vii Contents

Contents
Preface xv Acknowledgements xviii List of Symbols and Abbreviations xx

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Signals and Systems

1.1 Signal 1. 1 1.1.1 Continuous Time Signal 1. 2
1.1. 2 Discrete Time Signal 1. 2
1.1. 3 Digital Signal 1. 3
1.2 System 1. 3 1.2.1 Continuous Time System 1. 3
1.2.2 Discrete Time System 1. 4
1.3 Frequency Domain Analysis of Continuous Time Signals and Systems 1. 5 1.4 Frequency Domain
Analysis of Discrete Time Signals and Systems 1. 6 1.5 Importance of Signals and Systems 1. 7 1.6 Use of
MATLAB in Signals and Systems 1. 8

Chapter 2 : Continuous Time Signals and Systems

2.1 Introduction 2. 1 2.2 Standard Continuous Time Signals 2. 1 2.3 Classification of Continuous Time
Signals 2. 6 2.3.1 Deterministic and Nondeterministic Signals 2. 6
2.3.2 Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals 2. 6
2.3.3 Symmetric (Even) and Antisymmetric (Odd) Signals 2. 11
2.3.4 Energy and Power Signals 2. 13
2.3.5 Causal, Noncausal and Anticausal Signals 2. 15
2.4 Mathematical Operations on Continuous Time Signals 2. 16 2.4.1 Scaling of Continuous Time Signals
2. 16
2.4.2 Folding (Reflection or Transpose) of Continuous Time Signals 2. 18
2.4.3 Time Shifting of Continuous Time Signals 2. 18
2.4.4 Addition of Continuous Time Signals 2. 20
2.4.5 Multiplication of Continuous Time Signals 2. 20
2.4.6 Differentiation and Integration of Continuous Time Signals 2. 21
2.5 Impulse Signal 2. 24 2.5.1 Properties of Impulse Signal 2. 25
2.5.2 Representation of Continuous Time Signal as Integral of Impulses 2. 27
2.6 Continuous Time System 2. 29 2.6.1 Mathematical Equation Governing LTI Continuous Time System 2.
29
2.6.2 Block Diagram and Signal Flow Graph Representation of LTI Continuous Time System 2. 31
viii Contents

2.7 Response of LTI Continuous Time System in Time Domain 2. 34 2.7.1 Homogeneous Solution 2. 35
2.7.2 Particular Solution 2. 36
2.7.3 Zero-input and Zero-state Response 2. 36
2.7.4 Total Response 2. 37
2.8 Classification of Continuous Time Systems 2. 43 2.8.1 Static and Dynamic Systems 2. 43
2.8.2 Time Invariant and Time Variant Systems 2. 43
2.8.3 Linear and Nonlinear Systems 2. 47
2.8.4 Causal and Noncausal Systems 2. 51
2.8.5 Stable and Unstable Systems 2. 54
2.8.6 Feedback and Nonfeedback Systems 2. 59
2.9 Convolution of Continuous Time Signals 2. 59 2.9.1 Response of LTI Continuous Time System using
Convolution 2. 59
2.9.2 Properties of Convolution 2. 60
2.9.3 Interconnections of Continuous Time Systems 2. 62
2.9.4 Procedure to Perfom Convolution 2. 64
2.9.5 Unit Step Response using Convolution 2. 65
2.10 Inverse System and Deconvolution 2. 76 2.11 Summary of Important Concepts 2. 77 2.12 Short
Questions and Answers 2. 78 2.13 MATLAB Programs 2. 84 2.14 Exercises 2. 94

Chapter 3 : Laplace Transform

3.1 Introduction 3. 1 3.2 Region of Convergence 3. 4 3.3 Properties and Theorems of Laplace Transform 3.
18 3.4 Poles and Zeros of Rational Function of s 3. 33 3.4.1 Representation of Poles and Zeros in s-plane
3. 34
3.4.2 ROC of Rational Function of s 3. 35
3.4.3 Properties of ROC 3. 37
3.5 Inverse Laplace Transform 3. 38 3.5.1 Inverse Laplace Transform by Partial Fraction Expansion
Method 3. 39
3.5.2 Inverse Laplace Transform using Convolution Theorem 3. 44
3.6 Analysis of LTI Continuous Time System using Laplace Transform 3. 48 3.6.1 Transfer Function of LTI
Continuous Time System 3. 48
3.6.2 Impulse Response and Transfer Function 3. 48
3.6.3 Response of LTI Continuous Time System using Laplace Transform 3. 49
3.6.4 Convolution and Deconvolution using Laplace Transform 3. 50
3.6.5 Stability in s-Domain 3. 51
3.7 Structures for Realization of LTI Continuous Time Systems in s-domain 3. 79 3.7.1 Direct Form-I
Structure 3. 80
Contents ix

3.7.2 Direct Form-II Structure 3. 81

3.7.3 Cascade Structure 3. 84
3.7.4 Parallel Structure 3. 85
3.8 Summary of Important Concepts 3. 96 3.9 Short Questions and Answers 3. 97 3.10 MATLAB Programs
3.101 3.11 Exercises 3.107

Chapter 4 : Fourier Series and Fourier Transform of Continuous Time Signals

4.1 Introduction 4. 1 4.2 Trigonometric Form of Fourier Series 4. 1 4.2.1 Definition of Trigonometric Form of
Fourier Series 4. 1
4.2.2 Conditions for Existence of Fourier Series 4. 2
4.2.3 Derivation of Equations for a0, an and bn 4. 2
4.3 Exponential Form of Fourier Series 4. 5 4.3.1 Definition of Exponential Form of Fourier Series 4. 5
4.3.2 Negative Frequency 4. 5
4.3.3 Derivation of Equation for cn 4. 6
4.3.4 Relation Between Fourier Coefficients of Trigonometric and Exponential Form 4. 6 4.3.5 Frequency
Spectrum (or Line Spectrum) of Periodic Continuous Time Signals 4. 7 4.4 Fourier Coefficients of Signals
with Symmetry 4. 9 4.4.1 Even Symmetry 4. 9
4.4.2 Odd Symmetry 4. 11
4.4.3 Half Wave Symmetry (or Alternation Symmetry) 4. 14
4.4.4 Quarter Wave Symmetry 4. 15
4.5 Properties of Fourier Series 4. 15 4.6 Diminishing of Fourier Coefficients 4. 17 4.7 Gibbs Phenomenon
4. 18 4.8 Solved Problems in Fourier Series 4. 19 4.9 Fourier Transform 4. 41 4.9.1 Development of
Fourier Transform from Fourier Series 4. 41
4.9.2 Frequency Spectrum using Fourier Transform 4. 43
4.10 Properties of Fourier Transform 4. 44 4.11 Fourier Transform of Some Important Signals 4. 53 4.12
Fourier Transform of a Periodic Signal 4. 65 4.13 Analysis of LTI Continuous Time System Using Fourier
Transform 4. 65
4.13.1 Transfer Function of LTI Continuous Time System in Frequency Domain 4. 65 4.13.2 Response of
LTI Continuous Time System Using Fourier Transform 4. 67
4.13.3 Frequency Response of LTI Continuous Time System 4. 67
4.14 Relation Between Fourier and Laplace Transform 4. 69 4.15 Solved Problems in Fourier Transform 4.
71 4.16 Summary of Important Concepts 4. 80 4.17 Short Questions and Answers 4. 81
x Contents

4.18 MATLAB Programs 4. 88 4.19 Exercises 4. 92

Chapter 5 : State Space Analysis of Continuous Time Systems

5.1 Introduction 5. 1 5.2 State Model of a Continuous Time System 5. 1 5.3 State Model of a Continuous
Time System from Direct Form-II Structure 5. 4 5.4 Transfer Function of a Continuous Time System from
State Model 5. 6 5.5 Solution of State Equations and Response of Continuous Time System 5. 6 5.6
Solved Problems in State Space Analysis 5. 8 5.7 Summary of Important Concepts 5. 16
5.8 Short Questions and Answers 5. 16 5.9 MATLAB Programs 5. 19 5.10 Exercises 5. 20

Chapter 6 : Discrete Time Signals and Systems

6.1 Discrete and Digital Signals 6. 1 6.1.1 Generation of Discrete Signals 6. 1
6.1.2 Representation of Discrete Time Signals 6. 2
6.2 Standard Discrete Time Signals 6. 3 6.3 Sampling of Continuous Time (Analog) Signals 6. 6 6.3.1
Sampling and Aliasing 6. 7
6.4 Classifications of Discrete Time Signals 6. 10 6.4.1 Deterministic and Nondeterministic Signals 6. 10
6.4.2 Periodic and Aperiodic Signals 6. 10
6.4.3 Symmetric (Even) and Antisymmetric (Odd) Signals 6. 12
6.4.4 Energy and Power Signals 6. 14
6.4.5 Causal, Noncausal and Anticausal Signals 6. 16
6.5 Mathematical Operations on Discrete Time Signals 6. 17 6.5.1 Scaling of Discrete Time Signals 6. 17
6.5.2 Folding (Reflection or Transpose) of Discrete Time Signals 6. 18
6.5.3 Time Shifting of Discrete Time Signals 6. 18
6.5.4 Addition of Discrete Time Signals 6. 19
6.5.5 Multiplication of Discrete Time Signals 6. 19
6.6 Discrete Time System 6. 20 6.6.1 Mathematical Equation Governing Discrete Time System 6. 20
6.6.2 Block Diagram and Signal Flow Graph Representation of Discrete Time System 6. 22 6.7 Response
of LTI Discrete Time System in Time Domain 6. 25 6.7.1 Zero-Input Response or Homogeneous Solution
6. 25
6.7.2 Particular Solution 6. 26
6.7.3 Zero-State Response 6. 27
6.7.4 Total Response 6. 27
Contents xi

