Abstract
A specialist in the larger field of engineering, an exploration engineer is
mostly involved in the discovery and preliminary assessment of mineral, oil,
and gas resources. Determining the existence and possible viability of
natural resources requires a multidisciplinary approach that combines
concepts from geology, geophysics, and engineering. Exploration engineers
evaluate geological formations and examine subterranean conditions using
complex methods and cutting-edge equipment to find viable locations for
additional research and eventual extraction.
Introduction
An exploration engineer's career path involves extensive coursework and real-
world experience, frequently involving advanced degrees in geology, engineering,
or related disciplines. They are skilled in creating informed evaluations of
resource potential using remote sensing, seismic data interpretation, and computer
modeling. To make sure that exploratory efforts are in line with ethical and
sustainable principles, they also need to stay up to date on environmental rules,
economic factors, and technical developments. Thus, an exploration engineer
establishes the foundation for ethical resource development in addition to leading
the discovery phase.
An Exploration Engineer plays a critical role in the finding and appraisal of natural
resources, acting at the convergence of geology, engineering, and environmental
science. Finding, assessing, and creating strategies for the extraction of minerals,
oil, gas, and other valuable resources from within the Earth is their main duty. To
find possible resource reserves, these engineers perform thorough geological
surveys and examine subsurface data using cutting-edge technologies including
Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing, and 3D modeling. Their
knowledge includes planning and managing drilling operations, making sure that
regulations are followed, and reducing the negative effects on the environment. In
order to guarantee thorough exploration techniques, they collaborate closely with
geologists, hydrologists, and environmental experts. They also convey findings
through thorough reports and presentations, offering important insights that direct
project development and investment choices. Exploration engineers play a crucial
role in addressing the world's demand for natural resources while advancing
sustainable practices by striking a balance between scientific research and
workable technical solutions.
In order to find and develop natural resources including minerals, oil, gas, and
other underground materials, an exploration engineer is essential. A bachelor's
degree in a related discipline, such as mining, petroleum, or geological
engineering, is usually the first step in the professional path for an exploration
engineer. Early career steps sometimes entail entry-level jobs like junior geologist
or field engineer, where practical experience is obtained through data analysis and
on-site work. Engineers may progress to project management positions, managing
exploration initiatives and collaborating with interdisciplinary teams, as their
experience grows.
Obtaining a master's degree or other advanced certifications is frequently necessary
for further career advancement. These can lead to executive positions in mining or
energy firms, as well as senior jobs like exploration manager or senior exploration
engineer. Senior position responsibilities include strategic planning, environmental
regulation compliance, and resource extraction efficiency maximization. Long-
term career success depends on maintaining current technological knowledge and
engaging in ongoing professional development in the fields of remote sensing and
geophysics. The versatility and dynamic nature of a career in exploration
engineering are further highlighted by the possibilities for exploration engineers to
contribute to academic research, consultancy, or entrepreneurship.
Construct structure contours and net pay maps to the producing
zones
The subsurface counterpart of surface topography maps are structural contour
maps. Exploration geology makes extensive use of them (regional mapping,
hydrocarbons, minerals, groundwater). Stratigraphic units, unconformities,
basement contacts to sedimentary basins, and igneous intrusive bodies are among
the surfaces that are commonly mapped. A finished structural contour map can
show paleotopography, folds and faults, including fault displacement, and
stratigraphic distribution. A line of uniform elevation over a geological surface is
called a structural contour. The primary distinction between topography and
structural maps is that the former's surfaces are hidden beneath the surface. The
quantity of data points available for map plotting also differs significantly; with the
advent of GPS and sophisticated satellite imaging, the number of location points
for surface topography is practically limitless. The limited subsurface database, on
the other hand, is mostly dependent on seismic reflections and drill intersections,
which necessitate the conversion of seismic velocities to depths. It takes some
creativity and common sense to interpolate contours between such widely
separated elevation sites.
The general guidelines for building structure contours are similar to those for
topography plots:
A contour line needs to stay at its specified altitude.
On a map, the height difference between contours must be constant.
Even though contour lines may be extremely close to one another, they must
never touch or cross.
Except at a map boundary, contours must never terminate abruptly.
Because they offer fundamental details on outcrop patterns, subsurface extent, and
structure, structure contour maps are frequently employed in surface geological
mapping. The straightforward task of mapping the geological contacts of a flat
sandstone block serves as the basis for the three cases that are discussed here. The
top of the incomplete sandstone is located at 220 meters above sea level (asl), and
the base is located at a nearby position at 200 meters asl.
