Electronics Measurements

&
Instrumentation

Subject Code: EC306

Class : BE(ECE)- 2nd Year

10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Ohmmeter
Direct reading device for measurement of resistance
An ohmmeter useful for getting the approximate resistance of circuit
component.
Have a low degree of accuracy

Series type ohmmeter

10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)
10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)
 Shunt Type Ohmmeter
TOPIC ASSIGNED TO STUDENTS

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 Measurement of Resistance

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 Measurement of Low/Medium Resistance
▪ Various methods used for the measurement of low/Medium
resistance are
1. By ammeter-voltmeter method
2. Wheatstone bridge method
3. Kelvin bridge method
4. Ohmmeter method
5. Substitution method

10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Ammeter-Voltmeter Method
This method very popular in laboratory for measurement of resistance. Two type of
connection employed for ammeter–voltmeter method are :

Fig.: Ammeter-Voltmeter method

10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)
10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)
10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)
 Wheatstone Bridge
Wheatstone bridge consist of four resistance P,Q,R and X connected in
series and parallel. Resistance P and Q are fixed whereas resistance R is a
variable resistance, X is unknown resistance whose value is to be
determined.
There are two branches namely ABC and ADC. In both the branches point
A is at the highest potential and point C at the lowest potential.
There is therefore a continues fall of
potential along each branch.

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 Wheatstone Bridge

10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Wheatstone Bridge

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 Measurement of Low Resistance
Kelvin Bridge
Used for measurement of low resistance having value less then 1 ohm.
It is the modified form of the Wheatstone Bridge

The r is the resistance of the contacts that

connect the unknown resistance R to
the standard resistance S.
The ‘m’ and ‘n’ show the range between
which the galvanometer is connected for
obtaining a null point.
At point ‘m’ and ‘n’ either very high or very
low value of unknown resistance is can be
obtained.
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 Kelvin Bridge
Let we chose any intermediate point say d where the resistance of lead r is
divided into two equal parts, i.e., r1 and r2

The presence of r1 causes no error in the measurement of unknown resistance.

From equation (1), we get

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 as,

The above equation shows that if the galvanometer connects at point d then the
resistance of lead will not affect their results.

The above mention process is practically not possible to implement. For obtaining
the desired result, the actual resistance of exact ratio connects between the point m
and n and the galvanometer connects at the junction of the resistor.

10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Kelvin Double Bridge
P, Q, p and q are the four known resistances.
The P and Q is the first ratio of the arm and p and q is the second arm
ratio.
The rated current is made to pass through the two resistance R and S
respectively
from the battery.
A variable resistance and ammeter
connected in the circuit, limit the flow
of current.
The galvanometer connected between
the b and d point which reduce the
effect of connecting lead.

10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 The ratio of p/q is made equal to the P/Q. Under balance condition zero
current flows through the galvanometer. The potential difference
between the point a and b is equivalent to the voltage drop between the
points Eamd.
Now,

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 For zero galvanometer deflection,

As we known, P/Q = p/q then above equation becomes

The equation shows that the result obtains from the Kelvin double bridge
is free from the impact of the connecting lead resistance.

10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Limitations of Kelvins Bridge
1. The sensitive galvanometer is used for detecting
the balance condition.
2. The high measurement current is required for
obtaining the good sensitivity.

Nowadays the kelvins bridge is replaced by the Kelvin

Bridge Ohmmeter.

10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Maxwell’s Bridge
Definition: The bridge used for the measurement of self-inductance of
the circuit is known as the Maxwell bridge.
The Maxwell bridge works on the principle of the comparison, i.e., the
value of unknown inductance is determined by comparing it with the
known value or standard value.
Two methods are used for determining the self-inductance of the circuit.
They are
1. Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
2. Maxwell’s inductance Capacitance Bridge

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 Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
In this bridge the value of unknown resistance is determined by comparing
it with the known value of the standard self-inductance.

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 Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitance Bridge
In this bridge the unknown resistance is measured with the help of the
standard variable capacitance.
Let,
L1 – unknown inductance of resistance R1.
R1 – Variable inductance of fixed resistance r1.
R2, R3, R4 – variable resistance connected in series with
inductor L2.
C4 – known non-inductance resistance

For balance condition,

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 By separating the real and imaginary equation we get,

The above equation shows that the bridges have two variables R4 and C4 which appear in one of
the two equations and hence both the equations are independent.

The circuit quality factor is expressed as

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 Advantages of the Maxwell’s Bridges
1. The balance equation of the circuit is free from frequency.
2. Both the balance equations are independent of each other.
3. The Maxwell’s inductor capacitance bridge is used for the
measurement of the high range inductance.