6.8 Classifications of Discrete Time Systems 6. 32 6.8.1 Static and Dynamic Systems 6. 32
6.8.2 Time Invariant and Time Variant Systems 6. 32
6.8.3 Linear and Nonlinear Systems 6. 35
6.8.4 Causal and Noncausal Systems 6. 41
6.8.5 Stable and Unstable Systems 6. 43
6.8.6 FIR and IIR Systems 6. 45
6.8.7 Recursive and Nonrecursive Systems 6. 45
6.9 Discrete or Linear Convolution 6. 46 6.9.1 Representation of Discrete Time Signal as Summation of
Impulses 6. 47
6.9.2 Response of LTI Discrete Time System using Discrete Convolution 6. 48
6.9.3 Properties of Linear Convolution 6. 49
6.9.4 Interconnections of Discrete Time Systems 6. 51
6.9.5 Methods of Performing Linear Convolution 6. 56
6.10 Circular Convolution 6. 63 6.10.1 Circular Representation and Circular Shift of Discrete Time Signal 6.
63
6.10.2 Circular Symmetrics of Discrete Time Signal 6. 65
6.10.3 Definition of Circular Convolution 6. 66
6.10.4 Procedure for Evaluating Circular Convolution 6. 67
6.10.5 Linear Convolution via Circular Convolution 6. 68
6.10.6 Methods of Computing Circular Convolution 6. 68
6.11 Sectioned Convolution 6. 78 6.11.1 Overlap Add Method 6. 78
6.11.2 Overlap Save Method 6. 79
6.12 Inverse System and Deconvolution 6. 92 6.12.1 Inverse System 6. 92
6.12.2 Deconvolution 6. 93
6.13 Correlation, Crosscorrelation and Autocorrelation 6. 95 6.13.1 Procedure for Evaluating Correlation 6.
96
6.14 Circular Correlation 6.104 6.14.1 Procedure for Evaluating Circular Correlation 6.105
6.14.2 Methods of Computing Circular Correlation 6.105
6.15 Summary of Important Concepts 6.110 6.16 Short Questions and Answers 6.111 6.17 MATLAB
Programs 6.115 6.18 Exercises 6.119

Chapter 7 : Z - Transform
7.1 Introduction 7. 1 7.2 Region of Convergence 7. 3 7.3 Properties of Z-Transform 7. 11 7.4 Poles and
Zeros of Rational Function of z 7. 27 7.4.1 Representation of Poles and Zeros in z-plane 7. 28
xii Contents

7.4.2 ROC of Rational Function of z 7. 29

7.4.3 Properties of ROC 7. 30
7.5 Inverse Z-Transform 7. 31 7.5.1 Inverse Z-Transform by Contour Integration or Residue Method 7. 31
7.5.2 Inverse Z-Transform by Partial Fraction Expansion Method 7. 32
7.5.3 Inverse Z-Transform by Power Series Expansion Method 7. 35
7.6 Analysis of LTI Discrete Time System Using Z-Transform 7. 47 7.6.1 Transfer Function of LTI Discrete
Time System 7. 47
7.6.2 Impulse Response and Transfer Function 7. 48
7.6.3 Response of LTI Discrete Time System Using Z-Transform 7. 49
7.6.4 Convolution and Deconvolution Using Z-Transform 7. 50
7.6.5 Stability in z-Domain 7. 51
7.7 Relation Between Laplace Transform and Z-Transform 7. 56 7.7.1 Impulse Train Sampling of
Continuous Time Signal 7. 56
7.7.2 Transformation from Laplace Transform to Z-Transform 7. 56
7.7.3 Relation Between s-Plane and z-Plane 7. 57
7.8 Structures for Realization of LTI Discrete Time Systems in z-Domain 7. 59 7.9 Summary of Important
Concepts 7. 72 7.10 Short Questions and Answers 7. 73 7.11 MATLAB Programs 7. 79 7.12 Exercises 7.
84

Chapter 8 : Fourier Series and Fourier Transform of Discrete Time Signals

8.1 Introduction 8. 1 8.2 Fourier Series of Discrete Time Signals (Discrete Time Fourier Series) 8. 1 8.2.1
Frequency Spectrum of Periodic Discrete Time Signals 8. 3
8.2.2 Properties of Discrete Time Fourier Series 8. 4
8.3 Fourier Transform of Discrete Time Signals (Discrete Time Fourier Transform) 8. 9 8.3.1 Development
of Discrete Time Fourier Transform from
Discrete Time Fourier Series 8. 9
8.3.2 Definition of Discrete Time Fourier Transform 8. 10
8.3.3 Frequency Spectrum of Discrete Time Signal 8. 11
8.3.4 Inverse Discrete Time Fourier Transform 8. 11
8.3.5 Comparison of Fourier Transform of Discrete and Continuous Time Signals 8. 12
8.4 Properties of Discrete Time Fourier Transform 8. 12 8.5 Discrete Time Fourier Transform of Periodic
Discrete Time Signals 8. 20 8.6 Analysis of LTI Discrete Time System Using Discrete Time Fourier
Transform 8. 22 8.6.1 Transfer Function of LTI Discrete Time System in Frequency Domain 8. 22
8.6.2 Response of LTI Discrete Time System Using Discrete Time Fourier Transform 8. 23 8.6.3 Frequency
Response of LTI Discrete Time System 8. 23
8.6.4 Frequency Response of First Order Discrete Time System 8. 25
8.6.5 Frequency Response of Second Order Discrete Time System 8. 31
Contents xiii

8.7 Aliasing in Frequency Spectrum Due to Sampling 8. 36 8.7.1 Signal Reconstruction (Recovery of
Continuous Time Signal) 8. 38
8.7.2 Sampling of Bandpass Signal 8. 39
8.8 Relation Between Z-Transform and Discrete Time Fourier Transform 8. 40 8.9 Summary of Important
Concepts 8. 62 8.10 Short Questions and Answers 8. 63 8.11 MATLAB Programs 8. 68 8.12 Exercises 8.
73

Chapter 9 : Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) and Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
9.1 Introduction 9. 1 9.2 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) of Discrete Time Signal 9. 1 9.2.1 Development
of DFT from DTFT 9. 1
9.2.2 Definition of Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) 9. 2
9.2.3 Frequency Spectrum Using DFT 9. 2
9.2.4 Inverse DFT 9. 3
9.3 Properties of DFT 9. 4 9.4 Relation Between DFT and Z-Transform 9. 10 9.5 Analysis of LTI Discrete
Time Systems Using DFT 9. 10 9.6 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) 9. 19 9.7 Decimation In Time (DIT)
Radix-2 FFT 9. 21 9.7.1 8-Point DFT Using Radix-2 DIT FFT 9. 23
9.7.2 Flow Graph for 8-Point DIT Radix-2 FFT 9. 27
9.8 Decimation In Frequency (DIF) Radix-2 FFT 9. 29 9.8.1 8-Point DFT Using Radix-2 DIF FFT 9. 32
9.8.2 Flow Graph for 8-Point DIF Radix-2 FFT 9. 34
9.8.3 Comparison of DIT and DIF Radix-2 FFT 9. 37
9.9 Computation of Inverse DFT Using FFT 9. 37 9.10 Summary of Important Concepts 9. 56 9.11 Short
Questions and Answers 9. 57 9.12 MATLAB Programs 9. 60 9.13 Exercises 9. 65

Chapter 10 : Structures for Realization of IIR and FIR Systems

10.1 Introduction 10. 1 10.2 Discrete Time IIR and FIR Systems 10. 1 10.2.1 Discrete Time IIR System 10.
1
10.2.2 Discrete Time FIR System 10. 2
10.3 Structures for Realization of IIR Systems 10. 3 10.3.1 Direct Form-I Structure of IIR System 10. 4
10.3.2 Direct Form-II Structure of IIR System 10. 5
xiv Contents

10.3.3 Cascade Form Realization of IIR System 10. 8

10.3.4 Parallel Form Realization of IIR System 10. 8
10.4 Structures for Realization of FIR Systems 10. 29 10.4.1 Direct Form Realization of FIR System 10. 30
10.4.2 Cascade Form Realization of FIR System 10. 30
10.4.3 Linear Phase Realization of FIR System 10. 31
10.5 Summary of Important Concepts 10. 37 10.6 Short Questions and Answers 10. 38 10.7 Exercises 10.
40

Chapter 11 : State Space Analysis of Discrete Time Systems

11.1 Introduction 11. 1 11.2 State Model of Discrete Time Systems 11. 1 11.3 State Model of a Discrete
Time System from Direct Form-II Structure 11. 4 11.4 Transfer Function of a Discrete Time System from
State Model 11. 5 11.5 Solution of State Equations and Response of Discrete Time System 11. 6 11.6
Solved Problems in State Space Analysis of Discrete Time System 11. 8 11.7 Summary of Important
Concepts 11. 14
11.8 Short Questions and Answers 11. 14 11.9 MATLAB Programs 11. 17 11.10 Exercises 11. 19

Appendix 1 Important Mathematical Relations A. 1 Appendix 2 MATLAB Commands and Functions A. 5

Appendix 3 Summary of Various Standard Transform Pairs A. 11 Appendix 4 Summary of Properties of
Various Transforms A. 17
Index I. 1

1. 1 Signals & Systems CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Signals and Systems

