Site Planning and Surveying

Grading
Introduction

Grading : It is the means by which we modify the

surface of the land to meet the requirements of a
design and program.

 The extent to which surface changes can normally be made depends on

the elevations of the site and fixed elements on its surfaces.
 Further determinants of form are maximum gradient criteria for roads,
paths, and slopes, the balance of cut and fill, bank stability, erosion
control, and surface drainage.
 The shaping of the land for visual impact is also very important.
grading methods
Grading scheme is a primary determinant in the total design.
 The site to structure relationship is a visual as well as a functional
matter. The floor levels of buildings should be higher than the
surrounding region so that rain water will not easily enter the
structures or undermine foundations.

 There are two principal relations between buildings and land.

1. The land may be graded or adjusted to suit the architectural
or engineering requirements.
2. The architecture may be adapted to meet variations in
ground level so that the original surfaces is disturbed less.
functional and aesthetic reasons for grading

 Grading for drainage

 Grading to create berms
 Grading to create level areas
 Grading to modify existing landforms
 Grading for increased site interest
 Grading related to good views
 Grading related to bad views
 Grading to fit structures to site
Grading for drainage – Surface drainage can be achieved by pitching
surfaces to natural drainage features and systems.
Grading to create berms - Berms can be created for noise and wind
barriers or for additional soil depth above unfavorable sub grade
conditions, such as a high groundwater table.
Grading to create level areas – Relatively flat gradients are needed
for sports fields, outdoor terraces, and sometimes for areas near
buildings.
Grading to modify existing landforms- Deep gullies, narrow
ridges, or steep slopes can be modified to create more useful
and attractive landlforms.
 Grading for increased site interest – Grading can help
emphasize a site’s topography or add interest to an otherwise
flat site.
Grading related to good views
Grading related to bad views
Grading to fit structures to sites
The basic principles and goals of grading
1. The ground surface must be suitable for the intended purpose or use.
2. The visual result should be pleasing; indeed the purpose of the grading
may be purely aesthetic, to screen views or create symbolic land form.
3. The resulting ground surface must have positive drainage.
4. The grading plan should attempt to keep the new levels as close as possible
to the original state of the land. In non urban areas especially, existing
landscape represents an ecological balance, a natural drainage system, and a
developed soil profile.
5. When ground is reshaped it should be done positively and at the scale of
the machinery. Grading machinery is by definition gross in nature and
subtle details are difficult to achieve except by hand labour.
6. Top soil should be conserved wherever possible. It may be stripped,
stockpiled, and reused after heavy grading.
7. In the grading operation, the quantity of cut should approximately
equal the amount of fill. This eliminates the need to import soil or to find
a place to dump unwanted material.
terminology
 Contour lines: Are abstractions which join all points of the same
elevations above a fixed datum.

 Spot elevations: Indicate micrograding i.e. specific levels that

lies between the intervals of the contour lines. They show level
differences needed to ensure drainage on flat surfaces and to
indicate specific levels at important points in the plan.

 Grade or Gradient: The rate of slope between two points ,

expressed as percentage or ratio or angle.
methods of expressing slope
Slope is expressed in terms of a percentage, proportional ratio, or
degree of slope.

1. Percentage of slope

Percentage of slope is expressed as the number of meters / feet rise in 100 m /

100 ft of horizontal distance, typically referred to as rise/ run .
If the slope rises 2m / 2ft in 100 m / 100 ft it is considered a 2% slope. The
percentage of slope can be calculated as follows;
G= D/L x 100
Where D= vertical rise, mm / ft
L= horizontal distance, mm / ft
G= gradient, %
.
methods of expressing slope

2. Proportion (of slope)

Slope can be expressed as a ratio of the horizontal distance to the vertical
rise, such as three to one (3:1).
The ratio method is used typically for slopes 4:1 ( 25% ) or steeper.

