Chapter 1: CLASSIFICATION OF CROP PLANTS

1.1. Introduction.

Crop plants classification is important as they play a major role in the life of human
beings as a source of food, feed, and medicine. It is important to positively identify a
particular crop so as to manage the crop correctly during production and also to put it to
its correct use. In this chapter, we will discuss the universal botanical classification and
classification of crop plants according to use.

1.2. Objectives.

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

 State the importance of classifying plants

 Classify any given crop according to its botany.
 Classify crops according to use.

1.3. The importance of classifying plants

 To have universal way of naming plants.

 To identify plants that are closely related so that rotations can be wisely planned
to avoid pests and diseases carryover, and to improve soil fertility.
 To effectively plan the use of herbicides in weed management.
 To associate each plant with the correct usage.
 To effectively manage the environment by protecting soil erosion through
growing favourable crops in erosion prone areas.

1.4. Botanical classification of crop plants.

Plants are classified according to seven categories in a hieracheal manner: kingdom,

division, class, order, family, genus and species. In crop production, it is common to use
the family, genus and species. Members of the same family usually have distinct features
for example the gramineae lack the typical calyx and have three functional stamens and
one functional pistil. Members of the legume family are characterised by complete and
perfect flowers with five petals and ten stamens. The species are capable of inter
breeding to produce hybrids. Vegetative traits used to identify species include leaf shape,
and presence or absence of hairs on leaves or stem.

Crop plant families

  Gramineae (poaceae):It is the most important since it constitute the staple crops
of mankind. The family is made up of grain crops which are grasses. Examples of
crops found in the family include maize, rice, wheat, sorghum, rye, oats and
millets. Other important crops include sugarcane and pasture grasses. The family
is characterised by the presence of one cotyledon in the embryo and the leaves are
usually parallel-veined with entire margins.
 Leguminosae : These plants bear pods and most of them are noted for their
ability to fix nitrogen into the soil. They are also characterized by the presence of
two cotyledons in their embryos and their leaves are net-veined and may be
stalked. Their grains are rich in proteins with a range of 16.2 to 47.5% and oils up
to 25%. These include groundnuts, soya beans, peas, cowpeas, and the common
bean. Important fodder crops include: sun hemp, lurcene and velvet bean.
 Malvaceae : The plant is easily recognized by the form of the flowers which are
subtended by three large bracteoles and the cup shaped calyx with five large
petals. The compound leaves are dissected between the veins. Hairs are prominent
on the stems. The economic importance of this family lies with cultivated species
which provide fibre for example cotton, and which can be used as vegetable for
example okra.
 Solanaceae : Most of the members of this family are herbaceous. Near all have
hispid hairs and are strong smelling especially when bruised. The leaves are
simple or compound. The flower is tubular. The seeds are small and endospermic.
This family has such crops as tobacco, tomatoes, egg plant, potatoes and paprika.
 Compositae : Most species are herbaceous. The inflorescence is capitulum and
has small flowers called florets. The fruit in most cases is an achene. Most of the
plants in the family are flower plants. Others can be grown for oil extraction for
example sunflower or can be used for insecticides for example pyrethrum.
 Euphorbiaceae : The family has three categories of crops, the tuberous rooted
for example cassava, the oil crops for example castor bean and the rubber crops.
Generally the flowers are small, unisexual and arranged in cymose clusters. Leaf
arrangement is usually alternate. Many species contain milky latex and most
species are poisonous.

1.5. Agronomic classification

Agronomic classification involves classification of crops according to their use, planting time
and life span. We will discuss these as below:

 Classification according to use.

1. Grain crops: These crops are harvested for their grains for example maize,
rice, wheat and oats.
2. Root tubers: these plants have edible swollen roots. Examples are carrots and
irish potatoes.
3. Oil crops: Oil can be extracted from these plants especially from their seeds.
The oil can be edible or can be used for industrial purposes. Examples include
groundnuts, soya bean, sunflower, sesame, castor bean and jatropha.
4. Pulses: These are grain legumes which are grown for food other than oil
extraction, for example, common bean, mbambara nuts, and pigeon pea.
5. Fibre crops: These crops are grown for their fibre which can be used in the
textile industry or for other industrial purposes. Examples are cotton and sisal.
6. Beverage crops: Beverage can be produced from components of these crops,
for example, coffee, tea and grapes.
7. Fruit crops: the main part consumed is the fruit. These crops include
tomatoes, cucumbers, citrus, bananas, etc.
8. Ornamentals: These crops are grown for natural beauty. All flower crops and
lawns fall into this group.
9. Fodder crops: These crops are grown to be used as animal feed. Examples of
crops in this group include, velvet bean, and pasture grasses.
 Classification according to length of life cycles (life span).

1. Annuals: These complete their life cycles in one year or season. Examples
include, maize soya bean, groundnuts. Most crop plants are annuals.
2. Biennials/biannuals: These plants finish their life cycles in two years or two
seasons. During first year, the plant will go through the vegetative growth and
will have its reproductive growth in the second year.
3. Perennials: These crops live for more than two years, for example, cotton
and chillies. Once fully developed they produce seed every year.
 Classification according to region of origin.

Tropical: These are intolerant of cold temperatures, for example bananas

and mangoes.
Subtropical: These crops are generally tolerant of cold temperature but not
freezing temperature, for example granadilla and citrus..
Temperate: Are generally deciduous and require a cold period, for example,
apples, peaches, grapes, plums, apricots and pears.

1.6. Summary.
The universal way of classifying plants is the botanic classification. However, plants are also
classified according to their use. Classifying plants helps in positive identification of the same
plant across all nations and proper reference to its usage is not mistaken. Also researchers
will be able to pick related plants which they can breed to achieve desired goals. I

1.7. Activities.

a) State five major families of crops and give a specific example of a crop under each family.

b) Discuss the classification of crops according to use.

1.8. References.

 Chapman S.R and Carter L .P. (1976) Crop Production Principles and practices.
Freeman and Company, USA.

CHAPTER 2: CROPPING SYSTEMS

2.1: Introduction

A cropping system describes what crop or crops are grown in a particular location as well as
how and why they are grown, according to Chapman and Carter (1976). Cropping systems
are usually designed to achieve optimum resource utilisation, to preserve the environment by
conserving rather than consuming natural resources and to manage and control pests, weeds
and diseases. In this chapter, we are going to look at common cropping systems in crop
production.

2.2. Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 State different types of cropping systems.

 Explain each cropping system highlighting its advantages and disadvantages.
  Outline some factors that affect the choice of a cropping system.

2.3. Cropping systems

2.3.1. Monoculture

Monoculture refers to the growing of the same crop on the same piece of land season after
season. The choice of monoculture is mostly dependant on location, prevailing climatic
conditions, type of crop, and the available capital assets at the farm. This system has its own
advantages and disadvantages as outlined below.

Advantages of monoculture.
 It is simple and has a relatively low labour and capital requirements. The labour force
will get to know what is to be done and when using the same equipments or tools now
and again.
 Improved method of harvesting, drying and storage facilities. Since only the same
type of crop will be grown, the harvesting equipment, for example combine harvester,
will not be shared among several crops which may improve its efficiency in
operation. There will be no regular adjustments to the implement/ equipment. The
same storage facilities will be used season after season.
 Reasonably profitable.
Disadvantages of monoculture.
 Yield does not increase sufficiently to maintain profits as costs rise. As the costs to
manage and control weeds, pests and diseases increases, the yield will not increase
proportionally.
 There are high chances of pest and disease build up, which may increase the cost of
production in trying to protect the crop. Due to carryover of pest and diseases season
after season, their population will increase to levels that may require more frequent
sprays or more costly products at high dosage rate which will call for extra costs.
 Weeds in the same family as the crop may become a problem, especially in cereal
crops, hence increased competition resulting in low yields.

2.3.2. Intercropping.

Intercropping refers to the growing of more than one crop on the same piece of land at the
same time. Examples are maize, cowpeas or maize and pigeon pea systems.

Advantages of intercropping.
 Spread the risk of crop failure. Different crop families are sensitive to drought,
pests and disease challenges at different levels. Growing two crops at the same
time will allow one crop to survive in the event of bad weather or disease
challenge.
  Harvesting two crops on the same piece of land at the same time. Under good
growing conditions there are high chances of getting good yields from two
crops on the same field hence more retains per given area.
 It enhances pests and disease control. Since pests and disease are specific to
particular crop families, the growing of two different crops will provide a non-
host plant to the pest or disease hence reducing their population and control
costs.
 Improves soil fertility. The inclusion of a legume crop which fixes nitrogen
will improve soil fertility.
 Controls soil erosion. Intercropping will improve ground cover thereby
reducing soil erosion.
Disadvantages of intercropping.
 Presents harvesting problems, for example where maize is intercropped with
cowpeas. The cowpeas will entangle the maize plant such that it will be
difficult to access the cobs or to move between crop rows.
 Limits the use of herbicides. Most herbicides are crop specific, hence the
inclusion of a different crop will not be reserved by herbicide selectivity.
 Chemical pest control might be hindered due to inadequate spray penetration.