1.1 Signal
Any physical phenomenon that conveys or carries some information can be called a signal. The
music, speech, motion pictures, still photos, heart beat, etc., are examples of signals that we
normally encounter in day to day life.
Usually, the information carried by a signal will be a function of an independent variable. The
independent variable can be time, spatial coordinates, intensity of colours, pressure,
temperature, etc.,. The most popular independent variable in signals is time and it is
represented by the letter “t”.
The value of a signal at any specified value of the independent variable is called its amplitude.
The sketch or plot of the amplitude of a signal as a function of independent variable is called its
waveform.
Mathematically, any signal can be represented as a function of one or more independent
[Link], a signal is defined as any physical quantity that varies with one or more
independent variables.
For example, the functions x1(t) and x2(t) as defined by the equations (1.1) and (1.2) represents
two signals: one that varies linearly with time “t” and the other varies quadratically with time “t”.
The equation (1.3) represents a signal which is a function of two independent variables “p” and
“q”.
x1(t) = 0.7t .....(1.1) x2(t) = 1.8t2 .....(1.2) x(p,q) = 0.6p + 0.5q + 1.1q2 .....(1.3)
The signals can be classified in number of ways. Some way of classifying the signals are, I.
Depending on the number of sources for the signals.
[Link]-channel signals
2. Multichannel signals
II. Depending on the number of dependent variables.
[Link]-dimensional signals
2. Multidimensional signals
III. Depending on whether the dependent variable is continuous or discrete.
[Link] or Continuous signals
2. Discrete signals
1. One-channel signals
Signals that are generated by a single source or sensor are called one-channel signals.
The record of room temperature with respect to time, the audio output of a mono speaker, etc.,
are examples of one-channel signals.
Chapter 1 - Introduction to Signals and Systems 1. 2 2. Multichannel signals
Signals that are generated by multiple sources or sensors are called multichannel signals.
The audio output of two stereo speakers is an example of two-channel [Link] record of ECG
(Electro Cardio Graph) at eight different places in a human body is an example of eight-channel
signal.
3. One-dimensional signals
A signal which is a function of single independent variable is called one-dimensional signal. The
signals represented by equation (1.1) and (1.2) are examples of one-dimensional signals.
The music, speech, heart beat, etc., are examples of one-dimensional signals where the single
independent variable is time.
4. Multidimensional signals
A signal which is a function of two or more independent variables is called multidimensional
signal. The equation (1.3) represents a two dimensional signal.
A photograph is an example of a two-dimensional signal. The intensity or brightness at each
point of a photograph is a function of two spatial coordinates “x” and “y”, (and so the spatial
coordinates are independent variables). Hence, the intensity or brightness of a photograph can
be denoted by b(x, y).
The motion picture of a black and white TV is an example of a three-dimensional signal. The
intensity or brightness at each point of a black and white motion picture is a function of two
spatial coordinates “x” and “y”, and time “t”. Hence, the intensity or brightness of a black and
white motion picture can be denoted by b(x, y, t).
5. Analog or Continuous signals
When a signal is defined continuously for any value of independent variable, it is called analog
or continuous signal. Most of the signals encountered in science and engineering are analog in
nature. When the dependent variable of an analog signal is time, it is called continuous time
signal.
6. Discrete signals
When a signal is defined for discrete intervals of independent variable, it is called discrete signal
. When the dependent variable of a discrete signal is time, it is called discrete time signal. Most
of the discrete signals are either sampled version of analog signals for processing by digital
systems or output of digital systems.
1.1.1 Continuous Time Signal
In a signal with time as independent variable, if the signal is defined continuously for any value
of the independent variable time “t”, then the signal is called continuous time signal. The
continuous time signal is denoted as “x(t)”.
The continuous time signal is defined for every instant of the independent variable time and so
the magnitude (or the value) of continuous time signal is continuous in the specified range of
time. Here both the magnitude of the signal and the independent variable are continuous.

1.1.2 Discrete Time Signal

In a signal with time as independent variable, if the signal is defined only for discrete instants of
the independent variable time, then the signal is called discrete time signal.
1. 3 Signals & Systems

In discrete time signal the independent variable time “t” is uniformely divided into discrete
intervals of time and each interval of time is denoted by an integer “n”, where “n” stands for
discrete interval of time and “n” can take any integer value in the range -¥ to +¥. Therefore, for a
discrete time signal the independent variable is “n” and the magnitude of the discrete time signal
is defined only for integer values of independent variable “n”. The discrete time signal is denoted
by “x(n)”.

1.1.3 Digital Signal

The quantized and coded version of the discrete time signals are called digital signals. In digital
signals the value of the signal for every discrete time “n” is represented in binary codes. The
process of conversion of a discrete time signal to digital signal involves quantization and coding.
Normally, for binary representation, a standard size of binary is chosen. In m-bit binary
representation we can have 2m binary codes. The possible range of values of the discrete time
signals are usually divided into 2m steps called quantization levels, and a binary code is attached
to each quantization level. The values of the discrete time signals are approximated by rounding
or truncation in order to match the nearest quantization level.

1.2 System
Any process that exhibits cause and effect relation can be called a system. A system will have
an input signal and an output signal. The output signal will be a processed version of the input
signal. A system is either interconnection of hardware devices or software / algorithm.
A system is denoted by letter H. The diagrammatic representation of a system is shown in fig

1.1. System

® ® Input signal
Output signal
or Excitation
H
or Response

Fig 1.1 : Representation of a system.

The operation performed by a system on input signal to produce output signal can be expressed
as, Output = H{Input}
where H denotes the system operation (also called system operator).
The systems can be classified in many ways.
Depending on type of energy used to operate the systems, the systems can be classified into
Electrical systems, Mechanical systems, Thermal systems, Hydraulic systems, etc.
Depending on the type of input and output signals, the systems can be classified into
Continuous time systems and Discrete time systems.
1.2.1 Continuous Time System
A system which can process continuous time signal is called continuous time system, and so the
input and output signals of a continuous time system are continuous time signals.
A continuous time system is denoted by letter H. The input of continuous time system is
denoted as x(t) and the output of continuous time system is denoted as y(t). The diagrammatic
representation of a continuous time system is shown in fig 1.2
Chapter 1 - Introduction to Signals and Systems 1. 4

Continuous
time system
x(t) y(t)
®®
Input signal or Excitation
H
Output signal or Response

Fig 1.2 : Representation of continuous time system.

The operation performed by a continuous time system on input to produce output or response
can be expressed as,
Response, y(t) = H{x(t)}
where, H denotes the system operation (also called system operator).
When a continuous time system satisfies the properties of linearity and time invariance then it is
called LTI (Linear Time Invariant) continuous time system . Most of the practical systems that we
encounter in science and engineering are LTI systems.
The input-output relation of an LTI continuous time system is represented by constant coefficient
differential equation shown below(equation (1.4)).
N
N
1
N
2
M
d d d d d
a dt dt dt dt dtx t 1 2 N 0 ( )
y(t) + a y(t) + a y(t) +.......+ a y(t) + a y(t) = b 0
21
N
N

NN
1
M
M
1
M
2
d d d
b dtx t b dtx t dtx t b x t
.....(1.4)
()()()()
+ +.......+b
1
M

12
MMM21

where, N = Order of the system, M £ N, and a0 = 1.

The solution of the above differential equation is the response y(t) of the continuous time
system, for the input x(t).
1.2.2 Discrete Time System
A system which can process discrete time signal is called discrete time system, and so the input
and output signals of a discrete time system are discrete time signals.
A discrete time system is denoted by the letter H. The input of discrete time system is denoted
as “x(n)” and the output of discrete time system is denoted as “y(n)”. The diagrammatic
representation of a discrete time system is shown in fig 1.3.

Discrete
time system
x(n) y(n)
®®
Input signal or Excitation
H
Output signal or Response
Fig 1.3 : Representation of discrete time system.

The operation performed by a discrete time system on input to produce output or response can
be expressed as,
Response, y(n) = H{x(n)}
where, H denotes the system operation (also called system operator).
1. 5 Signals & Systems

When a discrete time system satisfies the properties of linearity and time invariance then it is
called LTI (Linear Time Invariant) discrete time system .
The input-output relation of an LTI discrete time system is represented by constant coefficient
difference equation shown below(equation (1.5)).

bgbgbg NM
.....(1.5) y n = a y n m + b x n m m
m1
m0
m

where, N = Order of the system, and M £ N.

The solution of the above difference equation is the response y(n) of the discrete time system,
for the input x(n).

1.3 Frequency Domain Analysis of Continuous Time Signals and Systems

Physically, we realize any signal or system in time domain. In time domain, the continuous time
systems are governed by differential equations. The analysis of continuous time signals and
systems in time domain involves solution of differential equations. The solution of differential
equations are difficult due to assumption of a solution and then solving the constants using initial
conditions.
In order to simplify the task of analysis, the signals can be transformed to some other domain,
where the analysis is easier. One such transform exists for continuous time signals is Laplace
transform. The Laplace transform, will transform a function of time “t” into a function of complex
frequency “s” where s = s + jW. Therefore, Laplace transform of a continuous time signal will
transform the time domain signal into s-domain signal.
On taking Laplace transform of the differential equation governing the system, it becomes
algebraic equation in “s” and the solution of algebraic equation will give the response of the
system as a function of “s” and it is called s-domain response. The inverse Laplace transform of
the s-domain response, will give the time domain response of the continuous time system. Also,
the stability analysis of the continuous time systems are much easier in s-domain.
Another important characteristics of any signal is frequency, and for most of the applications the
frequency content of the signal is an important criteria. The frequency contents of a signal can
be
Table 1.1 : Frequency Range of Some Electromagnetic Signals

Type of signal Wavelength (m) Frequency range (Hz) Radio broadcast 104 to 102 3 ´ 104 to 3 ´ 106
Shortwave radio signals 102 to 10–2 3 ´ 106 to 3 ´ 1010 Radar / Space communications 1 to 10–2 3 ´
108 to 3 ´ 1010 Common-carrier microwave 1 to 10–2 3 ´ 108 to 3 ´ 1010 Infrared 10–3 to 10–6 3 ´ 1011
to 3 ´ 1014 Visible light 3.9´10–7 to 8.1´10–7 3.7 ´ 1014 to 7.7 ´ 1014 Ultraviolet 10–7 to 10–8 3 ´ 1015 to 3
´ 1016 Gamma rays and x-rays 10–9 to 10–10 3 ´ 1017 to 3 ´ 1018
Chapter 1 - Introduction to Signals and Systems 1. 6 Table 1.2 : Frequency Range of Some
Biological and Seismic Signals

Type of Signal Frequency Range (Hz)

Electroretinogram 0 to 20
Electronystagmogram 0 to 20
Pneumogram 0 to 40
Electrocardiogram (ECG) 0 to 100
Electroencephalogram (EEG) 0 to 100
Electromyogram 10 to 200
Sphygmomanogram 0 to 200
Speech 100 to 4000
Wind noise 100 to 1000
Seismic exploration signals 10 to 100
Earthquake and nuclear explosion signals 0.01 to 10
Seismic noise 0.1 to 1

studied by taking Fourier transform of a signal. The Fourier transform of a signal is a particular
class of Laplace transform in which s = jW, where “W” is real frequency.
The Fourier transform, will transform a function of time “t” into a function of real frequency “W”.
Therefore, Fourier transform of a continuous time signal will transform the time domain signal
into frequency domain signal. From the Fourier transform of a continuous time signal, the
frequency spectrum of the signal can be obtained which is used to study the frequency content
of a signal. The frequency range of some of the signals are listed in table 1.1 and 1.2.