Constructing a structure contour map
The height or depth of a particular subsurface horizon, such the top of a
producing formation, can be seen on a structural contour map. Structure
contour maps are similar to topographic maps in that they depict a geologic
surface, usually subsurface. Stratigraphic horizons, fault surfaces, the top of
the groundwater table, seismic reflection surfaces, and other geologic
surfaces are frequently mapped in this manner.
The surface might be shortened and need not be continuous throughout. For
instance, a fault may truncate the surface formed by a sill's [Link] ascertain
the link between the contour map and the real structural elements, a scale is
required. It is also beneficial to change the map's size. Typically, the contour
interval remains constant. But sometimes, depending on how steep the dips
are, it can be altered. For low dips, a brief interval is appropriate. The
contour interval should be a straightforward multiple or fraction of the
original interval if it is altered on the map. At the same time we must point
the contour elevations and/or show the boundaries of the regions where the
interval is changed.
The following guidelines (adapted from Sebring 1958; Badgley 1959; Bishop
1960) must be followed by the contours:
1- All contours must go between higher and lower elevation points.
2- Contour lines should not merge or cross except where the surface is
vertical or is repeated due to overturned folding or reverse faulting.
The lower set of repeated contours should be dashed.
3- A fault or the map's boundary should either truncate contour lines or
cause them to close inside the map region. Hash markings, also
known as tic marks, on the lower side of the inner border contour
denote closed depressions.
4- To show reversals in the slope direction, contour lines are repeated. A
contour almost never lies precisely on a structure's crest or dip.
5- A continuous map surface cracks due to faults. The contoured horizon
has gaps due to normal separation faults, overlapping contours due to
reverse separation faults, and linear elevation discontinuities due to
vertical faults. It will typically be easier to create distinct maps for the
footwall and hanging wall in areas where beds are repeated by reverse
faulting.
6- The trend or patterns that are prevalent in the area should be honored
on the map. Depending on the structural style, crestal traces, trough
traces, fold hinges, and inflection lines typically create smooth curves
or straight li
Example of structure contours for a planar unit
Geologic Structure Map:
Intersections of Structure and Topographic Contours
Geologic Map of the Example Quadrangle
East-West Strike View Cross Section of the Example Quadrangle
Constructing Cross-Sections
The process of creating a geological cross-section involves utilizing
stratigraphic principles to infer what happens between a small number of
observations that are all situated along a line. A geoscientist rarely has the
ability to view every rock along a cross-section. Rock profiles may only be
visible at the Earth's surface in isolated outcrops, such those found by
railroad tracks or highways. Every outcrop would be observed, and each set
of observations would be turned into a stratigraphic record. It takes more
work to get stratigraphic information about the rocks below ground. Rock
samples are extracted from the ground using drilling rigs. A stratigraphic log
can be created from a drill log, which is a record of the rock descriptions the
geoscientist has made for every depth interval. Elevations above sea level
are used to represent height or depth in relation to the ground surface in all
stratigraphic data. A line is used to combine several stratigraphic logs,
which are then plotted side by side. After that, lines that show correlations
between logs are drawn to match the data from one borehole or outcrop to
the others.
There are three general methods for establishing correlations between logs:
1-Rocks with similar types or facies are correlated lithostratigraphic (Figure
4.4).
2-Time-stratigraphic correlation: Figure 4.5 shows that rocks of the same
relative (or absolute) age correspond.
3-Biostratigraphic correlation: Without taking into account the type of
rock, rocks that have the same fossil or fossil assemblage are matched
(Figure 4.6).
lithostratigraphic
Lithologic equivalence between adjacent rock units is indicated by
correlation lines. When we are certain that one site matches another, they
are depicted as solid lines. When determining a contact's position or
correlation, dashed lines are utilized.
Since we have clear proof of this contact in both the middle log and the
right-hand log, the correlation line between the shale and limestone A in
Figure 4.4 is solid. Since we don't know where the contact is in the left-hand
log, this correlation line appears dashed between the middle and left
columns.
Figure 4.4 | Lithostratigraphic (rock type) correlation of stratigraphic log data.
The lithology in each log is matched horizontally from one log to the next
using correlations lines.