Due to the advantages and disadvantages of intercropping, it is mostly practised in drought

prone areas, in small cropped areas and where fertility enhancement is required.

2.3.3. Companion cropping.

Is the growing of non competing crops at the same time on the same land unit.

The advantages and disadvantages of companion cropping are very much related to
intercropping.

2.3.4. Fallow system.

The land is left un-cropped for a certain period of time usually two to four years.

[Link] Advantages of fallow system.

 Fertility enhancement. The land will get a chance to rest a gain more fertility from
organic matter decomposition and undisturbed structure.
 Soil erosion control. The absence of tillage operation which loosen the soil and make
it susceptible to erosion will enhance erosion control.
 Breaks the life cycles of pests and diseases especially where monoculture is practiced.
[Link] Disadvantages of fallow system
 It is difficult to practise where land is limiting. It may be difficult to leave land idle
for a period of over two years.
  There benefits are not immediate as one has to leave the land idle over two years or
more.

2.3.5. Rotations

Crop rotation is a cropping system in which two or more crops are grown in affixed sequence
on the same field. Alternatively, it is the growing of different crops in a more or less definite
sequence on the same field. The rotation desired is the one that gives the greatest net return
over a period of time. The most widely recommended rotations consist of a tilled crop, a
small grain and a legume or grass crop in that order so as to get the benefits of crop rotation
to be discuss in this unit.

[Link]. Basic principles of developing a crop rotation.

The following are considered when developing a crop rotation:

 Select crops well suited to the soil, topography of land and climate.
 Include legumes to maintain or increase nitrogen and organic matter of the soil
especially on land grown row crops such as potatoes, tobacco, maize and cotton.
 Select crop sequences which produce the highest yields and provide the best control
of weeds, insects and diseases.
 Select crops that provide sufficient feed for livestock on the farm.
 Select crops that provide good distribution for labour.
 Grow a maximum area of the most profitable crops, provided they do not sacrifice the
future productivity of the soil. The area of the crop should be nearly the same year
after year unless need for change arises.
 Other factors include soil conservation, goals and managerial ability of the farmer,
and capital available as well as effective use of the nutrients in the soil profile.
 Duration of the rotation normally varies from two to four years.

[Link]. Types of rotations.

 Grass ley rotation: Is a rotation which includes a period in grass which is used for
grazing and conservation.
 Continuous cereal and break crops. For example; maize- soya bean – maize, cotton –
maize- cotton, tobacco – maize- maize, maize- wheat- soya bean maize, tobacco-
grass- grass- grass- tobacco.

[Link] Benefits of crop rotations.

  Increased yield from conserved soil and improved fertility. The supply of nitrogen is
increased by the inclusion of legumes.
 The supply of organic matter is maintained or increased which is important in
maintaining the physical properties of the soil, for example water holding capacity
and soil structure. The supply of organic matter also encourages growth and
development of beneficial bacteria in the soil.
 Soil nutrients are utilized more efficiently. Various crops differ in nutrient absorption
and also take up nutrients at different rooting depth.
 Erosion losses are reduced. Various crops differ in protecting soil from wind or water
erosion. The amount of nutrients removed in cropping is often small compared to that
lost by erosion. Legumes and grass are highly effective in reducing soil and nutrient
losses by erosion.
 Manure and commercial fertilizers are more effectively utilized. These could be
applied to high value crops or crops that respond best to such treatments.
 Weeds, pests and diseases are better controlled. Rotation of crops will call for the use
of different herbicides to control weeds, and pesticides to control pest there by
reducing resistance built-up in pest. Also the inclusion of different plants will reduce
the seed bank and pest population or diseases as they are crop specific.
 Labour is more uniformly distributed throughout the year as the cropping will be done
throughout the year.
 Keeps the land occupied a greater part of the year with crops as one crop will be
planted soon after the other crop.
 Hazards are reduced. The risk of complete failure or poor production is usually
greater with one crop than when several crops are grown.
 Improves crop quality through timely operations like planting, reduced weed
challenge and also reduced pest and disease damage.
 Systematizes farming. The labour force would be aware of the crop to follow after
harvesting hence preparations for the next crop will be done timely. The structures
established at the farm will be used more efficiently.
 Saves on labour by growing two or more crops on one soil preparation where
conservation farming will be practiced.
[Link]. Disadvantages of crop rotation.
 It requires diverse knowledge for management of different crops.
 Requires more capital investment as same crops do not share the same equipment or
structures.
[Link]. Crop relationship in a rotation.
When crops are grown in a rotation, they can have at least three relationships as
follows:
 Competitive: Two crops are said to be competitive when one crop is grown at
the expense of the other.
 Complimentary: is when an increase in total output of one crop results in an
increase in total output of another crop from a fixed area or given resource.
 Supplementary: is when the crops neither add nor subtract from the output of
each other.
2.4. Summary.
Cropping systems include monoculture, intercropping, fallow system as well as rotation.
Each system has its own advantages and disadvantages. However all systems target have
the highest possible yields in crop production in a sustainable way.
2.5. Activities
a) Explain the disadvantages of monoculture.
b) Discuss the effects of practising intercropping in commercial farms.
c) Outline ten reasons for practising crop rotations.

2.6. References
 Arnon I (1972) Crop Production in Dry Regions, Volume 1, Leonard Hill, London.
 Chapman S.R and Carter L .P. (1976) Crop Production Principles and practices.
Freeman and Company, USA.

CHAPTER 3: LAND SELECTION AND PREPARATION FOR CULTIVATION OF

CROPS

3.0 Introduction

Land selection and preparation are important aspects of crop production. Choosing the right
land and preparing it in the most suitable way contributes significantly to the general
performance of any given crop. In this chapter, we will look at the factors considered in land
selection and the various methods of land preparation for the purpose of growing crops.

3.1 Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

 State and explain the factors considered in land selection for cultivation.
 Explain the process clearing arable land.
 State and explain any two tillage methods.

3.2 Land selection for cultivation of crops.

Land selection for cultivation of crops is affected by the following factors:

 Soil inherent fertility: A soil of high inherent fertility has an advantage over a poor
soil as far as economics of production are concerned. High inherent fertility will
result in lower production costs. Usually the heavier textured soils have higher
inherent fertilities when compared with the lighter textured soils. They have lower
rates of leaching because they have high cation exchange capacities and therefore
they can retain nutrients against gravity. Lower rates of fertilizer application are used
with these soils and usually one off application of fertilizers is done. However, with
continued cropping more organic matter and some fertilizers should be added to
maintain the soil fertility.
 Soil depth: This is the thickness of the top soil and represents the region from which
plants can extract nutrients and water with minimum hindrance. Generally a depth of
500mm is desirable though some crops can do well on soils of 250mm depth.
 Soil texture: This is the fineness or coarseness of a soil or the proportion of sand, silt
and clay in a given soil. It determines water and nutrient retention capacity of a given
soil. It also determines the drainage, permeability, capping, aeration and workability
of a soil. Normally heavy textured soils have higher clay content. They retain more
moisture, are difficult to work on when wet or too dry and they retain a lot of
nutrients. Soil texture may influence the type of crop grown, for example, groundnuts
and flue cured tobacco prefer light textured soils.
 Soil structure: This is the arrangement of soil particles in any given soil. Certain
arrangements are favourable for plant production, for example, the crumb structure
which is well aerated and has high water retention. Structure-less soil is not desirable
in agriculture. Soils with high level of silt have a problem soil capping where a hard
crust is formed on the surface. These soils have problems like poor aeration, very
high bulk density which may affect root penetration, poor emergence of planted seed,
reduced water infiltration leading to run-off and erosion.
 Soil permeability: Permeability of the lower subsoil should be good to prevent water
logging. Impermeable soils make it difficult for roots to grow. Common symptoms of
 poor permeability are spiralled roots of plants found close to the surface and poor
drought tolerance due to shallow roots. Increased run-off rather than infiltration is
another common problem in soil with poor permeability.
 Soil salinity : Soil salinity is the concentration of salts in the soil. These soils include,
nitrates, carbonates, sulphates e.t.c. High concentration of salts are not desirable as
they may negatively affect plant growth by promoting reverse osmosis, nutrient
toxicity, prevent the uptake of other nutrients. Saline soil should be cultivated with
expert advice.
 Soil pH: Soil pH is the concentration of hydrogen ions in a soil. Where soil pH is
outside the range suitable to the crop grown, apply lime especially when too acidic. If
soil is too acidic most nutrients become unavailable since they become too soluble
and are easily leached. The concentration of aluminium and manganese ions becomes
very high to levels which are toxic to plants. If a soil becomes too alkaline, there will
also be problems of unavailability of nutrients since some of the nutrients may be
fixed. The major nutrients affected by low pH are nitrogen and phosphorous.
 Slope: Gentle slopes are desirable for crop production. Very steep slopes are not
desirable since they have shallow depth, promote more run-off than infiltration, and
are expensive to protect against soil erosion. Only a few crops, for example tea, can
survive on such slopes. On the other hand very flat land has slow drainage hence
water logging can be a major problem.
 Erosion: Severe erosion prevents cultivation. It removes large portions of the top soil
which is usually rich in nutrients, making the soil difficult to produce economically.
Erosion also reduces effective soil depth. Land with moderate to slight or nil erosion
should be used for cultivation.
 Wetness: A farmer should select lands which are well drained. Internal and external
drainage is important. Surface drainage can be improved by the construction of storm
drains and internal drainage can be improved by the insertion of perforated drainage
pipes subsurface and also promotion of good soil structure especially the crumb
structure. Poorly drained soils can be waterlogged and nutrient uptake is affected
because of the anaerobic environments that will prevail in the soil.