1.4 Frequency Domain Analysis of Discrete Time Signals and Systems

Mostly, the discrete time systems are designed for analysis of discrete time signals. Physically,
the discrete time systems are also realized in time domain. In time domain, the discrete time
systems are governed by difference equations. The analysis of discrete time signals and
systems in time domain involves solution of difference equations. The solution of difference
equations are difficult due to assumption of a solution and then solving the constants using initial
conditions.
In order to simplify the task of analysis, the discrete time signals can be transformed to some
other domain, where the analysis may be easier. One such transform exists for discrete time
signals is [Link] Z-transform, will transform a function of discrete time “n” into a
function of complex variable “z” and it is expressed as, z = rejw. Therefore, Z-transform of a
discrete time signal will transform the time domain signal into z-domain signal.
On taking Z -transform of the difference equation governing the discrete time system, it becomes
algebraic equation in “z” and the solution of algebraic equation will give the response of the
system as a function of “z” and it is called z-domain response. The inverse Z -transform of the
z-domain response, will give the time domain response of the discrete time system. Also, the
stability analysis of the discrete systems are much easier in z-domain.
1. 7 Signals & Systems
The frequency contents of a discrete time signal can be studied by taking Fourier transform of
the discrete time signal. The Fourier transform of discrete time signal is a particular class of
Z-transform in which z = ejw, where “w” is the frequency of the discrete time signals.
The Fourier transform, will transform a function of discrete time “n” into a function of frequency
“w”. Therefore, Fourier transform of a discrete time signal will transform the discrete time signal
into frequency domain signal. From the Fourier transform of the discrete time signal, the
frequency spectrum of the discrete time signal can be obtained which is used to study the
frequency content of the discrete time signal.

1.5 Importance of Signals and Systems

Every part of the universe is a system which generates or processes some type of signal [Of
course the universe itself is a system and said to be controlled by signals (or commands) issued
by God].
The signals and systems play a vital role in almost every field of Science and Engineering.
Some of the applications of signals and systems in various field of Science and Engineering are
listed here.

1. Biomedical
v ECG is used to predict heart diseases.
v EEG is used to study normal and abnormal behaviour of the brain.
v EMG is used to study the condition of muscles.
v X-ray images are used to predict the bone fractures and tuberclosis.
v Ultrasonic scan images of kidney and gall bladder is used to predict stones. v. Ultrasonic scan
images of foetus is used to predict abnormalities in a baby. v MRI scan is used to study minute
inner details of any part of the human body.

2. Speech Processing
v Speech compression and decompression to reduce memory requirement of storage systems.
v Speech compression and decompression for effective use of transmission channels. v Speech
recognization for voice operated systems and voice based security systems. v Speech
recognization for conversion of voice to text.
v Speech synthesis for various voice based warnings or annoucements.

3. Audio and Video Equipments

v The analysis of audio signals will be useful to design systems for special effects in audio
systems like stereo, woofer, karoke, equalizer, attenuator, etc.
v Music synthesis and composing using music keyboards.
v Audio and video compression for storage in DVDs.
4. Communication
v The spectrum analysis of modulated signals helps to identify the information bearing frequency
component that can be used for transmission.
Chapter 1 - Introduction to Signals and Systems 1. 8

v The analysis of signals received from radars are used to detect flying objects and thier
velocity. v Generation and detection of DTMF signals in telephones.
v Echo and noise cancellation in transmission channels.

5. Power electronics
v The spectrum analysis of the output of coverters and inverters will reveal the harmonics
present in the output, which in turn helps to design suitable filter to eliminate the harmonics. v
The analysis of switching currents and voltages in power devices will help to reduce losses.

6. Image processing
v Image compression and decompression to reduce memory requirement of storage systems. v
Image compression and decompression for effective use of transmission channels. v Image
recognization for security systems.
v Filtering operations on images to extract the features or hidden information.

7. Geology
v The seismic signals are used to determine the magnitude of earthquake and valconic
eruptions. v The seismic signals are also used to predict nuclear explosions.
v The seismic noise are also used to predict the movement of earth layers (tectonic plates).

8. Astronomy
v The analysis of light received from a star is used to determine the condition of the star. v The
analysis of images of various celestial bodies gives vital information about them.

1.6 Use of MATLAB in Signals and Systems

The MATLAB (MATrix LABoratory) is a software developed by The MathWork Inc, USA, which
can run on any windows platform in a PC(Personal Computer). This software has number of
tools for the study of various engineering subjects. It includes a tool for signal processing also.
Using this tool a wide variety of studies can be made on signals and systems. Some of the
analysis that is relevant to this particular text book are given below.
v Sketch or plot of signals as a function of independent variable.
v Spectrum analysis of signals.
v Solution of LTI systems.
v Perform convolution and deconvolution operations on signals.
v Perform various transforms on signals like Laplace transform, Fourier transform, Z-transform,
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), etc.
v Determination of state model from transfer function and viceversa.
v Stability analysis of signals and systems in various domains.

2. 1 Signals & Systems CHAPTER 2

Continuous Time Signals and Systems

2.1 Introduction
Time is an important independent variable required to measure/monitor any activity. Hence,
whatever phenomena we observe in nature are always measured as a function of time.
Time is a continuous independent variable represented by the letter ‘t’. Any physical observation
or a measure is a continuous function of time represented by x(t) and called signal. The signal
x(t) is called the continuous time (CT) signal which is a function of the independent variable,
time. In x(t),the unit of time and the unit of the value of x(t) at any time is not considered but only
the numerical values are considered.
The signal x(t) can be used to represent any physical quantity, and the start of any observation
or a measure of the physical quantity is taken as time t = 0. The time after the start of
observation is taken as positive time and the time before the start of observation is taken as
negative time.
The physical devices which are all sources of continuous time signals are called continuous time
systems. The standard continuous time signals, mathematical operation on continuous time
signals and classification of continuous time signals are discussed in this chapter. The
mathematical representation of continuous time systems and their analyses are also presented
in this chapter. Wherever required, the discussion on LTI systems are presented separately.
2.2 Standard Continuous Time Signals
d(t)
1. Impulse signal
¥
The impulse signal is a signal with infinite magnitude and zero duration, but with an area of A.
Mathematically, impulse signal is defined as,

z
+¥
;t

Impulse Signal = = an dt = A
,()()ddtdt¥
0

=
¹ -¥
00
;t
t0

The unit impulse signal is a signal with infinite magnitude and zero duration,

but with unit area. Mathematically, unit impulse signal is defined as, +¥
z ;

Unit Impul t t se Signal = t = 0 and dt = 1 , ( ) ( ) d d ¥

Fig 2.1 : Impulse signal (or Unit Impulse signal).

= 2. Step signal

The step signal is defined as, x(t) = A ; t ³ 0

=0;t<0
¹ -¥
00;t

x(t)

A
u(t) 1

The unit step signal is defined as, x(t) = u(t) = 1 ; t ³ 0

=0;t<0
t 0Fig 2.2 : Step signal.

t0
Fig 2.3 : Unit step signal.
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 2 3. Ramp signal

The ramp signal is defined as,

x(t) = At ; t ³ 0
=0;t<0
The unit ramp signal is defined as, x(t) = t ; t ³ 0
=0;t<0

4. Parabolic signal

The parabolic signal is defined as, 2

At
x t ( ) ; = for t

2³0
 =0;t<0
x(t)
2A
A

1
t 02
Fig 2.4 : Ramp signal.

x(t)

4.5A

2A

0.5A
x(t)
2
1

1
t 02
Fig 2.5 : Unit ramp signal.

x(t)

4.5

0.5

The unit parabolic signal is defined as,

012
3
t
012
3
t
2
t
x t ( ) ; = for t

2³0
=0;t<0

5. Unit pulse signal

The unit pulse signal is defined as,

Fig 2.6 : Parabolic signal.
Fig 2.7 :Unit parabolic signal.
P(t)

F I F I 11
xtttt()()==uuP+ HG K - - HG KJ 2 2
J
6. Sinusoidal signal

Case i : Cosinusoidal signal

The cosinusoidal signal is defined as,
x(t) = A cos(W0t + f)
–0.5
t
0.5

Fig 2.8 : Unit pulse signal.

