current, voltage, and temperature.
o These values are converted to digital signals using an A/D converter and
sent to the microcontroller (MCU) for SoC estimation.

2 . SoH
SoH is defined as the state of health and is expressed as a percentage of the nominal capacity as a
base value:
SoH¼ Nominal capacity _ Loss of capacity Nominal capacity
State of Health (SoH) – Human English Explanation

 SoH (State of Health) tells us how healthy a battery is compared to when it was new.
 It is expressed in percentage, based on how much capacity the battery has lost.

Formula:
SoH = (Nominal Capacity – Lost Capacity) / Nominal Capacity × 100

 A new battery has an SoH of 100%.

 As the battery gets older, it loses capacity, and its SoH percentage decreases.

Why SoH is Important

 When a battery’s SoH drops below 70%, it is no longer considered suitable for
electric vehicle (EV) use.
 Normally, after thousands of charge–discharge cycles, a battery may drop to 80%
SoH, which is expected with usage.

Challenges in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)

 In HEVs, measuring SoH is more difficult because:

o The battery never becomes fully charged or fully discharged.
o It usually operates only between 30% and 80% State of Charge (SoC).
 So, it’s hard to test the battery's full capacity in actual use.
 Also, SoH depends on the internal chemical condition of the battery cells, which
makes it harder to measure accurately.

Passive balancing
Absolutely Ritesh! Here's the human-friendly English version of the explanation on
Passive Cell Balancing Techniques, clear and easy to write in exams:

🔋 Passive Cell Balancing – Human English Explanation

Passive balancing means removing extra energy from cells that are more charged and
wasting it as heat, so all battery cells have nearly equal charge levels.

🔸 1. Fixed Shunt Resistor

 A resistor is permanently connected in parallel with each cell.

 While charging, part of the current is redirected through the resistor to avoid
overcharging the cell.
 This resistor is always active, so it constantly wastes energy as heat.
 ✅ It's a simple method,
❌ But very inefficient due to continuous energy loss.

🔸 2. Switched Shunt Resistor

 Each cell has a resistor with a switch connected in parallel.

 It works in two ways:

🔹 Mode 1: Basic Switching

 When a cell’s voltage is high, its switch turns on, and the current is diverted through
the resistor.
 This allows weaker (low voltage) cells to catch up in charge.

🔹 Mode 2: Voltage-Sensing Control

 The system senses each cell's voltage.

  The switch is controlled smartly — higher voltage cells have their switches on
longer, so more energy is burned off.
 ✅ It's more accurate and effective,
❌ But still inefficient due to heat loss and needs more complex control systems.

🔸 3. Shunt Transistor Method

 A transistor is placed in parallel with each cell.

 When a cell reaches full charge (cut-off voltage), the transistor redirects extra
current around the cell.
 Only redirects current at the end of the charging process, so energy loss is much
lower.
 ✅ Better than switched resistors,
✅ Doesn’t need smart control,
✅ Lower cost and simpler to design.

🔚 Summary Table:

Method Simple? Efficient? Cost

Fixed Shunt Resistor ✅ Yes ❌ No (wastes energy) ✅ Low

Switched Shunt Resistor ✅ Yes ❌ No (but better control) ❌ High (if smart controlled)
 Method Simple? Efficient? Cost

Shunt Transistor ✅ Yes ✅ More efficient ✅ Low

Active balancing

🔋 Active Cell Balancing – Explained in Simple Human English

Active cell balancing is a smart method used in batteries where energy is moved from the
more charged cells to the less charged ones. This way, instead of wasting the extra energy
as heat (like in passive balancing), the system reuses that energy efficiently.

This method helps make better use of the full battery capacity and improves battery life.
It uses special circuits like capacitors, inductors, and transformers to shift energy around
between cells.

✅ Why Active Cell Balancing is Better

 It saves energy instead of wasting it as heat.

 It increases the usable battery power.
 It helps protect battery life.
 It is more efficient than the passive method.

⚙️Types of Active Cell Balancing Techniques

1. Cell-to-Cell

 Energy is directly transferred from one cell to another.