3.3. Land preparation

Land preparation refers to a sequence of activities from land clearing, conservation works to
tillage that are carried on any piece of land to make a suitable environment for crop
establishment and growth.

3.3.1. Land clearing

This can be done manually or mechanically. It can be referred to as stumping.

 Manual clearing: This involves stumping, tree felling and burning to free the land off
debris. Ring barking and poisoning using arboricides, for example, sodium arsenate
and 2.4.5T can also be practised. A bark 20-45cm wide is removed from the trunk of
 trees. The tree slowly dies, taking 1-2years. Manual clearing is more suitable for
small areas, where labour is not limiting and is cheap. Where terrain is not suitable
for movement of machinery, manual clearing is the solution. However, this method
tends to be slow.
 Mechanical clearing: This method is most suitable where large pieces of land are to
be cleared. It is fast and suitable for felling large trees like baobabs. It involves the
use of bulldozers and heavy tractors in the uprooting of trees which are subsequently
piled, burnt or used as firewood.

In both methods, plant debris has to be removed completely from the land as remains may
affect tillage operations and may be sources of diseases and pests. Land clearing is finalised
by root cutting, ripping and raking as well as removal of stones.

3.3.2. Mechanical conservation works.

Construct storm drains and contour ridges before planting any crop. These will break the
slope and intercept runoff before its volume and velocity becomes powerful enough to cause
serious erosion. These works will discharge water into safe areas.

3.4. Tillage

Tillage is the modification of soil physical structure for establishment and growth of crops. It
involves the manual or mechanical stirring actions carried on a soil for the purposes of
growing crops. From the above two definitions, it is clear that tillage refers to any disturbance
of the soil surface.

3.4.1. Aims of tillage

 To loosen and break up the soil in order to increase aeration and water infiltration.
 To prepare a seedbed of suitable tilth for easy planting, good germination and
emergence of crops.
 To break hard and capped soils at the end of dry season.
 To break soil compaction cause by traffic during field operations.
 To promote better root development and increase yield through deeper and more
thorough cultivation.
 To minimise soil erosion.
 To destroy weeds. For example perennial grasses like cynadon dactylon and cyperus
spp.
 To enhance organic matter decomposition.
 To conserve moisture.
 To expose soil pest to their predators and the heat of the sun. The heat of the sun can
also desiccate soil pathogens.
3.4.2. Timing of land preparation.

Early land preparation is done soon after harvesting around March to May. It has several
advantages which include the following:

 A good tilth is achieved since the soil will be still moist.

 There is early and good burial of plant debris in moist soil which is conducive for
decomposition thereby increasing soil fertility.
 There is reduced draft power requirement since soil will still be moist compared to
working on dry soil.
 Wear and tear of implements is reduced hence reduced cost of preparing the land.
 It allows spread of operations over the entire farming season or year.
 It enhances early plantings giving crops an early start when conditions are more
suitable for plant growth.
 Assists in weeds, pests and diseases control.

Late ploughing is normally done towards or during the planting time during the period
September to November. Large clods are normally brought up and these clods need to be
broken up or else the planting, germination and emergence of crops will be affected. Disease
weed and pest load is usually higher for crops planted in late ploughed lands. There is poor
moisture conservation, ploughing costs are high, wear and tear of implements is high and
labour bottlenecks are common.

3.4.3. Tillage methods

Tillage methods are large divided into two namely conventional and conservation methods.

 Conventional tillage: This involves a series of tillage operations done to achieve a

desired soil tilth, for example, rip, plough and harrow. There are two tillage categories
namely primary and secondary which are determined by the target tillage depth,
implement used and goal of tillage.

Primary tillage is tillage which cuts, inverts or shatters the soil to a depth of 15 to
36cm. It usually leaves the soil rough. The implements used tend to be heavier and
stronger than secondary tillage. These include rippers, subsoilers, mouldboard and
disc ploughs and tandem disc harrows.

The aims of primary tillage include loosening and aerating the soil, covering plant
residues, and incorporating fertilizers and lime.

Secondary tillage is the operations that follow primary tillage in an effort to achieve
a fine tilth. It works the soil to shallower depth of 5-15cm. The implements used
 include disc harrow, spike toothed harrow, roller, rigid cultivator and spring loaded
cultivator.

The aims of secondary tillage include the attainment of fine tilth, weed control,
firming the soil and levelling the land.

 Conservation tillage

It is a system of farming which involves managing the land with principles of conservation.
Such a system would include contour farming, crop and pasture rotation, and soil and water
conservation. It is a method that conserve natural resources of soil and water resulting in
improved sustainable production. It also involves any practice which leaves at least 30% crop
residue cover on the soil surface after planting.

Advantages of conservation tillage

 It reduces soil erosion as the crop residues cushion the rain drop action.
 There is maximum use of available moisture as water run-off and evaporation are
reduced thereby improving infiltration.
 There is moderation of soil temperature extremes by crop residues.
 Reduced tractor operating costs as less fuel and labour will be used, and there is
reduced wear and tear of implements.
 It enhances timely operations since the time consuming operations can be avoided.
 It improves soil structure since the built up organic matter tends to bind soil
particles together and compaction of the soil is minimised. Minimum soil
disturbance results in less pulverisation of the soil.

Disadvantages of conservation tillage.

 There is built up of pests and diseases.

 There is poor incorporation of trash and as a result the decomposition process
is slowed down which may result in high C:N ratio that affects nutrient use by
plants.

Nutrients tend to be concentrated at the top layers of soil. Roots will not go deeper hence
lodging is common and crops are susceptible to droughts. There is difficulty in monitoring
the levels of phosphorus and soil reactions.

 Principles of conservation agriculture.

 Requirements of conservation tillage

Weed pressure: It is advisable to start with a lower weed pressure. Control late
weeds in the previous crop to reduce the weed seed bank for the next crop.
 Soil fertility: Manage the soil fertility by ensuring that the soil has sufficient
phosphorus and the pH is well adjusted at the onset. The pH should be 5.5 - 7.5 and
phosphorus level should be 25ppm (parts per million) (25mg/kg of soil)
Compaction: Dig inspection pits and correct compact layers by ripping and sub-
soiling. Otherwise there could be problems of root penetration and water movement in
the soil.

 Types of conservation tillage

 Strip tillage: It is performed through or into crop residue. A line into which
seed is planted is opened up. The most common practice is rip-on row which
ensures loosening the soil to a depth of 25-30 cm. Fertilizer is banded into the
rip line in the same operation. Planting may be done by hand or machine.
 Direct planting: Involves planting into previous crop residues without prior
tillage operation
 Zero tillage: Involves the broadcasting of seed usually cereals over previous
crop residue.
 No- till tied ridges: Planting is done on tied ridges year after year. This
method conserves moisture and soil.

3.5. Summary

Land selection and preparation are important aspects in crop production. The factors
considered in land selection include soil fertility, soil depth, soil texture and structure, soil
permeability, salinity and pH as well as the slope of the land, erosion and wetness. Depending
on available equipment and other resources as well as the crop to be established the farmer
has a choice of doing conventional or conservation tillage. Every effort should be made to get
high crop yields using the most sustainable means of production especially conserving the
soil.