2p
where, W0 = 2pF0 = T = Angular frequency in rad/sec F0 = Frequency in cycles/sec or Hz
T = Time period in sec
When f = 0, x(t) = A cosW0t
When f = Positive, x(t) = A cos(W0t + f)
When f = Negative, x(t) = A cos(W0t – f)
2. 3 Signals & Systems Case ii : Sinusoidal signal

The sinusoidal signal is defined as,

x(t) = A sin(W0t + f)
2p
where, W0 = 2pF0 = T = Angular frequency in rad/sec
F0 = Frequency in cycles/sec or Hz
T = Time period in sec
When f = 0, x(t) = A sinW0 t
When f = Positive, x(t) = A sin(W0t + f)
When f = Negative, x(t) = A sin(W0t – f)

x(t)
Af = 0

0
t
–A
x(t)
Af = 0

0
t
–A

x(t)

W
-f 0 ­
x(t)

f
W
0
f = Positive t

f = Negative t

W
-f 0

f
x(t)

­
x(t)

­
f = Positive t

f = Negative t

Fig 2.9 : Cosinusoidal signal.

7. Exponential signal
Case i : Real exponential signal

The real exponential signal is defined as, x(t) = A ebt

where, A and b are real
W
0
Fig 2.10 : Sinusoidal signal.

Here, when b is positive, the signal x(t) will be an exponentially rising signal; and when b is
negative the signal x(t) will be an exponentially decaying signal.
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 4

x(t)
b = Positive

t0
x(t)
b = Negative

0
t

Fig 2.11 : Real exponential signal.

Case ii : Complex exponential signal

The complex exponential signal is defined as,

x t A e j t ( ) = W0
2p
where, W0 = 2pF0 = T = Angular frequency in rad/sec F0 = Frequency in cycles/sec or Hz
T = Time period in sec
The complex exponential signal can be represented in a
complex plane by a rotating vector, which rotates with a constant angular velocity of W0 rad/sec.
The complex exponential signal can be resolved into real and imaginary parts as shown below,
x t A e j t ( ) = W0 = A ( cosW0 t + j t sinW0 )
Im
Complex plane
A

W0t
Real

= A t jA t cos sin W W 0 0 + \ A t cosW0 = Real part of x(t)

A t sinW0 = Imaginary part of x(t)
Fig 2.12 : Complex exponential signal.

From the above equation, we can say that a complex exponential signal is the vector sum of two
sinusoidal signals of the form cosW0 t and sinW0t .
8. Exponentially rising/decaying sinusoidal signal

The exponential rising/decaying sinusoidal signal is defined as,

x(t) = A ebt sinW0t
2p
where, W0 = 2pF0 = T = Angular frequency in rad/sec
F0 = Frequency in cycles/sec or Hz
T = Time period in sec
Here, A and b are real constants. When b is positive, the signal x(t) will be an exponentially
rising sinusoidal signal; and when b is negative, the signal x(t) will be an exponentially decaying
sinusoidal signal.
2. 5 Signals & Systems x(t)

x(t) = A ebt sin W0t, where, b = Positive

x(t)

0
t
A0

x(t) = A ebt sin W0t,

where, b = Negative t

Fig 2.13 : Exponentially rising sinusoid. Fig 2.14 : Exponentially decaying sinusoid.

9. Triangular pulse signal

 t
The Triangular pulse signal is defined as x t( ) = (t) = 1 a ; t a

D-£a
=0;ta
>

10. Signum signal

x(t)
1

a
–a 0 t
Fig 2.15 : Triangular pulse signal. x(t)

1
The Signum signal is defined as the sign of the independent variable t. Therefore, the Signum
signal is expressed as,
0

x(t) = sgn(t) = 1 ; t > 0

t
–1

=0;t=0
= -1 ; t < 0

11. Sinc signal

The Sinc signal is defined as,

sin t
x t( ) = sinc(t) = t;<t<-¥¥

12. Gaussian signal

The Gaussian signal is defined as,

x(t) = g (t) = e ; < t < aa t 2 2 - - ¥ ¥
Fig 2.16 : Signum signal.

x(t)
1
t

Fig 2.17 : Sinc signal.

ga(t)
1

t
Fig 2.18 : Gaussian signal.
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 6 2.3 Classification of Continuous Time
Signals

The continuous time signals are classified depending on their characteristics. Some ways of
classifying continuous time signals are,
1. Deterministic and Nondeterministic signals
2. Periodic and Nonperiodic signals
3. Symmetric and Antisymmetric signals (Even and Odd signals)
4. Energy and Power signals
5. Causal and Noncausal signals

2.3.1 Deterministic and Nondeterministic Signals

The signal that can be completely specified by a mathematical equation is called a deterministic
signal. The step, ramp, exponential and sinusoidal signals are examples of deterministic signals.
Examples of deterministic signals: x1(t) = At
x2(t) = Xm sinW0t
The signal whose characteristics are random in nature is called a nondeterministic signal. The
noise signals from various sources like electronic amplifiers, oscillators, radio receivers, etc., are
best examples of nondeterministic signals.

2.3.2 Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals

A periodic signal will have a definite pattern that repeats again and again over a certain period of
time. Therefore the signal which satisfies the condition,
x(t + T ) = x(t) is called a periodic signal.
A signal which does not satisfy the condition, x(t + T) = x(t) is called an aperiodic or nonperiodic
signal. In periodic signals, the term T is called the fundamental time period of the signal. Hence,
inverse of T is called the fundamental frequency, F0 in cycles/sec or Hz, and 2pF0 = W0 is called
the fundamental angular frequency in rad/sec.
The sinusoidal signals and complex exponential signals are always periodic with a periodicity of
T,
p
1
where, T = F = 2
W0. The proof of this concept is given below. 0
Proof :

a) Cosinusoidal signal
Let, x(t) = A t cosW0

\ x(t + T) = A t T A t T cos cos W W W 0 0 0 b g b g +=+F p

I
HG KJ
2
= A cos t + T
WT0

= + = = A t A t x t cos cos bgbg W W 0 0 2p

2
W0 = 2 F = T p 0p cos( + 2 ) = cos q p q
2. 7 Signals & Systems
b) Sinusoidal signal
Let, x(t) = A t sinW0

\ x(t + T) = A t T A t T sin sin W W W 0 0 0 b g b g +=+

F I 2
= A sin W0t + HG KJ T T p
= + = = A t A t x t sin sin b g b g W W 0 0 2p

c) Complex exponential signal

2
W0 = 2 F = T p 0psin( + 2 ) = sin q p q

Let
j
,
x(t) = Ae
W
0
t

p
jT 2
tTtTt t T j j2

WWWWW
+
p
jjjj
()
00000
\ + = = = = x Ae e e e ( )

t T A e A e A e WW
jj
tt
00
+=+
221pp
= = x(t) A e j A e j 0)

(cos sin ) (
cos 2 = 1, sin 2 = 0 p p

When a continuous time signal is a mixture of two periodic signals with fundamental time
periods T1 and T2 , then the continuous time signal will be periodic, if the ratio of T1 and T2 (i.e.,
T1/T2) is a rational number. Now the periodicity of the continuous time signal will be the LCM
(Least Common Multiple) of T1 and T2 .
Note : 1. The ratio of two integers is called a rational number.
5 7 8
Example of rational number : 2, 9 , 11 .
2 7
Example of non-rational number : 5, 2,4
p7.
2. When T1 /T2 is a rational number, then F01 /F02 and W01 /W02 are also rational numbers.
Example 2.1
Verify whether the following continuous time signals are periodic. If periodic, find the fundamental period.

Fp
F I p
HG KJ
2
2-

g b g x t 2 cos t4 = b x t e ; > 1 g b g =
a t aa
c x(t) ej2 t

I
HG KJ e t g
x(t) = cos
4

Solution
t
a) Given that, x(t) 2 cos 4 =
7
g= -p
d x(t) = g 3cos 5t +6

The given signal is a cosinusoidal signal, which is always periodic. On comparing x(t) with the standard form “A cos
00 1 1
2pF0t” we get, 2p pFF=Þ= 4 8
1
Period, T = F = 8 0
p

\ x(t) is periodic with period, T = 8p.

b) Given that, x(t) = eat ; a > 1

\ x(t + T) = ea(t + T)
= eat eaT
For any value of a, eaT ¹ 1 and so x(t + T) ¹ x(t) Since x(t + T) ¹ x(t), the signal x(t) is non-periodic.
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 8 - p
j2 t
7
c) Given that, x(t) = e

The given signal is a complex exponential signal, which is always periodic.

On comparing x(t) with the standard form "Ae-j2 Fp 0t"
1 0
We get, F = 7
\ Peroid, 1
T= F=7
0
\ x(t) is periodic with period, T = 7.

Fp
I
HG KJ
d) Given that, x(t) = 3 cos 5t +
6
The given signal is a cosinusoidal signal, which is always periodic.