3. Degree of slope
Slope is expressed in degrees only on large scale earth moving projects
such as strip mining and other extractive operations
spot elevations
 Spot elevations are used to establish limits of slope, to locate contour lines, and
to provide detail for establishing control points that cannot be obtained via
contour lines.
 The elevation of any point on an accurately drawn contour plan may be
determined by interpolation.
 Interpolated figures are approximations and should not be relied on as much as
surveyed spot elevations for crucial measurements.
making a contour map

1. Field Survey: All intersection points of a grid are marked on the ground
with temporary stakes the elevations of each intersection point are taken
with a transit or level and the elevation data is plotted on the grid plan of the
site. Elevations of critical high or low points that fall between the
intersections are also located.
making a contour map
2. Plotting contours: Once all spot elevations have been determined,
contours at regular intervals ( typically 1000mm 500mm , ) can be located
and plotted on a map.
This can be done by eye, since few contour maps require great precision.
Grading alternatives for a defined area
 Slopes of less than about 2% appear flat to the human scale
 Slopes of greater than 25% are considered unsafe.
 grading criteria

1. Calculating percentage of slope

2. Grading of outdoor areas is aimed at controlling surface storm water runoff.

3. Roadway design consists of two major phases.

a) Alignment of the road - giving the horizontal and vertical directions
b) Grading the adjacent landscape to the road edge.

4. Typically, swales are shallow, have a parabolic cross section, and are very wide,
while ditches are deeper and have a narrower geometric configuration.

5. Grass swales will not erode if velocities do not exceed 4 ft per second. If velocities
exceed 6 ft per second, then some form of non vegetative material should be used to
construct the swale, such as gravel, crushed stone.
basic area grading
basic area grading
 grading of stairs and ramps
The tread/ riser ratios greater than 2:1 are advisable whenever possible.
 5 to 8 percent slopes are considered ramps.
 3 percent of cross slope maximum should be provided for walk ways.
 grading near existing trees

 The vulnerable area around a tree

trunk varies according to its rooting
characteristics.
 The vulnerable area on the ground
equals the spread of the tree plus an
additional one third of that on each
side.
 To be absolutely certain of the trees
survival , no grading, cut, or fill should
take place in the total vulnerable area.
 grading near existing trees

Retaining wall :
Retaining walls are devices that can
take up differences in elevation
abruptly; they are expensive,
requiring reinforcing if they are over
3ft in height.

Gravel backfill and weep holes at the

base of the wall are needed to relieve
the pressure and weight of rain water
behind the wall.
 cut and fill process
Depending on the type of material and the compaction process, the quantity of cut should
be calculated to be about 5% more than would appear to be theoretically necessary for
the fill. This is due to the fact that when loose material from a cut is filled , the
compaction makes it take up less volume . This is important in large scale grading where
5%may be a considerable quantity.
Computing is done most accurately with a planimeter , which measures the cross section of
a cut and fill area . The average of the cross section is multiplied by its length to give the
volume.

Stabilization techniques
for cuts on hill sides
cut and fill process

Stabilization techniques
for fills on hill sides
grading of parking areas

The minimum and maximum gradients required for vehicular access and parking
areas are often the major determinants for the grading plan of a site.

Combined single and double parking bays to adapt to steep slopes

 grading of parking areas

An island section of parking bays

Ramp section between parking aisles

grading of parking areas

Stepped down parking area

runoff control from parking areas
The minimum gradient varies according to the nature of the surfaces
and or its permeability.

Material Minimum gradient required

 Asphalt 1.5% - 2 %
 Smooth finished concrete 1%
 Coarser exposed aggregate 2% (water will not flow easily)
 Bricks laid in sand 1%
 Brick paving with grouted joints. 2%
 Lawns and grass areas 1% in open & 2% in grass swales
runoff control
 Roof garden: Requires very rapid drainage since the weight of water added to
soil, paving, and plants places stresses on the structure.
The slopes on paved surfaces in such situations should be greater than slopes
normally required. Special light weight and porous soil at least 12 inches in
depth should be used in planting beds with sub surface drains to remove excess
water.

Erosion control by reducing the gradient of slope

Ayacuts -
 The area served by an irrigation project such as a canal, dam or a
tank.

Watershed –
 The topographical boundary dividing two adjacent catchment
basins, such as a ridge or a crest.
 A region of land within which water flows down into a specified
body, such as a river, lake, sea, or ocean; a drainage basin.