3.6. Activities

a) State and explain the factors considered when selecting land for the cultivation of crops.

b) Suggest the reasons why farmers should take-up conservation tillage at the expense of
conventional tillage.

c) List the challenges likely to be met in practicing conventional tillage.

3.7. References
  Arnon I (1972) Crop Production in Dry Regions, Volume 1, Leonard Hill, London.
 Chapman S.R and Carter L .P. (1976) Crop Production Principles and practices.
Freeman and Company, USA.

CHAPTER 4: PLANTING

4.1. Introduction

Planting is the placement of propagative material (seed/cuttings or suckers) into the rooting
media (soil, vemuculite, pine bark) to enhance germination, emergence, growth and
development. This is a very important part of crop production. It is important to note that for
high yields to be obtained, the farmer must plant at the right time, using the correct plant
population, depth and method, and applying the correct fertilizer type and rate as well as
using the right type of seed. In this chapter, we are going to discuss these important aspects of
planting.

4.2. Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

 State the importance of timely planting.

 Highlight the importance of achieving an ideal plant population.
 Discuss the various methods of planting.

4.3. Time of planting

Planting should be done when the environment is ideal in terms of such factors as
temperature, moisture and day length. Time the planting so that the crop will be ready when
the conditions are be conducive for ripening or harvesting, for example, soyabean should not
be ready for harvest when it is still raining. If it does the seed will germinate or may rot on
the mother plant. For most plants of tropical origin, one must avoid frosty periods because
crops easily suffer from frost damage and chilling injury. Other factors that determine the
planting time are pest and diseases incidences, market prices, weeds pressure and the onset of
rain for summer crops. For summer crops, it is ideal to do early planting (October-
November) depending on crop and the Natural Region where production is done. The use of
irrigation can advance the planting time prior the fall of the summer rains. For most summer
crops there is yield decrease with late plantings. For most summer crops, plant early when the
weeds, pests and disease pressure is still low. If it is dryland production, the earliest you can
plant crops like soyabean is when you have receive the first effective rainfall.

4.4. Plant population

Plant population is the total number of plants per given area. It is generally expressed as
plants per hectare (plants/ha).

Factors that determine the plant population to use include:

 Type of crop and variety, for example in groundnuts the population is high
when growing the bunch type than the spreading type.
 The level of management, for example a maize crop under irrigation requires
a higher plant population compared to dryland cropping.
 Type of season, for example a predicted low rainfall season would require
lower plant population so that plants will not compete for the limited moisture
available.
 The region in which the crop is grown. Low rainfall regions e.g. Region III
and IV one to use low plant populations.
 The intended use of the crop, e.g. silage maize crop should be grown at a
higher plant population compared to commercial maize.
 Time of planting. Reduce the population with delayed plantings.

Expected yield. Go for optimum population for high yields.

Determination of plant population is important especially for assessment when crops are
damaged by hail, or pest.

For crops in rows, plant population is calculated as follows:

Plant population = 10 000 m2

Inter-row spacing (m) X In-row spacing (m)

For example: A maize crop planted spaced at 900mm X 200mm

Plant population = 10 000m2

(0,9 X 0.2)m2

= 55 555plants/ha

For crops in twin rows,

Plant population = 10 000 m2

Average inter-row spacing (m) X In-row spacing (m)

For example tobacco spaced at 1.2m x o.56m and 1.1m x0.56m

Plant population = 10 000m2

(1.15 x 0.56)m2

= 15 527plants/ha

For crops with no planting pattern, a quadrant of known dimensions is used. Choose a
minimum of three sites at random and calculate the average plants per site per quadrant.

For example: In wheat, three sites had the following plants per quadrant which is 1m2: 10;
15and 8

Therefore, plant population = 10 000 m2 X 1 m2

(10 + 15 + 8)/3

For plants on hills, sample 10 hills at random. Average the plants per hill, and calculate plant
population as for single rows.

For example, maize planted 3kernels per station spaced at 0.9m 0.3m,

Plant population = 10 000 x 3

0.9 x 0.3

= 111 111plants/ha

Advantages of an optimum plant population per hectare.

 To get optimum yields due to low competition among crops for available resources
and land not wasted.
 To get high quality produce from a crop filly benefited from resources available.
 To provide good soil cover especially in row crops like tobacco and cotton.
  To reduce disease prevalence. This will be achieve through reduce transfer of
pathogens from plant to plant and also through good ventilation within the field.
 To help in the control of weeds especially in wheat and barley crops. Use the
recommended seed rate per hectare to achieve the desired plant population.
 To enhance efficiency execution of other operations like spraying and movement of
implements especially in crops like cotton and tobacco. Adhere to the correct inter-
row spac ing.

Conditions necessary to achieve optimum plant population

 Spacing: use the recommended spacing and seed rates.

 Planting depth: plant seed at the correct planting depth.
 Good seed soil contact, to ensure the seed will absorb moisture from the soil.

4.5. Types of planting

 Dry planting: is the planting of seed well in advance of the planting season. Land is
fully prepared and seed planted 2-3 weeks prior the coming of the first rain to ensure
an early start to the season and to release labour for other farm operations when the
rains start. The seed must be planted in dry soil. The dangers of dry planting include
the swelling of seed and death should there be showers before the first effective
rainfall and also pest damage. The planting depth will depend on seed size and crop.
 Water planting: is a method of lengthening the growing season especially in sandy
soils. The aim is the establishment of the crop early before the first effective rains.
Early plough the land and leave it rough to facilitate water intake. Destroy all weeds
activated by the last rains. Supply adequate planting water to link with the residual
soil moisture. Allow the planting water to sock away before covering with dry soil
which will act as mulch. Preferably plant socked seed.
 Rain planting: is planting after receiving good effective rains.

4.6. Planting methods

 Hand method involves the placement of seed in prepared planting holes, furrows or
land in the case of broadcasted small grains.
Its advantages include correct placement of seed, good assurance of seed placement as
there are no blockages of seed outlets, simple and easy to implement, no restrictions
to seed type and size and is possible under varied soil conditions and land forms.
However, hand method require more labour force, strict supervision on seeding and
covering and best suits small areas.
 Mechanical planting is the use of machinery in the planting operation. Equipment
commonly used include, planters, seed drills and vicons.
 Mechanical method is fast and best suits large areas. However, it tends to be affected
by weather conditions and soil conditions especially in wet soils they may skid and
clog.
 A combination of the hand and mechanical, for example, furrows and fertilizer
application can be opened mechanically and the planting is down by hand.

4.7. Summary

Planting is the placement of seed in a rooting media to enhance germination and emergence.
The time of planting is determined by the climate, pest and disease incidences, weeds
pressure and market prices. It is important to achieve a desirable plant population for every
crop grown. The best possible method of planting should be opted for depending on available
resources and the type of planting pursued.

4.8. Activities

a) Outline the factors that determine a plant population to adopt.

b) Calculate the plant population of soyabeans planted at 450mm x 75mm.
c) Compare and contrast hand and mechanical methods of planting.
d) Describe the method of water planting crops.

4.9. References

 Arnon I (1972) Crop Production in Dry Regions, Volume 1, Leonard Hill, London.
 Commercial Grain Producers Association (CGPA) ,(1996) Grain Handbook,
Screenlitho (Pvt) Ltd, Harare , Zimbabwe.
 Seed Co (2002) , Agronomy Manual, Seed Co Ltd, Harare, Zimbabwe.

CHAPTER 5.0. AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF ZIMBABWE

5.1. Introduction

Zimbabwe has five natural regions. Vincent and Thomas (1960) divided Zimbabwe into 5
regions according to the rainfall pattern of their respective areas. In this chapter, we are going
to discuss the five natural regions of Zimbabwe.

5.2. Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to;

 Define the following terms: Natural Region, Natural area, pentad, dry spell, and
drought.
 Discuss the characteristics of the natural regions of Zimbabwe.
5.3. Definition of terms

 Natural region is a relatively large area where agricultural development is and will be
conditioned by one or a few natural characteristics. The natural characteristic
dominant in Zimbabwe is rainfall hence natural regions in Zimbabwe are largely
demarcated on the adequacy and efficiency of rainfall.
 Natural areas are areas in the same natural region with varying characteristics largely
soil. The rainfall considered here is effective rainfall.
 Pentad is a five day period. A rainy pentad is a centre pentad in three consecutive
pentads which should receive at least 40mm and two of which must receive at least
8mm of rainfall. Pentads give a clear picture of rainfall reliability by dividing the year
into 73 pentads. The Zimbabwean rainfall season runs from 1st October to 30th April
and this coincides with pentad 56 to pentad 24 to give a 40pentad period.
 Dry spell a period of 11-20 days without significant rainfall, that is, less than 25mm in
heavy soils and less than 15mm in light soils.
 Drought is a period of 21 days or more without significant rainfall.