F I F I F I F I x(t + T) = 3 cos 5(t + T) = 3 cos 5t + 5T

\ + HG KJ J J
HG K + HG K + HG KJ
+
6 = 3 cos p p p
t T5
5
6 6
2
Let 5T = 2p, \ T = 5p

F I F I F I F I
\ HG KJ + ´ HG KJ HG KJ + HG KJ
ppp
p
2
5 52

x(t + T) = 3 cos 5t + = 3 cos 5t +

6 6

F I
HG KJ
p
= 3 cos 5t +
6 = x(t)

T=2 F I p
HG KJ
2
Since x(t + T) = x(t), the signal x(t) is periodic with period, 5p -
e) Given that, x(t) = cos 2t
3

F I -F I F I
+
2
- HG KJ HG KJ - HG KJ p 31 4 3
pp2 2

1 + cos 2
tt
cos
xt
For integer values of M, cos(q + 2pM) = cosq
()
= cos 2t
3=
2=
2
q
cos2 q = 1+ cos2
2

F I F I
- HG KJ - HG KJ
2
pp
\

x(t + T) =
1 + cos 4(t + T)
3
1 + cos 4t + 4T
2
3

2=
2

F I
- HG KJ
p
T
=
2
1 + cos 4t 3 +
4

ppp
2 =
Let 4T = 2 , T = 4 2
\

F I F I F I
-´ HG KJ - HG KJ + HG KJ 2
p
pp p
x(t + T) =
2 +4 2
1 + cos 4t 3 = 1 + cos 4t 3 2

\
2
2
 F I F I F I
- HG KJ - HG KJ = - HG KJ p p
2
1 + cos 4t 3
1 + cos 2 2t
3
p
2t
=

2=
cos 2
2 3 = x(t)

T=
Since x(t + T) = x(t), the signal x(t) is periodic with period, 2p
For integer values of M, cos (q + 2pM) = cos q
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 10
Since x1(t) and x2(t) are periodic and the ratio of T1 and T2 is a rational number, the signal x(t) is also periodic. Let T be
the periodicity of x(t). Now the periodicity of x(t) is the LCM (Least Common Multiple) of T1 and T2 , which is calculated
as shown below.
2
pp2
´
21

27
Note : To find LCM, first convert T1 and T2 to integers
T===
1
3
3
by multiplying by a common number. Find LCM
p
2
pp2
´
21

23
of integer values of T1 and T2 . Then divide this
T===
LCM by the common number.
2
7
7
p
Now LCM of . 7 3 21

and is

21 21
p
p
2
221 212
\¸´
,
Period T = = =
p
Proof : x(t + T) = 2 cos 3(t + T) + 3 sin 7(t + T)
= 2 cos(3t + 3T) + 3 sin(7t + 7T)
= 2 cos(3t + 3 ´ 2p) + 3 sin (7t + 7 ´ 2p)
= 2 cos(3t + 6p) + 3 sin(7t + 14p)
= 2 cos 3t + 3 sin 7t = x(t)

(c) Given that, x(t) = 5 cos 4pt + 3 sin 8pt

Let, x1(t) = 5 cos 4pt

Put, T = 2p
For integer values of M, cos(q + 2pM) = cosq sin(q + 2pM) = sinq

11
Let T1 be the periodicity of x1(t). On comparing x1(t) with the standard form “A cos 2pF01t”, we get, = \ ; , 1 2

F 2 Period T = 01
F= 01

Let, x2(t) = 3 sin 8pt

11
Let T2 be the periodicity of x2(t). On comparing x2(t) with the standard form “A sin 2pF02t”, we get, = \ = = ; , 2 4
F 4 Period T 02
F 02
1 4
´=´ 2 1
T 1 1 1
Now, T = T T = 2 2 2
Since x1(t) and x2(t) are periodic and the ratio of T1 and T2 is a rational number, the signal x(t) is also periodic. Let T be
the periodicity of x(t). Now, the periodicity of x(t) is the LCM (Least Common Multiple) of T1 and T2, which is calculated
as shown below.
1
1
Note : To find LCM, first convert T1 and T2 to integers
T = = = 24 2

1
21
´

1
by multiplying by a common number. Find LCM of integer values of T1 and T2 . Then divide this
T = = = 44 1

2
4
and is
´
LCM by the common number.
Now LCM of .
212
1 1
242 4 2
Period T = = =
\¸´
,
Proof : x(t + T) = 5 cos 4p(t + T) + 3 sin 8p(t + T)
= 5 cos(4pt + 4pT) + 3 sin(8pt + 8pT)

F I F I 11
= 5 cos 4 t + 4 + 3 sin 8 t + 8 p p p p ´ HG KJ ´ HG KJ 2 2
= 5 cos (4pt + 2p) + 3 sin (8pt + 2p)
= 5 cos 4pt + 3 sin 8pt = x(t)
1
Put, T = 2
For integer values of M, cos(q+ 2pM) = cosq sin(q + 2pM) = sinq
2. 11 Signals & Systems 2.3.3 Symmetric (Even) and Antisymmetric (Odd) Signals

The signals may exhibit symmetry or antisymmetry with respect to t = 0.

When a signal exhibits symmetry with respect to t = 0 then it is called an even signal. Therefore,
the even signal satisfies the condition, x(-t) = x(t).
When a signal exhibits antisymmetry with respect to t = 0, then it is called an odd signal.
Therefore, the odd signal satisfies the condition, x(-t) = -x(t).
Since cos(-q) = cosq, the cosinusoidal signals are even signals and since sin(-q) = -sinq, the
sinusoidal signals are odd signals.
x(t)
x(t)
x(t) = A t sinW0
A

–A
x(t) = A t cosW0

0
t
A

0
t
–A

Fig 2.19a : Symmetric or Even signal.

Fig 2.19b : Antisymmetric or Odd signal.
Fig 2.19 : Symmetric and antisymmetric continuous time signals.

A continuous time signal x(t) which is neither even nor odd can be expressed as a sum of even
and odd signal.
Let, (t) x (t) e o x(t) = x +
where, x (t) = Even part (t) = Odd part e o of x(t) and x of x(t)
Now, it can be proved that,
1
x (t) 2 x(t) x( t)
e
=
+-
 1
x (t) 2 x(t) t) = x(
--
o

Proof :
Let, x(t) = xe(t) + xo(t) .....(2.1) On replacing t by –t in equation (2.1) we get,
x(–t) = xe(–t) + xo(–t) .....(2.2) Since xe(t) is even, xe(–t) = xe(t)
Since xo(t) is odd, xo(–t) = – xo(t)
Hence the equation (2.2) can be written as,
x(–t) = xe(t) – xo(t) .....(2.3) On adding equations (2.1) & (2.3) we get,
x(t) + x(–t) = 2 xe(t)
1
\ - x (t) 2 x(t) t) e = + x(
On subtracting equation (2.3) from equation (2.1) we get,
x(t) – x(–t) = 2 xo(t)
1
\ - - x = x( o(t) 2 x(t) t)
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 12 The properties of signals with symmetry
are given below without proof.

1. When a signal is even, then its odd part will be zero.

2. When a signal is odd, then its even part will be zero.
3. The product of two odd signals will be an even signal.
4. The product of two even signals will be an even signal.
5. The product of an even and odd signal will be an odd signal.

Example 2.3
Determine the even and odd part of the following continuous time signals.
a) x(t) = et b) x(t) = 3 + 2t + 5t2 c) x(t) = sin 2t + cos t + sin t cos 2t

Solution
a) Given that, x(t) = et
\ x(–t) = e–t
1 1
Even part, x = 2 + x( t) = 2 + e -

-
tt
()[()][]txte
e

1 1
Odd part, x = 2 x( t) = 2 e -
tt
---
()[()][]txte
o

b) Given that, x(t) = 3 + 2t + 5t2

\ x(–t) = 3 + 2(–t) + 5(–t)2
= 3 – 2t + 5t2

1 1
Even part, x = 2 + x( t) = 23 + 2t + 5t + 3 2t + 5t
22
()[()][]
txt--e

1
= 2 + 10t = 3 + 5t
22
[]
6

1 1 22
Odd part, x = 2 x( t) = 23 + 2t + 5t 3 + 2t 5t ( ) [ ( ) ] [ ]

txt----o

1
= 24t = 2t
[]

c) Given that, x(t) = sin 2t + cos t + sin t cos 2t

\ x(–t) = sin 2(–t) + cos(–t) + sin(–t) cos 2(–t)
= –sin 2t + cos t – sin t cos 2t

1 1
Even part, x = 2 + x( t) = 2sin 2t + cos t + sin t cos 2t sin 2t + cos t sin t cos 2t
e( ) [ ( ) ] [ ] t x t - - -

1
= 2 cos t = cos t
[]
2

1 1
Odd part, x = 2 x( t) = 2sin 2t + cos t + sin t cos 2t + sin 2t cos t + sin t cos 2t
o( ) [ ( ) ] [ ] t x t - - -

1
= 2 sin 2t + 2 sin t cos 2t = sin 2t + sin t cos 2t
[]
2
2. 13 Signals & Systems 2.3.4 Energy and Power Signals

The signals which have finite energy are called energy signals. The nonperiodic signals like
exponential signals will have constant energy and so nonperiodic signals are energy signals.
The signals which have finite average power are called power signals. The periodic signals like
sinusoidal and complex exponential signals will have constant power and so periodic signals are
power signals.
The energy E of a continuous time signal x(t) is defined as,

®¥

T
- z Lt x(t)

Energy E, =
dt in joules 2 TT
The average power of a continuous time signal x(t) is defined as,
®¥
- z 2
in watts
1 T
Power, P = 2T Lt x(t) dt TT
For periodic signals, the average power over one period will be same as average power over an
infinite interval.

T0
z For periodic signals, power, P = 1
T dt x(t)

For energy signals, the energy will be finite (or constant) and average power will be zero. For
power signals the average power is finite (or constant) and energy will be infinite. i.e., For
energy signal, E is constant (i.e., 0 < E < ¥) and P = 0.
For power signal, P is constant (i.e., 0 < P < ¥) and E = ¥ .