  Uses a capacitor to connect to a charged cell, store energy, then connect to a weaker
cell to give it energy.
 Advantages: Efficient and simple.
 Disadvantage: Slower when the difference in charge is small.

2. Cell-to-Pack

 Energy goes from a more charged cell to the entire battery pack.
 Uses a shunt inductor.
 Good for high-power batteries, but only one cell is balanced at a time, so it’s slow.

3. Pack-to-Cell

 Energy flows from the battery pack to a less charged cell.

 Uses a transformer with many outputs to send energy to weak cells.
 Balances multiple weak cells at once, which is more effective.
4. Cell → Storage Tank → Cell

 Energy from the strongest cell goes into a temporary storage component (like a
capacitor).
 Then it's given to the weakest cell.
 Low cost and energy-efficient, but only balances one cell at a time, so it's slow.

5. Both Ways (Cell-to-Pack and Pack-to-Cell)

 Uses a bi-directional transformer.

 Energy can go from a cell to the pack or from the pack to a weak cell.
 This is fast and flexible, but more complex and costly.

🔚 In Summary:

Active cell balancing is like a smart energy-sharing system in your battery:

 It doesn't waste energy.

 It balances cells by moving charge between them.
 It helps batteries last longer and work better.
 It uses advanced circuits for better control and performance.
Thermal Management of Battery:
Thermal management of batteries in electric vehicles (EVs) is crucial for maintaining optimal
performance, extending battery life, and ensuring safety. Lithium-ion batteries, the most
commonly used in EVs, are sensitive to temperature fluctuations, with performance degrading
significantly outside the optimal operating range (20°C–40°C). Effective thermal management
systems (TMS) help regulate battery temperature during charging, discharging, and idle states.

Key Functions of Thermal Management Systems:

1. Temperature Regulation:
o Maintains the battery temperature within the optimal range to prevent overheating or
overcooling.
o Ensures uniform temperature distribution across battery cells to avoid
hotspots.
2. Safety Enhancement:
o Reduces the risk of thermal runaway, which can lead to fires or explosions.
o Improves operational safety under extreme environmental conditions.
3. Performance Optimization:
o Enhances energy efficiency and power output by maintaining ideal thermal conditions.

o Reduces degradation and improves the overall lifespan of the battery.

4. Energy Efficiency:
o Minimizes energy consumption by the thermal management system itself, contributing to
overall vehicle efficiency.

Thermal Management Techniques:

1. Passive Cooling and Heating:
o Relies on materials with high thermal conductivity or insulation properties.

o Uses phase change materials (PCMs) to absorb or release heat without active energy input.
2. Air Cooling:
o Circulates air around the battery pack using fans or ducts.

o Cost-effective but less efficient in managing high heat loads.

3. Liquid Cooling:
o Utilizes a coolant (e.g., water-glycol mixture) circulated through pipes in the battery pack.

o Offers higher thermal conductivity and uniform cooling but is more complex and costly.

4. Phase Change Materials (PCMs):

o Incorporates materials that absorb heat during phase transitions (solid to liquid) to stabilize
temperature.
5. Heat Pipes:
o Uses evaporative and condensation cycles within a sealed pipe to transfer heat efficiently.
6. Refrigerant-Based Cooling:
o Integrates the vehicle’s air conditioning system to directly cool the battery pack.

o Common in high-performance EVs.

Challenges in Battery Thermal Management:
1. Cost:
o Developing advanced TMS adds to the vehicle’s overall cost.
2. Weight and Space:
o Compact and lightweight systems are essential to avoid reducing vehicle range and efficiency.
3. Integration:
o Seamless integration of the TMS with the vehicle’s design and powertrain is critical.
4. Energy Efficiency:
o Balancing the energy consumed by the TMS with the overall efficiency of the EV.

Future Trends:
 Development of advanced materials with higher thermal conductivity.

 Use of AI and IoT for real-time thermal management and predictive maintenance.

 Integration of thermal management with battery health monitoring systems.

 Research on solid-state batteries, which may reduce the need for extensive thermal
management