5.4. Agro-ecological zones of Zimbabwe

5.4.1. Natural Region I

It is a specialised and diversified farming region. Altitude is 1700m or more above sea level.
The rainfall is >1 000mm per year. Temperature is cool and is normally around 20oC on
average. The intensive safe use is afforestation (plantation crops) like pine and wattle trees.
There is also intensive livestock production especially dairy as well as deciduous fruit tree
production. In frost free areas, there is production of macademia nuts, potatoes, coffee and
tea. It covers less than 2% of the country. The area stretches from Nyanga to Tamandai.

5.4.2. Natural Region II

It is a very intensive farming region. Most of the country’s maize and wheat production
occurs in this region. Most of the rainfall is confined to summer and it averages 750-1
000mm/year. It has two-sub-regions namely IIa and IIb.

NR IIa receives an average of 18 rain pentads per season. It rarely experiences any severe dry
weather. The region is suitable for intensive crop production and also livestock production.

NR IIb receives an average of 16-18 rain pentads per year and it normally experiences severe
dry spells in the rain season and at times it may have short rain periods. Crop production may
be affected in some of the seasons but the effect is not sufficient enough to change utilization
from intensive system.

5.4.3. Natural Region III

This is a semi-intensive farming area. It is involves mixed farming. It receives rainfall of

about 650-800mm a year. The region has an average of 14-16 rainy pentads per year. The
region is subject to mid season dry spells. It is suitable for livestock and fodder production.
There is marginal production of tobacco and maize. The region covers about 19% of the
country.

5.4.4. Natural Region IV

The intensive safe use is semi-extensive farming. It receives 450-650mm of rainfall per year.
The region is prone to drought and severe dry spells hence not suitable for large grain crop
production. Production is mostly livestock, natural forest and some fodder crops. It is
recommended to grow small grains which are drought tolerant. The area covers about 38% of
the country.

5.4.5. Natural Region V

This is an extensive farming region which receives less than 450mm rainfall per year. The
rainfall is too low and very erratic and therefore is not suitable for crop production. Crops
that are grown in this region are grown with irrigation supplement. The region is suitable for
cattle ranching and wildlife management. It covers about 27% of the country.

5.5. Summary.

The five agro-ecological regions of Zimbabwe are natural regions I, II, III, IV and V. Natural
region I receives the highest amount of rainfall greater than 1 000mm and natural region V
receives the least rainfall of less than 450mm. this rainfall amount therefore dictates the type
of production in each particular region.

5.6. Activities.

a) Explain the significance of Natural regions to agriculture.

b) Describe the agro-ecological zones of Zimbabwe.
c) Define pentad, natural area and natural region.
d) Differentiate a dry spell from drought.

5.7. References

 Department of Meteorological Services (1981) Climate Handbook of Zimbabwe,

Government Printers, Harare.
 Makawa J. e.t.l (1987) School Atlas For Zimbabwe, Esselte Map Services,
Stockholm, Sweden.

APPENDIX

GENERAL AGRONOMY PRACTICALS

1.0. Clearing land for cultivation.

2.0. Identification of tillage implements.
3.0. Planting field crops such as maize, cotton, tobacco and groundnuts.
4.0. Drawing a map of Zimbabwe indicating the five natural regions.

CHAPTER 6 : WEEDS AND WEED CONTROL

6.1 Introduction

Weeds are of economic importance in crop production since they can lead to yield losses in
the field, and down grading of the crop at marketing. They have their own defensive
characteristics. To be able to control weeds one needs to know the behaviour of weeds and
then select the ways which can easily counter their development. This chapter will cover the
characteristics of weeds and weed control.

6.2 Objectives of the unit

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

Define a weed.
Outline the adaptive characteristics of weeds.
6.3 Definition

A weed is a plant that grows where it is not wanted. This definition includes volunteer plants.
A weed can be broad leaved or narrow leaved, annual or perennial.

6.4 Special adaptations

Special adaptations which make weeds special competitors.

Seed production

Most weeds multiply and disseminate through seed production. Weed seed can survive in
very high temperatures, drought and frost. Life cycles of weeds can be as short as 6 weeks
such that there can be several generations per season. Most weeds produce a large number of
seeds per flowering period e.g. shamva grass 10000 seeds / plant, Rapoko grass 100000/ plant
, Mexican marigold -59000/ plant. Weeds have very efficient reproductive and disseminative
mechanisms which make them strong competitors with arable crops.

6.5 Weed seed dormancy

A weed may mature and shed thousands of seeds under favourable conditions for
germination. Only a fraction germinates in the first year. Much of the seed will remain
dormant and germinate in succeeding years.
6.6 Weed control

Weed control should be done within the first 8 weeks of plant establishment (referred to as
the critical period). Weeds are easy to control in the early stages.

6.7 Techniques used in weed control

6.7.1 Hand hoeing

Hoes are used to remove or dislodge the weeds resulting in death.

Advantages of hand hoeing
1. No chemical damage or toxicity to the crop.
2. There is enough aeration to the soil.
3. Organic matter is also added to the soil.
4. Cut weeds can act as a mulch to conserve moisture

Disadvantages

1. There is high labour demand during the process of weeding.

2. Hand hoeing is very difficult in wet weather.
6.7.2 Mechanical cultivation
Ox drawn cultivators or tractor drawn implements can be used also to dislodge the
weeds.

6.7.3 Herbicide use

[Link] Stage and method of application of herbicides
1. Pre-planting herbicides – Herbicides are applied before planting and
incorporated into the soil. Preplanting herbicides are applied 2-3 weeks before
planting. If applied earlier they lose efficiency due to volatilization, sunlight
destruction or photodecomposition. An example is Trif in cotton.
2. Pre- emergence herbicides – Herbicide is applied after planting before the
emergence of the crop. Should be applied before the emergence of weeds (3-4 day
of planting). Delay in application result in poor weed control and crop damage.
An example is Atrazine in maize.
3. Post emergence herbicide – Is a herbicide applied after the crop has emerged
over the top or directed to affect only weeds under the crop. Application late in the
season is referred to as lay-by treatment. Post emergence herbicide may have
 contact action or translocated therefore should be applied after weed emergence.
Soil acting post emergence herbicides are applied before weed emergence.

[Link] Selective herbicides

Selective herbicides retard or kill the weeds while the crop is tolerant. The herbicide is
selective to a particular crops within certain limits. Over application of such herbicides can
affect the crop.

Basics of selectivity of herbicides

With herbicides, several mechanisms are involved in the selectivity to crops. Selection
depends on one or more of the following:

1- Genetic vigour of the crop

2- High crop seed viability and low weed seed viability under herbicides.
3- Physiological resistance or inherent crop tolerance with the herbicides
4- Application of herbicide to avoid excessive contact with the crop.

Mechanisms can be divided into physiological and non physiological mechanisms.

Non physiological mechanisms selectivity (positional selectivity)

a. Positional selectivity depends on the position of the growing point of the crop and
the weed. Broad leaved weeds have well exposed meristematic tissue while the
meristem of grass is intercalary. Each node in grass has meristematic tissue
protected by leaf tissue. Herbicides affect growing point and discriminate between
the crop and broad leaved weeds which are killed by virtue of their exposed apical
meristems.

b. Leaf angle -Broad leaved weeds have flat leaf surface areas therefore intercept
more herbicide than grasses or cereals which have upright leaves.
c. Surface nature- Hairiness, waxiness of the leaf affects the effect of herbicide by
preventing the herbicide from adhering to the leaf therefore protecting the crop
from the herbicide.
d. Different behaviour and movement of herbicide in the soil.
6.7.3. 3 Depth control
Depth control is the principle on with pre-emergence herbicide work. Selectivity
depends on the depth of the crop and weed seed in relation to the depth to which
the herbicide would penetrate. Crop seed is planted deep and herbicide with low
leachability is prayed and light irrigation is applied. Herbicide stops weed
germination in superficial layers of the soil.

Fig 1. Depth control

Herbicide
Crop seed protected by depth, seal
Therefore no contact with the
herbicide

In this case weed seed which germinate from a depth e.g upright star bar, salt
weed are difficult to control because pre- emergence herbicide do not penetrate to
that depth. Examples of pre-emergence herbicide which work by depth control
are: Metachlor (dual) , Cotogard , Sencor , Alachor ( lasso) ,Planavin ,Trifluralin,
Igran.