Proof :
The energy of a signal x(t) is defined as ,

®¥

T
- z 2
.....(2.4)

E
= Lt x(t) dt
T
T

The power of a signal is defined as ,

zz
T
22
.....(2.5)

T
1 1
= Lt 2T x(t) dt = Lt 2T Lt x(t) dt
P
®¥ ®¥®¥
- -
TTT
T
T

Using equation (2.4), the equation (2.5) can be written as,

1 ´
= Lt 2T E ® ¥ .....(2.6)
P
T

1
In equation (2.6), When E = constant, P T = E Lt 2T

´
®¥

=E1
´
´¥´
2=E0=0
From the above analysis, we can say that when a signal has finite energy the power will be zero. Also, from the above
analysis we can say that the power is finite only when energy is infinite.
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 14 Example 2.4
Determine the power and energy for the following continuous time signals.
a) x(t) = e–2t u(t)
Fp
I
HG KJ
b tj t
) ( ) x = e 2 +4

c) x(t) = 3 5 0 cos W t
Solution
a) Given that, x(t) = e–2t u(t)
Here, x(t) = e–2t u(t) ; for all t

\ x(t) = e–2t ; for t ³ 0

zzzz x(t) dt = e dt = e dt = e dt = e

L O
NM QP
TTT
TT

- - --
2
2t 2t 4t4t

22

ejdi
\
-4
-

0000
T

L M O P -L O
N M Q P NM QP
--
4T 4T

e
0
e 1
= = 4e
-
- -
444

z
L O
- NM QP
T
2
-
4T
1 e
Energy, E = Lt x(t) dt = Lt 4 4
T
®¥
-

T
-¥
T
®¥

1 e 1 0 1
= 4 4= 4 4= 4
--

z
joules

L O
-
T
NM QP
2
-
4T
1 1 1 e
Power P = Lt 2T x(t) dt = Lt 2T 4 4
,
T
®¥
-

T
T
®¥

L O L O
¥- NM QP ´ - NM QP
-¥

11 e 1
= 4 4=0 40=0

Since energy is constant and power is zero, the given signal is an energy signal.
j 2t+4
a fF p

b) Given that, x t = e
I
HG KJ
F I F I
HG KJÐ HG KJ
p
p
j t+
2
4
Here, x(t) = e = 1 2t +
4 =
\()
xt
1

zz -´
T
T
T
x(t) dt = dt = = T + T = 2T 2 1
--T

T
T

z
z ¥
´

T
2
Energy Lt Lt
,
E = x(t) dt = 2T =
T
T
®¥

-
T
T

®¥

2
1
1 1
P = 2T x(t) dt = 2T 2T = Power Lt Lt watt

,
T
T
®¥

-
T
®¥

Since power is constant and energy is infinite, the given signal is a power signal.
2. 15 Signals & Systems c) Given that, x(t) = 3cos5 t W0

zzzz
T

T
T
T

dibgbg
\
2
2
22
 x(t) dt = 3cos5 dt = 3cos5 dt = 3cos5 dt W W W

ttt0
00

zz
----
T
T
T
T
T

F I
T
HG KJ
1+ cos10
= 9 cos 5 dt = 9 dt W W

z
tt
00 2
q
cos2 q = 1+ cos2 2
--T

L O
= + NM QP
9
T
T

b g sin
WW
t tt
9
2 1+ cos10 dt = 2
10
00
10
W
0

--
T
T

L
 M O P
N M Q P =+--+F -

I
G KJ
sin sin ( )

9
T
T TT
10
W
0

H
10
W
0
2
10
W
0
10
W
0

L O L MM O PP
=+ NM QP = N M Q P
10 2
p
sin(- q ) = –sin q
T
T TT
sin sin
9

2 2 10
W
0
9

22T + 2
10 2
p
2
W0 =2 F = T p 0p
10
W
0
2
T

L O =´L O
= NM QP NM QP
=

2T + T
102T + T
9
220 20 9
T
sin
p
p p
10

z
z =¥
´

For integer M, sin pM = 0

T
2
Energy, E = Lt x(t) dt = Lt
9T
T
®¥
-
T
T
T

2
®¥

1 1 9 9
Power P = Lt 2T x(t) dt = Lt 2T9T = Lt 2 = 2 = 4.5 watts
,
T
®¥
-

T
®¥®¥TT

Since energy is infinite and power is constant, the given signal is a power signal.

2.3.5 Causal, Noncausal and Anticausal Signals

A signal is said to be causal, if it is defined for t ³ 0.
Therefore if x(t) is causal, then x(t) = 0, for t < 0.
A signal is said to be noncausal, if it is defined for either t £ 0, or for both t £ 0 and t > 0.
Therefore if x(t) is noncausal, then x(t) ¹ 0, for t < 0.
When a noncausal signal is defined only for t £ 0, it is called anticausal signal. Examples of
causal and noncausal signals

Step signal, x(t) = A ; t ³ 0 Unit step signal, x(t) = u(t) = 1 ; t ³ 0 Exponential signal, x(t) = A ebt u(t)

Complex exponential signal, x t A e j t ( ) = W0 u(t) Exponential signal, x(t) = A ebt ; for all t

Complex exponential signal, x t A e j t ( ) = W0 ; for all t

123 123
Causal signals
Noncausal signals

Note : On multiplying a noncausal signal by u(t), it becomes causal.

Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 16 2.4 Mathematical Operations on
Continuous Time Signals
2.4.1 Scaling of Continuous Time Signals

The two types of scaling continuous time signals are,

1. Amplitude Scaling
2. Time Scaling
1. Amplitude Scaling
The amplitude scaling is performed by multiplying the amplitude of the signal by a constant.
Let x(t) be a continuous time signal. Now Ax(t) is the amplitude scaled version of x(t), where A is
a constant.
When |A| > 1, then Ax(t) is the amplitude magnified version of x(t) and when |A| < 1, then Ax(t) is
the amplitude attenuated version of x(t).
Example : 1
Let, x(t) = at + be–ct
Let x1(t) and x2(t) be the amplitude scaled versions of x(t), scaled by constants 4 and

F I
HG KJ
respectively.
4 = 0.25
1
1
4
Now, x1(t) = 4x(t) = 4(at + be–ct) = 4at + 4be–ct
x2(t) = 0.25x(t) = 0.25(at + be–ct) = 0.25at + 0.25be–ct
Example : 2
A continuous time signal and its amplitude scaled version are shown in fig 2.20.

x(t)

2x(t)
x1(t) 4
3
2

1
x1(t) = 2x(t)

x1(t) = 2x(t) = 2 ; 0 < t < t1

= 4 ; t1< t < t2
= 2 ; t2 < t < t3

0
t1 t2 t3 t

X(t)= 1 ; 0 < t < t1

= 2 ; t1 < t < t2
= 1 ; t2 < t < t3
Attenuatio
Amplification n
0.5x(t
)
x2(t)2
0
t1 t2 t3 t

x2(t) = 0.5x(t)

1
0.5
x2(t) = 0.5x(t) = 0.5 ; 0 < t < t1 = 1 ; t1 < t < t2

0
t1 t2 t3 t
= 0.5 ; t2 < t <t3

Fig 2.20 : A continuous time signal and its amplitude scaled version.
2. 17 Signals & Systems 2. Time Scaling

The time scaling is performed by multiplying the variable time by a constant.

If x(t) is a continuous time signal, then x(At) is the time scaled version of x(t), where A is a
constant.
When |A| > 1, then x(At) is the time compressed version of x(t) and when |A| < 1, then x(At) is
the time expanded version of x(t).
Example : 1
Let, x(t) = at + be–ct

Let x1(t) and x2(t) be the time scaled versions of x(t), scaled by constants 4 and 1/4 (0.25)respectively. Now, x1(t) =
x(4t) = a ´ 4t + be–c ´ 4t = 4at + be–4ct
x2(t) = x(0.25t) = a ´ 0.25t + be–c ´ 0.25t = 0.25at + be–0.25ct

Example : 2
A continuous time signal and its time scaled version are shown in fig 2.21.

x1(t) 2
1
x1(t) = x(2t)

F I F I
HG KJ = HG KJ =
t t
When x x x t
t=t
1
; ( ) 11 11

Time compression x(2t)

0
t1 2
t2 2
t3 2
2
22 2
t

F I F I
HG KJ = HG KJ =
t t
When x x x t
x(t)

t=t
2
22
;()
2
22 2
1
2
2

F I F I
HG KJ = HG KJ =
t t t
When x x t t = x

3
1
33
3
1

0
t1 t2 t3 t

x(t) = 1 ; 0 < t < t1

= 2 ; t1 < t < t2
= 1 ; t2 < t < t3
Time expansio
n
x(0.5t
)
x2(t) = x(0.5t)
;()
2
22 2

x2(t)
2

0
2t t 1 2t2 2t3

When t = 2t1 ; x1(2t1) = x(0.5 ´ 2t1) = x(t1)

When t = 2t2; x1(2t2) = x(0.5 ´ 2t2) = x(t2)
When t = 2t3; x1(2t3) = x(0.5 ´ 2t3) = x(t3)

Fig 2.21 : A continuous time signal and its time scaled version.
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 18 2.4.2 Folding (Reflection or Transpose) of
Continuous Time Signals

The folding of a continuous time signal x(t) is performed by changing the sign of time base t in
the signal x(t).
The folding operation produces a signal x(–t) which is a mirror image of the original signal x(t)
with respect to the time origin t = 0.
Example : 1
Let, x(t) = at + be–ct

Let x1(t) be folded version of x(t).