Causes of Discontinuous Layers
Occasionally, one stratigraphic log will contain rock layers while another will
not. This could happen for a number of reasons:
1- Pinch out : The rock unit is absent from the nearby stratigraphic record
and thins laterally between two sites.
2- Lateral facies change. There was a lateral change in the depositional
environment, such as from a sandy beach to a muddy tidal flat.
3- Erosion. The rock unit is absent because it has been eroded away along
an unconformity.
4- Deformation. A rock unit has been moved by structural deformation
such as faulting.
5- Transformation. The rock has been altered by metamorphic processes
such that it is no longer considered the same rock type.
Time-stratigraphic correlation
Not all rocks of the same age may be joined by lithostratigraphic correlation,
which is the joining of rocks of the same type. However, the objective of
time-stratigraphic correlation (Figure 4.5) is to connect rocks of the same
age.
Since there is evidence that the conglomerate, sand, and shale at the base
of each stratigraphic log were all deposited at Time 1, they are correlated in
Figure 4.5. The fossil content of the rocks, the relative positions of the units
at the base of the stratigraphic column, or even absolute dating using
radioactive isotopes could provide this information. Time-stratigraphic
correlation lines have been established, and these various lithologies are all
part of the same time-stratigraphic unit.
A clear, comprehensive depiction of formation factors against depth can be
seen in well logs. Interpreters can swiftly detect pay zones in subsurface
formations, distinguish between porous and nonporous rock, and determine
lithologies from these plots. Understanding the importance of every
measurement is the key to deciphering a log.
As the tool moves over a depth-defined period, logging tools record the
magnitude of a particular formation feature, such resistivity; a well log is a
chart that plots the measurement's value against depth. Logs were mainly
used qualitatively for formation correlations in the early days of commercial
well logging; within a field or local geological province, some formations have
unique features that seem strikingly similar from well to well, giving
geologists a foundation for determining the depths of different subsurface
strata. G.E. Archie's 1942 discovery of the connection between resistivity,
porosity, and water saturation (and consequently its inverse, hydro-carbon
saturation) opened the door for a well log-based quantitative assessment of
formation characteristics.
Only formation resistivity measurements were plotted in early electric logs,
or e-logs. The degree to which a rock can obstruct the passage of an electric
current is known as its resistivity. Ohm.m2/m, which is commonly just
referred to as ohm.m, is the unit of measurement. Conductivity is the
reciprocal of resistivity and is commonly measured in millimhos or mmhos.
The conductivity of the water in the rock's pore space determines its
capacity to conduct electrical current. The salt ions present in the majority
of formation waters carry electricity, whereas fresh water does not. Water-
saturated rocks hence have low resistivity and high conductivity, unless the
water is fresh. As pore spaces in a rock become more saturated with gas or
oil, hydrocarbons—which are nonconductive—cause resistivity readings to
rise.
After that, the resistivity logs and the spontaneous potential (SP) log were
created and displayed. It measures the voltage differential between a fixed
electrode at the surface and a moving electrode in the wellbore. The
exchanges of fluids with varying salinities—both those in the formation and
those of the mud system—are the main source of this electrical potential.
Drilling mud filtrate invades the wellbore's porous rock during the drilling
process. The SP curve deflects to the left from an arbitrary baseline set
across impermeable shale formations if the filtrate is less saline than the
formation fluids due to negatively charged chlorine ions from the formation
water.
Permeability, porosity, formation water salinity, and mud filtrate
characteristics are some of the variables that affect the deflection's
magnitude. The curve will veer to the right in permeable formations that
contain water that is fresher than the filtrate. So, a geologist may tell which
formations are permeable just by looking at the SP curve's deflections.
Hydrocarbons are more likely to be present in a permeable deposit with a
high resistance.
The measurements that make up electric logs have been greatly improved
and extended throughout time. A gamma ray (GR) curve, many resistivity
curves, and porosity readings from density, neutron, and acoustic
instruments are all part of today's standard suite of logging measures, in
addition to the SP curve.
A GR log aids geologists in distinguishing between nonreservoir rocks, such
clays and shales, and reservoir rocks, like carbonates and sandstone. The GR
device analyzes naturally occurring radioactivity from the formation. Rocks
that often include naturally occurring radioactive elements, mainly
potassium, uranium, and thorium, are the source of shale and clay
formations. Consequently, clean sand-stones and carbonates are less
radioactive than shales and clays. Almost negligible radiation is produced by
calcium carbonate and quartz. Because they may contain movable
hydrocarbons, log analyzers seek for formations with low background
radiation.