Depth control in orchards

Deep rooted crops such as fruit trees are depth protected by using a low solubility
herbicide which is highly adsorbed by soil colloids and will form a layer which
will prevent weed growth in that layer.

Fig 2. Diagramatic Illustration of Depth control in orchards

 Herbicide layer, low solubility
and
high adsorption, e.g. Diuron.

Weed seed will not germinate

Fig 3 Prevention of excessive contact of herbicide with crop

Spray boom

Dropper

Boom shield flood jet nozzle

Selective and non selective herbicides can be directly applied to hit weeds and avoid
excessive contact with the crop using flat jet nozzles or shielded sprayers. The crop
must be taller than the weeds within the rows.

[Link] Physiological selectivity mechanisms

Differential absorption of herbicides
Weeds with certain morphological and anatomical characteristics e.g. permeable
cuticles, and large stomatal apertures absorb folia sprays, thus the weed absorb more
herbicide than the crop and is controlled.
Differential Translocation of herbicide
Differences in the ability of translocation of herbicide in the phloem and xylem
between the weed and the crop forms the basis of selectivity.
Enzymatic activation
In some plants enzymes are capable of converting non toxic compounds into toxic
compounds as is the case with many weeds while monocots are unable to do so e.g
m.c.p.a.
[Link] Persistence of herbicides in the soil
Persistence is the period a herbicide remains active in the soil to affect a subsequent
crop. Persistence determines the period of weed control achieved. A herbicide should
not persist in a subsequent crop. Herbicides like atrazine are generally used in maize.
It is selective and cheap but persists for a long period. It affects any broad leaf crops
which follow the maize. Persistence affects rotations.

[Link] Factors that affect persistence of herbicides

Physical factors and chemical properties of herbicides.
a- Water solubility
Water solubility influence movement of herbicides in the soil, and very soluble
herbicides move faster downwards than less soluble herbicides.

b- Alkalinity

Alkalinity determine the degree to which the herbicide is positively charged and
therefore its likely wood to be adsorbed to the cation exchange sites. Under alkaline
 conditions more of the cations are adsorbed to soil colloids. Most herbicides emit
positively charged hydrogen ions to soil colloids and the positively charged herbicides
is coupled by soil colloids and is leached therefore persistence is reduced.

c- Volatility

Herbicides evaporate at certain temperatures and lost as a volatile gas. Herbicides

with high vapour pressure are highly volatile therefore must be protected immediately
after application to avoid loss due to vapourisation. Highly volatile herbicides include
perbulate , litraline, and trif.

Soil type
Adsorption on soil colloids
a. Strongest adsorption occurs in soil of high organic matter or high clay content.
For herbicides to be effective they must be in soil solution to be taken up by
the plant. Herbicides adsorbed in clay particles is not readily available to
plants. Dosage rates are higher in clay soils than sand soils to compensate for
the higher adsorption power of clays. Persistence is higher in strongly
adsorptive soils e.g. clays.

b. Leaching is the down ward movement of chemical substances in solution

through the soil. The degree of leaching is determined by the chemical
solubility, movement of water, and amount of herbicide adsorbed by soil
colloids.
c. Photo-decomposition
When a soil applied herbicide is exposed to light gradual photo-decomposition
takes place. This effect is minimized if rain or irrigation follows within a few
days after application. In prolonged dry weather shallow incorporation will
reduce photo-decomposition.
d. Chemical decomposition

Organic compounds when applied to the soil are decomposed by micro-organisms

and reserve the energy. Many herbicides are organic compounds and are broken
 down by micro-organisms. This process is facilitated by warm moist conditions in
well aerated soils

Examples of persistence of herbicide

Herbicide persistence (weeks)

Simazine, durone,flomethrone 12-25

Atrazine, trif , nitraline 8-18

[Link],alachloa, linurone, cynazine ,terbutryne,

naphthalin,DNCP. 6-12

24D,MCPD 4-8

6.8 Summary

The use of herbicides is an important and easy approach towards the control of weeds, this
method is less labour intensive as compared to hand weeding. The different modes of action
of different herbicides in conjunction with different means of selectivity help in the control of
different weed species.

6.9 Activities

 How does weed dormancy influence the survival of the weed?

 With the aid of diagrams explain the herbicide control mechanisms employed in the
control of weeds.
 Define herbicide persistence. Explain how persistence affects crop succession in the
lands?

6.10 References
CHAPTER 7. CROP PESTS

7.1 Introduction

Pests are of great importance in the crop production as they reduce crop productivity. In this
unit you will general information about their classification and control.

7.2 Objectives of the unit

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Define a pest.
 Differentiate the categories of pests.
 Identify the damage caused by pests.

7.3 Definition

Pest – Any form of plant or animal life or any pathogenic agent injurious or potentially
injurious to plants, plant products, livestock or man.

Following this definition pests include insects and other arthropods, vertebrates, weeds and
micro-organisms e.g. fungi, fungi, bacteria and viruses.

7.4 Categories of pests

7.4.1 Key or major pests

This refers to the insect pests which occur perennially and cause serious and persistent
economic damage in an ecosystem in the absence of effective control measures. An example
is the cabbage webworm in brassicas in Zimbabwe.
7.4.2 Minor pests

These are pests whose populations under normal conditions do not cause economic damage.

7.4.3 Occasional pests

These are insects whose population build up would reach an economic injury level to the
plants. An example is the increase in the Lepidoptera populations which lead to heavy leaf
defoliation to affect the crop yield.

7.4.4 Potential pests

Potential pest refers to insect species with the potential to develop into major pest depending
on the situation present.

7.4.5 Migrant pests

These are insect pests which move from one area (zone) to another to cause an economic
damage. Examples are the red locust, armyworm.

7.4.6 Disease vectors

These are insects that transmit diseases to plants making them important to agriculture.
Examples are white fly which transmits tobacco and a cotton leaf curl virus, aphids transmits
groundnut mosaic virus, and leaf hopper which transmits maize streak virus. It is important to
note that very low populations of disease vectors can lead to serious crop damage.

7.5 Pest damage

Pests can cause plant damage in different ways. This can be through biting and chewing,
piecing and sucking and can be vectors of pathogens.

7.5.1 Pests with biting and chewing mouthparts

These are insects which feed by biting pieces of plant material and chewing. Very good
examples of such pests are: locusts, crickets, caterpillars and beetles.

Damage caused by biting and chewing pests

Losses in plant yield can be brought about in different ways by biting and chewing pests as
indicated below:
1. During feeding some pests produce substances which irritate the host plant leading to
proliferation and gall formation.

2. Loss of photosynthesis tissue due to the eating away of the leaf lamina of the plant and leaf
drop, e.g. by leaf worm

3. There is destruction of seedlings and young plants, e.g. vegetable seedlings can be
destroyed by cutworm.

4. Feeding of pests from the growing points lead to the destruction of buds and shoots e.g.
the bud worm in tobacco.

5. Some pests feed by boring and tunneling the stems interfering with the movement of sap
up and down the plant and weakening of the plant, e.g. maize stalk borer in maize.

6. During feeding the pests destroy flowers, seed and fruits there by significantly reducing
fruit production, e.g. cape mounted rifle beetle in sugar bean.

7. Tubers and roots can be bored or eaten by pests in the soil leading to reduced yields, e.g.
potato tuber moth in potatoes.

7.5.2 Pests with piercing and sucking mouthparts

Pests in this category have part or all of the mouthparts modified into piercing proboscis.
They suck sap from the xylem or phloem tissues of the plant. Examples of such pests are
from the order Acarina, homoptera and thrips.

7.5.3 Pests that are vectors of pathogens

These are insects that transmit diseases to plants making them important to agriculture.
Examples are fruit fly which transmits tobacco and cotton leaf curl viruses, aphids transmits
groundnut mosaic virus, and leaf hopper which transmits maize streak virus. It is important to
note that very low populations of disease vectors can lead to serious crop damage.

7.6 Pests life cycles

Pests go through different developmental stages during their life. Some go through complete
metamorphosis and some incomplete metamorphosis.
With most insects growth is limited to immature stages. Insects develop from stage to stage
and the change from one stage to the next is through moulting (ecdysis). The change in
appearance of the insect due to moulting is referred to as metamorphosis.

7.6.1 Complete metamorphosis

In complete metamorphosis insects go through the four stages of development which are as in
the figure 4 below.