Disadvantages of the Maxwell’s Bridge

1. The Maxwell inductor capacitance bridge requires a variable
capacitor which is very expensive. Thus, sometimes the standard
variable capacitor is used in the bridges.
2. The bridge is only used for the measurement of medium quality
coils.

10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Anderson’s Bridge
Definition: The Anderson’s bridge gives the accurate
measurement of self-inductance of the circuit.
The bridge is the advanced form of Maxwell’s inductance
capacitance bridge.
In Anderson bridge, the unknown inductance is
compared with the standard fixed capacitance which
is connected between the two arms of the bridge.
The bridge has fours arms ab, bc, cd, and ad. The
arm ab consists unknown inductance along with
the resistance.
The static capacitor and the variable resistor are
connected in series and placed in parallel with
the cd arm.

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 Anderson’s Bridge
Let,
L1 – unknown inductance having a resistance R1.
R2, R3, R4 – known non-inductive resistance
C4 – standard capacitor
At balance Condition,

Now,

The other balance condition equation is expressed as

By substituting the value of Ic in the above equation we get,

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 And,

on equating the equation, we get

Equating the real and the imaginary part, we get

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 Advantages of Anderson Bridge
1. The balance point is easily obtained on the Anderson bridge as
compared to Maxwell’s inductance capacitance bridge.
2. The bridge uses fixed capacitor because of which accurate reading is
obtained.
3. The bridge measures the accurate capacitances in terms of inductances.
Disadvantages of Anderson Bridge
1. The circuit has more arms which make it more complex as compared to
Maxwell’s bridge. The equation of the bridge is also more complex.
2. The bridge has an additional junction which arises the difficulty in
shielding the bridge.

10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Schering Bridge
The Schering bridge use for measuring the capacitance of the capacitor,
dissipation factor, properties of an insulator, capacitor bushing, insulating
oil and other insulating materials.

The Schering bridge works on the

principle of balancing the load on its
arm.
Let,
C1 – capacitor whose capacitance is to be
determined,
r1 – a series resistance, representing the
loss of the capacitor C1.

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 C2 – a standard capacitor (The term standard capacitor means the
capacitor is free from loss)
R3 – a non-inductive resistance
C4 – a variable capacitor.
R4 – a variable non-inductive resistance parallel with variable capacitor C4.
At balance condition,

so,

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 Equating the real and imaginary equations, we get

The equation (1) and (2) are the balanced equation, and it is free from
the frequency.
The dissipation factor of the Schering bridge is the rate of loss of energy
that occurs because of the oscillations of the electrical and mechanical
instrument.

10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Advantages of Schering Bridge

The following are the advantages of the Schering bridge.

1. Balance equations are free from frequency.
2. The arrangement of the bridge is less costly as compared
to the other bridges.

10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 High Voltage Schering Bridge
The low voltage Schering bridge has several disadvantages, and because
of this reason, the high voltage and high frequency are required for
measuring the small capacitance.
The following the features of high voltage Schering bridge

✔ The high voltage supply obtains from the operational

amplifier. The vibration galvanometer use as a
detector for the bridge.
✔ The high voltage working capacitors are placed in the
arms ab and ad. The impedance of the arm ab and
ad are very high as compared to the arm bc and
cd. The term impedance means the opposition offered
by the circuit in the flow of current. The point c is
earthed.

10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 High Voltage Schering Bridge
✔ The impedance of the arm ab and ad is kept high so that the high
supply will not affect the potential across the arm bc and cd. The
potential across the detector is also kept low.
✔ The spark gap sets places on each arm for preventing the
dangerous high voltage which appears across the arm bc and
dc because of the breakdown of the high voltage capacitors.
✔ The power loss is very small in the arms ab and ad because of the
high impedance of arms ab and ad.

10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Wien’s Bridge
The Wien’s bridge use in AC circuits for determining the value of
unknown frequency.
The bridge measures the frequencies from 100Hz to 100kHz with
accuracy of 0.1 to 0.5 percent.
The bridge is used for various other
applications like capacitance
measurement, harmonic distortion
analyzer and in the HF frequency oscillator.
The Wien’s bridge is frequency sensitive.
Thereby, it is difficult to obtain the balance
point in it.

10/22/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)

 Wien’s Bridge
At balance condition,

On equating the real part,

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 On comparing the imaginary part,

By substituting the value of ω =

2πf,

The slider of the resistance R1 and R2 mechanically connect to each

other. So that, the R1 = R2 obtains.

10/23/2020 Mr. Sanjiv Kumar (Asst. Prof. ,ECE)