The formation is measured using resistivity techniques at various levels of
analysis. There are shallow-, medium-, and deep-reading curves in the
generated log. The resistivity of the flushed zone surrounding the borehole
is displayed by the shallow curve, which plots the narrowest radius of inquiry.
The invaded zone's resistivity is shown by the medium curves. Even the
deepest reading curves may be impacted by the presence of mud filtrate,
but the resistivity of the uncontaminated zone, which is shown by the
deepest curves, is thought to be the real resistivity. A geologist can estimate
the diameter of invasion by the mud filtrate and possibly identify which
zones are more permeable than others by analyzing the distance between
these curves.
One important indicator of porosity is the bulk density of the formation. The
mass to volume ratio of a measured interval is the basis for determining the
bulk density (rhob or Pb) of a formation. Generally speaking, porosity and
rock density are inversely correlated. The electron density of a formation is
used to calculate the Pb measurement. A logging instrument that sends
gamma rays into the formation is used to take this measurement. Compton
Scattering is the process by which the gamma rays and electrons in the
formation contact, releasing energy and scattering. The quantity of
electrons in the formation has a direct correlation with the number of such
collisions
The concentration of hydrogen atoms can be used to measure the fluid-filled
porosity of a formation since hydrogen is a primary constituent of both water
and hydrocarbons, and because water and hydrocarbons concentrate in rock
pores. Atoms of hydrogen are almost as massive as neutrons. Neutron
logging devices use an electrical neutron generator or a chemical source to
produce neutrons. These neutrons lose their maximum energy, slow down,
and ultimately enter a very-low-energy, or thermal, state when they hit with
hydrogen atoms in a formation. The hydrogen content, or index (HI),
determines how quickly neutrons enter the thermal state. The HI is
measured by neutron porosity instruments and transformed into neutron
porosity.
By recording the speed of a compressional sound wave as it passes through
the formation, the sonic log can be used to calculate porosity. The reciprocal
of velocity is interval transit time (∆t), which is expressed in microseconds
per meter [foot] and is frequently called slowness. Porosity and lithology
have an impact on ∆t. A quicker (shorter) ∆t is typically produced by dense,
consolidated formations with compaction at depth, whereas a slower (longer)
∆t is produced by fluid-filled porosity.
Additionally, borehole and formation conditions have a distinct impact on
measurements. Before doing a quantitative analysis of the data, log analysts
conduct quality control on the data and identify any necessary corrections.
For instance, the sonic log needs to be adjusted for gas, cracks, and lack of
compaction. The density, neutron, and sonic logs are all impacted by
lithologies. Temperature has an impact on the resistivity of both the filtrate
and the saline formation water, and resistivity readings are impacted when
mud filtrate invades porous formations. While certain resistivity tools are
only effective in salt-saturated mud systems, others can be used in
nonconductive bore-hole fluids. Washouts from boreholes may have an
impact on pad-contact logging equipment. Analysis might not be feasible if
hole conditions damage the data.
Figure 1: A basic log. A suite of logging measurements might include spontaneous potential, gamma ray, resistivity, neutron and
density curves in a single presentation. The gamma ray response (Track 1) distinguishes the low gamma ray value of sand from the
higher value of shale. The spontaneous potential curve generally follows a trend similar to that of the gamma ray. The next column,
called the depth track, indicates the depth at which the measurement was made. Across the sandstone formation, the resistivity
measurements (Track 2) are noticeably higher in the hydrocarbon zone than in the water-saturated zone in the lower part of the
sand. Both neutron porosity and bulk density (Track 3) provide measures of porosity. Within the hydrocarbon-bearing zone, the
separation of the curves varies depending on the type of fluid encountered.
Porosity and hydrocarbon saturation must be assessed once a possible pay
zone has been located. The HI measurement is converted to the neutron
porosity. The log analyst must account for the corresponding densities or
interval transit times of the drilling fluid and the rock matrix in order to
calculate porosity (Ø) from ρb or ∆t readings.
The equation for converting the sonic measurement to porosity is similar.
After establishing the zone of interest's porosity, the next step is to ascertain
both its actual resistivity and the resistivity of a neighboring water-containing
period. The deep reading resistivity measurement, adjusted for filtrate
invasion, is the basis for true resistivity (Rt). The water resistivity Rw can be
calculated from a nearby water-bearing interval. The formula that Archie
devised to determine the water saturation Sw in a rock's pore spaces can be
used to combine these readings.