Fig 4 Complete metamophosis

(Embryonic development) (Internal wing pads)

Egg Larva

Adult Pupa (External wing pads)

(Reproduction dispersal
and sometimes feeding)

The four stages are mostly exhibited by holometabobla insects like the American boll worm
(Heliothis armigera), maize stalk borer (Bassiola fusca). In the complete metamophosis
group of pests there are four instars, a modified larval or pupal instar and the adult phase.

7.6.2 Incomplete metamorphosis

In this case insects go through three stages of development which are: as illustrated in the in
the figure 5 below.

Fig 5 Incomplete metamophosis

 Embryonic development

Egg

Adult Nymph (Larva)

Sexually mature 1st instar no wings

and winged 2nd to 5th instar is sexual immaturity
External wing pads

Insects falling under this group belong to the Homimetabola.

In incomplete metamorphosis group of pests, wings appear as external wing pads in the
second instar and they are fully formed after the fifth moult e.g. grass hoppers and locusts.

7.7 Pest control methods

Pest control can be achieved using different means. The approaches to pest control are:
cultural method, natural control, mechanical, and chemical control.

7.7.1 CULTURAL METHODS OF PEST CONTROL

These approaches to pest control reduce pest populations rather than completely
destroying the pests. The advantage of using cultural control measures is that there are
no hazards to the user unlike with chemicals. The different cultural approaches to pest
control are explained below:

7.7.1.1Crop rotation
Rotating crops of different families one after the other breaks the lifecycles of some
pests. For example if a maize crop is grown following a cabbage crop, pests like
cabbage webworm (Helulla hundalis) and diamond back moth (Plutella zylostella)
lifecycles are broken leading to a reduction in the pest populations. This implies that
if a four year rotation is strictly followed the method becomes effective. Another
example is the growing of Katambora Rhodes grass after tobacco leading to the
control of the root knot nematode. This is because the grass is non host to the
nematode hence it dies from starvation resulting in a decrease in the populations of
the nematode.
[Link] Tillage
Tillage mechanically damage the pests and their stages, burry or expose the
developmental stages of the pests, increase the growth vigour of the crops, eliminates
the alternative host plants, and changing the physical conditions of the soil e.g.
moisture, oxygen concentration and soil pH resulting in the death of most pest hence
the reduction of pest populations.
[Link] Trap crops
With this approach, a susceptible crop is grown close to the major crop to attract the
pests and protect the major crop. The accumulated pests are then destroyed either
chemically or by tillage or any other suitable means.
[Link] Growing tolerant varieties
Some plants have the ability to recover from pest damage due to some tolerance in
them. Plants with low or no levels of tolerance cannot recover pest damage as a result
it leads to economic damage.
[Link] Use of manure and fertilizer
Healthy plants are produced through proper manure application and fertilization.
Healthy plants can better withstand pest attack.

[Link] Pruning and thinning

Healthy and pest resistant new shoots can develop on the plant if the plant is
occasionally pruned; hence it is advisable to remove old branches from the plants.

[Link] Crop location

Pests may not move from one field to the other in adjacent fields if the crops in the
adjacent fields are deferent. This minimizes the spread of pests and keeps the pest
populations lower.

[Link] Crop residue destruction

Burning of crop residues destroy the pests which overwinter in the crop residues e.g.
maize stalk borer, and cotton ball worms.

[Link] Alternating the planting times

By changing the planting periods one can avoid the infestation times of a particular
pest there by reducing pest infestation to the crop.
7.7.2 Natural control
[Link] Climatic factors
Populations of pests and their host plants are directly affected by humidity,
temperature, and day length. The changes in climate also limits the dispersal of pests.
[Link] Natural barriers
Features like mountain ranges, large water bodies and deserts limits the spreading of
pests through migration. Hence reduce the spread of some pest species.
[Link] Natural enemies
Most of the vertebrates feed on insects and keep insect populations low. Within the
insect group are predator species that capture and feed on insect pests or lay their eggs
inside on or in the body of other insects (parasitoids) for the newly born parasitoids to
get readily available food.
[Link] Diseases
Plant pests like any other living organisms are attacked by diseases e.g. the semi-
looper is affected by the virus , plusia nuclear poly hydrosis virus.
7.7.3 Mechanical methods
Where manual and devices and machines are used to control pests this is referred to as
the mechanical methods of pest control. Following are some of the mechanical
practices used in the control of insect pests.
[Link] Shaking or beating of branches
Kerosinised water in a tub may be placed under the plant which is shaken or beaten
with a stick to drop the pests into the tub.
[Link] Wire gauge screens
Borers can be prevented from attacking plants by surrounding the stems and fruits of
the plants with wire gauge screens.
[Link] Hand picking
Insects can be handpicked and crushed to death e.g. beetles and caterpillars which are
easily picked by hand.

[Link] Banding
Trees can be banded to prevent insects from climbing up the plant to damage the top
parts of the plant. E.g. sticky materials can be painted on the tree or on waxed paper.
 [Link] Traps
Different traps can be used to trap different insects due to different behaviour.
Examples of traps used in the control of pests are:
Light traps, pheromone traps, vacuum traps, sticky traps and sound traping.

7.8 Summary

Pest management is involving quite a good number of approaches for successful crop
production. It was revealed in this chapter that different pests damage crops differently
depending on the mode of feeding of individual pests, hence different modes of control
become applicable.

7.9 Activities

1. Define a pest.

Make a list of pests and classify them in any of the categories explained before

Compile a list of pests in your locality and classify them according to their mode of feeding.

Differentiate between complete metamorphosis and incomplete metamorphosis giving

examples of pests.

Explain the approaches to pest control with reference to particular crops.

7.9 References
CHAPTER 8. CROP DISEASES

8.1 Introduction

Crop diseases cause heavy losses in crop production if left unchecked. There are many causes
of different diseases e.g. fungi, virus, and bacteria. Different causative agents cause different
forms of damage to the crop resulting in different symptoms to different diseases.

8.2 Objectives of the unit

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Define a disease.
 List the general and specific signs and symptoms of crop diseases.
 Explain how diseases are transmitted from one plant to the other.
 Identify the most suitable control measures for crop diseases.

8.3 Definition of disease

Any deviation from the normal functioning of the plant structure.

8.5 Groups of diseases

8.5 .1 Parasitic diseases

These are caused by fungi, virus, or bacteria.

Signs of parasitic diseases

 Spot diseases
Are generally caused by fungi or bacteria. They characterized by spots. E.G bacteria spots in
sunflower and ground nuts. Cercospora leaf spot, alternaria, wildfire and angular spot in
tobacco.
 Blight diseases
Blights kill large areas of tissue e.g. potato blight, leaf blight in maize
 Wilts
These are characterized by total wilting of leaves due to infection of roots or vascular system
e.g. bacterial wilt in potatoes and tomatoes.
 Canker
Is a disease of woody tissue which causes shrinking and cracking of bark e.g. bacterial
canker in tomatoes.
 Damping off
Affects seed and seedlings. The pathogen attacks seed in the ground or seedlings at ground
level causing seedlings to fall over as in tomatoes, and tobacco by Soreshin (Rhizoctonia
solani).
 Rots
Are characterized by rapid disintegration of tissues of plant organs e.g. cob rots in maize.
 Mildews
Powdery mildew – is characterized by white powdery coating on leaves and stems e.g. in
wheat and peas.
Downy mildew – is caharacterised by bluish gray mouldy growth usually on the underside of
the leaf e.g. in brassicas, sorghum etc.
 Rust
This disease appear on the leaves and stems and produce pustules which are rust coloured
(red brown to orange) e.g. rust in wheat.
  Smuts
Appear as powdery masses on cereals e.g. head smut on maize.
 Mosaics
Mosaics are viral diseases. Indicated by paten of light and dark coloured portions on the
leaves e.g. cucumber mosaic virus.
 Stunting disease
Caused by virus e.g. Rosette virus in ground nuts.

8.9 Transmission of diseases

1. Wind
2. Water (splash rain)
3. Insect pests
4. Soil (soil borne)
5. Seed (seed borne)
5. Men
7. Implements
Diseases can also be caused by nutrient deficiencies, Dodders and cuscutas (parasitic plants)

8.10 Diseases control methods

8.19.1 Cultural control method
Rotations – break cycle of diseases
Ploughing in and destroy trash except soil borne pathogens
Weed control – relate to insect transmitted diseases
Use of certified seed
Time of planting – diseases avoided by growing crops when conditions are unfavourable to
diseases e.g. bush top is not common in early planted crops
Hygiene- avoid taking the disease by washing equipment
Selection of healthy seedlings
Spacing
Fertilizer application - apply correct levels , over application stimulate rank growth which
affect micro-climate
Use resistant varieties
Legislation- e.g. cotton and tobacco
a. Legislation that stipulates eradication with varieties e.g. moniclar potatoe
b. Notifiable diseases e.g. virus Y in potatoes
c. Time of planting is stipulated
d. Quarantine – applied to imports
3. Agricultural services – Use research findings on the crop. Use set light or photo to identify
the diseases.