The values for a, m and n are often based on the formation properties. After
Sw is computed, the log analyst can arrive at a hydrocarbon saturation by
subtracting that value from 1.
In geology, isopach maps are frequently used to show differences in
thickness between two strata, such as the top and bottom of a stratigraphic
layer or coal seam. Surfer may be used to make an isopach or isochore map
if you have data that specifies the elevation of the top and bottom surfaces.
The thickness between two surfaces is depicted in both maps.
Isopach maps measure True Stratigraphic Thickness, and isochore maps
measure True Vertical Thickness.
OOIP
The volume of original hydrocarbon in place (OHIP) in an oil reservoir is
original oil
in place (OOIP). It is calculated using the expression
Ahs
N=7758 ∅
B
where 7758 is a unit conversion factor, N is OOIP (STB), ϕ is reservoir
porosity
(fraction), A is reservoir area (acres), ho is net thickness of oil zone (feet), Soi
is initial reservoir oil saturation (fraction), and B oi is initial oil formation
volume factor (RB/ STB). Initial oil formation volume factor is the volume of
oil at reservoir conditions divided by the volume of oil at stock tank
conditions. Associated gas, or gas in solution, is the product of solution gas–
oil ratio Rso and N.
An oil reservoir has average porosity = 0.15 in an area of 6400 acres with a
net thickness of 100 ft, initial oil saturation of 75%, and initial oil formation
volume factor of 1.3 RB/STB. Use the volumetric OIP equation to estimate
OOIP.
Ahs
N=7758 ∅
B
7758∗0.15∗6400 acres∗100∗0.75
¿
1.3
=430mstb
[Link]
q=Construct+structure+contours+and+net+pay+maps+to+the+producing
+zones&gs_lcrp=EgZjaHJvbWUqBggAEEUYOzIGCAAQRRg7MgYIARBFGEDSAQ
gxMTE2ajBqNKgCALACAQ&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-
8&udm=50&fbs=AIIjpHxU7SXXniUZfeShr2fp4giZ1Y6MJ25_tmWITc7uy4KIeoJT
KjrFjVxydQWqI2NcOhZufN78Vg3E82QOGfwkmnQG-
Fb6F7PQIDzyJIf09m9H0MvaqmjDPX3BaPnbK8671Vx9U8xDYP2QgfxO91U2_tZ
sXoEWeWnatI3yHcTJUltwJDHxtRtG_jn_QDC1raG3u4m23Be0vhr-
bpIxLHzwCw73zs7SOA&ved=2ahUKEwjf5Z2d6JqQAxUBUaQEHSauAYYQ0NsO
egQIAxAB&aep=10&ntc=1&mtid=UJvpaOPeHfSHkdUPl8f_4Ac&mstk=AUtExf
DwiXwPpPdTjk_mECFk8rMwJY17HvnvN6Xx5Vw0kUOBNNq4Cy3Mavi31lGcgu2
3SIT18GUTZfwhno7yX-vZrH-
HjlmjWSa2u8Phx4t0y5YDeGqmXcAz_p501mjh3bKbTQmS3KNybUO_q6v96wm
yl3Cq7725sPi7cIUjbIQ0rVLp8UguKafmJNm1zpvmEqavAcSUbAlulCSvHlcaWHtt
7n5M0Pxucvyy0ETB73uf1I6rgjqH658lsbw76KJTXvCucGgP5BcG1o-
MG6lqbH535Rv62lxHyWsXkCyzp3HBLNWYMMkFaaS3c5Sil3RKDy3JJHgBW_xU
RoJVxg&csuir=1
[Link]
locations-of-the-studied-44-stands-distributed-along_fig1_328353498
[Link]
contour-map
Net pay determination | Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) | OnePetro
The Defining Series: Basic Well Log Interpretation | SLB
How to Construct Cross-Sections from Geologic Maps - HogoNext
[Link]
Structural_Geology___Map_Interpretation_Ch4.pdf
Structural Geology: Isopach maps vs isochore maps
[Link]
The Defining Series: Basic Well Log Interpretation | SLB
[Link]
an-Isopach-or-Isochore-map-in-Surfer#:~:text=Create%20grid%20files%20of
%20the,to%20generate%20the%20selected%20grid.