8.10.2 Agrochemicals
 Pesticide formulation
Dusts
Granules
Sprays
Aerosols
Fumigants
 Dusts- active ingredient is mixed in inert carrier e.g. lime- not mixed with water.
Apply when calm to avoid breathing in.
 Granules- formulated as granules to lessen health hazards. – are very easy to apply ,
need no water e.g. Dipterex
 Sprays – Wetable powders are sprayed with a wetting agent but still need constant
agitation. Disposal powders have finer particles than WP used with ULV spray.
Emulsions are suspensions of oil droplets in water. Pesticide dissolves in oily organic
solvents together with emulsifying agent. Agrochemicals are sold as concentrates therefore
have to be diluted before use. Agrochemicals are very expensive. Emulsions break down
quicker than powders, less easily washed by rain and suitable for ULV spray.
 Aerosoles – smokes and fogs. Are not for agricultural use Used on shelter places e.g.
houses
 Fumigants - act in gaseous form. Fumigants are usually used for soil pests or stored
products. Used on confined space
 Types of pesticides
Plant derivatives – pyrethrum
Inorganic - lead arsenate
Organo clorine -DDT , Aldrin
Organo phosphate - malathion
Carbonates - larvin , carbaryl
Benzilic acid compounds
Amadines - kelthin , acricide ,morocide
Pyrethroids – karate , marvirik , agrithrin
8.10.2 Colour coding - show the level of toxicity of a chemical
Green - is a safe chemical
Amber - dangerous
Red - very dangerous
Purple- extremely dangerous (lethal)

8.10.3 Modes of functions of pesticides

 Four ways
Stomach poisons – have to be ingested
Contact poisons – act by direct contact
Systemic chemicals – are stomach poisons absorbed through the plant.
Fumigants - act by inhalation contact

 Use of pesticides
Used as seed dressings
Used as baits – most suitable for small scale orchards
Used as sprays –most common and effective method.
Full cover or wet spray – used for non mobile insects e.g. scales
Soil sprays – are systemic pesticides – do not affect innocent insects
8.11 Summary

The use of agrochemicals in the control of pests should come in as the last option in pest
control. For you to choose a chemical to use on a particular pest you should be able to
identify the pest, know the mode of feeding of the pest and be able to choose the correct
chemical for the pest to be controlled.

8.12 Activity

Identify the crop diseases in the farms around your area and categorize them accordingly in
any one of the above categories.
Briefly explain how each of the diseases listed in activity 3.2 can be transmitted from one
crop to the other and how best it can be controlled.

Using the pests identified in unit two select the chemicals suitable for the control of each
pest.

CHAPTER 9. INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)

9.1 Introduction
IPM is much a clean approach to pest and disease control which is environmentally friendly.
The implementation of IPM produces crops which contain the least chemical residues. Its
implementation to pests and diseases reduces the costs of production significantly, hence the
need for consideration.
9.2 Objectives of the unit
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Define IPM.
 Define the components of IPM
 List the cultural practices used in IPM
 Identify the precautions one should observe when handling chemicals
9.3 Definition
Integrated pest management is an integrated approach to the management of pests (insect
pests, diseases, animals and weeds) in a sustainable manner. The approaches include
biological, cultural, physical and chemical approaches.

9.4 .1 IPM practices leading to sustainable pest conntrol

Identify pests and asses pest levels in the field.
Know the pest history, development and the factors which influence its availability.
Keep low levels of pests in the field as this ensures that natural enemies are always available.
The main objective of IPM is to keep and maintain low levels of pests and make sure that
they are always below the economic injury level.
9.4.2 Principles of integrated pest management
Ensure healthy plants at all times
Conserve natural enemies
Chemical control should be taken as the last option in pest and disease control
9.4. 3 Components of IPM
 Monitoring
Involve operations like scouting to detect, identify and determining the pest levels in the
fields.
 Forecasting
Is the prediction on the development of the pest to economic injury level depending on the
environmental conditions.
 Thresholds
Thresholds refer to the pest levels at which economic losses are realized. Threshold levels are
also used to estimate the severity of the pest observed. Some control measures should be
taken at this level.
9.4.4 Management tactics in IPM
[Link] Cultural
- Crop rotations are planned in such a way that they reduce the buildup of pests and diseases.
- Avoid planting susceptible plants in areas where particular pests are known too be
problematic.
- Destroy plant residues in order to remove overwintering conditions for the pests.
- High relative humidity should be avoided at all costs to minimize the development of some
pests and diseases.
- Winter ploughing exposes some pest species to natural enemies and reduces pest pressure.
- Planting times should be such that they avoid the peak periods of particular or known pests
during the vulnerable stages of the crops.
- Proper fertilization of crops ensures high growth vigour to avoid stress that may predispose
the crop to diseases.
- Farmers should plant disease free seed to avoid early disease attacks.
- practicing good sanitation.
- Good weed control practices to avoid seeding reduce pressure to crops and promote plant
growth and it also reduces host plants to pests and diseases.
- Tap crops are also very useful in reducing pest pressure on the major crop.
- Proper irrigation scheduling reduces continuously humid conditions which favour the
development of most fungal diseases.
[Link] Physical and mechanical control
- Hand picking of pests can be used on some pests e.g. cape mounted riffle beetle.
- Use of traps for flying insects and sticky boards for crawling pests.
- Barriers prevent pests from reaching the crop.
[Link] Biological control
- Use of predators reduces pest populations significantly.
- Conserve natural enemies to keep pest populations low.
- Use of cultured bacteria to control some pest species is also effective.
[Link] Chemical control
Chemical control should be regarded as the last option in choosing control measures for pests
and disease control.
The right chemical should be chosen for the right pest at the right time, applied at the correct
rate, distributed correctly to ensure efficiency of the chemical used.
[Link] Legislation
Legislated planting and destruction dates should be observed as they minimize the spread of
pests e.g. in cotton and tobacco.

9.4.5 Safe use of pesticides

Get any chemical containers with amber, green, red and purple triangles to identify the
precautions to follow when using each chemical.
[Link] Pesticide transport
During packaging avoid packing pesticides together with food staffs and avoid transporting
pesticides together with human food.
Also avoid transporting pesticides in the passenger compartment in any vehicle.
[Link] Storage of pesticides
The store room should be well ventilated, kept under lock.
Only enough pesticides for the season should be bought.
Pesticides should be stored out of reach of children and apart from feed and food staffs.
[Link] Chemical hygiene
After applying chemicals remove protective clothing, wash hands and face with soap and
clean water, wash the used equipment avoiding the contamination of public water and destroy
empty containers. Do not recycle or put the empty containers to other uses.
[Link] Registration
Chemicals selected for use in any one crop should be registered. They should posses the
registration number and a colour triangle. It is advisable that one should buy originally
packed chemicals from the suppliers and avoid buying repacked chemicals.

9.4.5 What should you do to use chemicals safely?

First of all read and understand the instructions and all other information given on the label
All chemicals should be equally regarded as potentially dangerous
Chemical users should wear protective clothing whenever chemicals are to be used.
Pesticides should be used only when necessary.
Recommended rates should always be used to maintain the efficiency of the chemicals.
Over application of the chemical may lead to crop damage and over accumulation of crop
residues beyond the limit and under application may lead to ineffective pest control.
Pre-harvest intervals should be observed where crop consumption is direct.

 Factors to consider when choosing a pesticide for use

The use of chemicals should always be the last option after all other possible measures have
been exhausted.
The choice of the chemical should depend on the following
Choose the right chemical for the right pest to be controlled.
Chemicals should be used when the pest level reaches the economic threshold level.
Choose the least dangerous chemical, but the chemical should be effective against the
problem.
Choose a chemical that can be safely applied with the available equipment.
Choose affordable and available chemicals.
9.5 Summary

The way a farmer protects the crop from planting to harvesting from all the possible factors
which lead to the reduction in yield can lead to a sustainable yield. Integrated pest
management practices involve different means of pest control. The use of different methods
of pest control reduces the risk of chemicals to human beings.

9.6 Activity
Define IPM and make a list of the cultural practices used in IPM in your area.

What are the precautions one should observe during the use of pesticides?

19.7 References