Now, x1(t) = x(– t) = a (– t) + be–c(– t) = – at + bect

Example : 2

A continuous time signal and its folded version is shown in fig 2.22.
x(t) 2
1
x(–t)
Folding
x1(t) = x(–t)
x1(t)
21

00
t1 t2 t3
t –t3 –t2 –t1 t
x(t) = 1 ; 0 < t < t1 When t = –t1; x1(–t1) = x(–(–t1)) = x(t1)
= 2 ; t1 < t < t2 When t = –t2; x1(–t2) = x(–(–t2)) = x(t2)
= 1 ; t2 < t < t3 When t = –t3; x1(–t3) = x(–(–t3)) = x(t3)
Fig 2.22 : A continuous time signal and its folded version.
2.4.3 Time Shifting of Continuous Time Signals
The time shifting of a continuous time signal x(t) is performed by replacing the independent
variable t by t – m, to get the time shifted signal x(t – m), where m represents the time shift in
seconds.
In x(t – m), if m is positive, then the time shift results in a delay by m seconds. The delay results
in shifting the original signal x(t) to right, to generate the time shifted signal x(t – m).
In x(t – m), if m is negative, then the time shift results in an advance of the signal by |m|
seconds. The advance results in shifting the original signal x(t) to left, to generate the time
shifted signal x(t – m).
Example : 1
Let, x(t) = at + be–ct

Let x1(t) and x2(t) be time shifted version of x(t), shifted by m units of time.
Let x1(t) be delayed version of x(t) and x2(t) be advanced version of x(t).
Now, x1(t) = a(t – m) + be–c(t – m)
x2(t) = a(t + m) + be –c(t + m)
2. 19 Signals & Systems Example : 2
A signal and its shifted version are shown in fig 2.23.
When t = 2; x1(2) = x(2 – 2) = x(0) = 1
x1(t) 2
1
x1(t) = x(t – 2)
When t = 3; x1(3) = x(3 – 2) = x(1) = 1 When t = 4; x1(4) = x(4 – 2) = x(2) = 2 When t = 5; x1(5) = x(5 – 2) = x(3) = 1

x(t) 2
1

x(t – 2)

Delay

t 0123
0
123t 45

x(t) = 1 ; 0 < t < 1 = 2 ; 1 < t < 2

Advanc x(t + 2
e )
x2(t)
x2(t) = x(t + 2)

= 1 ; 2 < t < 3 When t = –2 ; x1(–2) = x(–2 + 2) = x(0) = 1

2
1

0
–2 –1 1t 2

When t = –1 ; x1(–1) = x(–1 + 2) = x(1) = 1 When t = 0 ; x1(0) = x(0 + 2) = x(2) = 2 When t = 1 ; x1(1) = x(1 + 2) = x(3) =
1

Fig 2.23 : A continuous time signal and its shifted version.

Delayed Unit Impulse Signal

The unit impulse signal is defined as,

+¥
z ;t
d d ( ) ( ) t and t dt = ¥ = =
01
= ¹ -¥
00
;t
d(t)
¥

t0
d(t-m)
¥

m
0 t
The unit impulse signal delayed by m units of time is denoted as d(t – m), and it is defined as,

+¥
z ;t
Fig 2.24a : Impulse. Fig 2.24b : Delayed impulse. Fig 2.24 : Impulse and delayed impulse signal.
d d ( ) ( ) t m m and t m dt - = ¥ = - =
1
= ¹ -¥
0

Delayed Unit Step Signal

;t
m

u(t)
u(t-m)
The unit step signal is defined as, u(t) = 1 ; for t ³ 0
= 0 ; for t < 0
The unit step signal delayed by
1

t0
Fig 2.25a : Unit step signal.
1

m
t0
Fig 2.25b : Delayed unit step signal.
m units of time is denoted as u(t – m), and it is defined as,
u(t – m) = 1 ; t ³ m
=0;t<m
Fig 2.25 : Unit step and delayed unit step signal.
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 20 2.4.4 Addition of Continuous Time Signals
The addition of two continuous time signals is performed by adding the value of the two signals
corresponding to the same instant of time.
The sum of two signals x1(t) and x2(t) is a signal y(t), whose value at any instant is equal to the
sum of the value of these two signals at that instant.
i.e., y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t)
Example :

Graphical addition of two continuous time signals is shown in fig 2.26.

x1(t)
2

+
1

t 0123
x2(t)
2

12
30
t
y(t) 3

1
y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t)
1230t

x1(t) = 1 ; 0 < t < 1 x2(t) = t ; 0 < t < 1 For t = 0 to 1 ; y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 1 + t = 2 ; 1 < t < 2 = 1 ; 1 < t < 2 For t = 1 to 2 ;
y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 2 + 1 = 3 = 1 ; 2 < t < 3 = 3 – t ; 2 < t < 3 For t = 2 to 3 ; y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 1 + 3 – t = 4 – t

Fig 2.26 : Addition of two continuous time signals.

2.4.5 Multiplication of Continuous Time Signals

The multiplication of two continuous time signals is performed by multiplying the value of the two
signals corresponding to the same instant of time.
The product of two signals x1(t) and x2(t) is a signal y(t), whose value at any instant is equal to
the product of the values of these two signals at that instant.
i.e., y(t) = x1(t) ´ x2(t)
Example :
Graphical multiplication of two continuous time signals is shown in fig 2.27.

x1(t) 2
1
´
x2(t) 2
1
y(t)2

1
y(t) = x1(t) ´ x2(t)

t 0123

1230t

1
230t

x1(t) = 1 ; 0 < t < 1 x2(t) = t ; 0 < t < 1 For t = 0 to 1; y(t) = x1(t) ´ x2(t) = 1 ´ t = t = 2 ; 1 < t < 2 = 1 ; 1 < t < 2 For t = 1 to
2; y(t) = x1(t) ´ x2(t) = 2 ´ 1 = 2 = 1 ; 2 < t < 3 = 3 – t ; 2 < t < 3 For t = 2 to 3; y(t) = x1(t) ´ x2(t) = 1 ´ (3 – t) = 3 – t

Fig 2.27 : Multiplication of two continuous time signals.

2. 21 Signals & Systems 2.4.6 Differentiation and Integration of Continuous Time Signals

Differentiation is a mathematical operation used to estimate the rate of change of a continuous

time signal at any instant of time.

d .
Differentiation is denoted by the operator dt
 I
dt ( ) F ( ) HG KJ .

d
Therefore, the differentiation of a continuous time signal x(t) is denoted by dtx t ordx t The
differentiation of a continuous time signal x(t) is defined as,
dx t
()
= Lt x(t) x(t t)
dt
--
®
D
t Dt 0
D

Integration, is the inverse process of differentiation. More appropriately. Integration is the

process of identifying the signal from its differentiation.

The integration is denoted by the operaor

....
z dt

Therefore, the integration of a continuous time signal x(t) is denoted by

x(t)
z dt .
Differentiation and integration of standard continuous time signals are listed in table 2.1

Table 2.1 : Differentiation and Integration of Standard Continuous Time Signals dt Integration of

x(t),
x(t) dt
z
Signal, x(t) Differentiation of x(t), dx(t)

d(t) –– 1

u(t) d(t) t
2
t u(t) t 2
t2 2t t33
sin t cost - cost

cost -sin t sin t

–at -at
e–at – ae e
-a
 at
eat ae eata
t
sinW0 W W 0 0 cos t -cos t W
0
W
0

cosW0t -W W 0 0 sin t sinW

t
0
W
0
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 22
The standard signals such as impulse, step, ramp and parabolic signals are related through
integration and differentiation as shown below.
integration 2

u(t) t t
d( )t
integration
integration

¾ ® ¾¾¾ ¾ ® ¾¾¾ ¾ ® ¾¾¾ b gbgbg2

Impulse
Unit step
Unit ramp

b g Unit parabolic
differentiation
2

u(t) t t
d( )t
differentiation
differentiation

¬ ¾ ¾¾¾¾ ¬ ¾ ¾¾¾¾ ¬ ¾ ¾¾¾¾ b gbgbg2

Impulse
Unit step

+
Unit ramp

b g Unit parabolic
d u
Note : dt u(t) t u(0 ) u(0 )
10
= - - D
== = = = = ¥ DD

0 = Impulse
t0 t0
t0 ==
t
t0t0

Example 2.5
A continuous time signal is defined as,
x(t) = t ; 0 £ t £ 3
=0;t>3
Sketch the waveform of x(–t) and x(2 – t).

Solution
The given signal is shown in fig 1.
The signal x(–t) is the folded version of x(t). The signal x(–t) is shown in fig 2.
The signal x(2 – t) = x(–t + 2) is the advanced version of the folded signal. The signal x(–t + 2) is shown in fig 3.

x(t)
3
2

0
123
x(t)
3
2

0
–3 –2 –1 1 3
x(2 – t)
3
2

0
–3 1 –2 –1 2 3
2 t –5
t –4 t

Fig 1 : x(t).

Example 2.6
Fig 2 : x(–t).
Fig 3 : x(2 – t).

Sketch the even and odd parts of the following signals. a) b) x(t)

1
x(t)
1

0a
Solution
 a
0 tt

1 1 1 ()[()]((txtx--
a) The even part of the signal is given by, x = 2 + x( t) = 2 x t) + 2 t) e .....(1) The odd part of the
1 1 1 ()[()]((txtx----
signal is given by, x = 2 x( t) = 2 x t) 2 t) o .....(2)
2. 23 Signals & Systems
From equations (1) and (2), it is observed that the even and odd parts of the signal can be obtained from the folded
and scaled versions of the signal. Hence the given signal is folded, scaled and then graphically added and subtracted
to get the even and odd parts as shown below.

x(t)
1

0a
Fold
x(–t)
1

–a
0
t t
1 1 1
Scale by 2 Scale by 2 2x( t) - 2x(t)
1

1
1
2
2
a
0 t t
–a
0

1 1 1 1 1 1
x = 2 x( t) = 2 x t) 2 t) o x = ( ) [ ( ) ] ( ( t x t x - - - - 2 + x( t) = 2 x t) + 2 t) e( ) [ ( ) ] ( ( t x t x - -
xe(t)
xo(t)
1 1
2 2
–a
–a a
0 t
0a
1
t- 2

x=1 1 1 ()[()]((txtx--
b) The even part of the signal is given by, 2 + x( t) = 2 x t) + 2 t) e .....(1) The odd part of
1 1 1 ()[()]((txtx----
the signal is given by, x = 2 x( t) = 2 x t) 2 t) o .....(2) From equations (1) and (2), it is
observed that the even and odd parts of the signal can be obtained from the
folded and scaled versions of the signal. Hence the given signal is folded, scaled and then graphically added and
subtracted to get the even and odd parts as shown below.
x(t)
1
 a
0 t
x(–t)
Fold
1

2x(t)
–a
t

1 Scale by 1
Scale by 2 2

2x( t) -
1
12
2
a
0 t
–a
t0

x=1 1 1 ()[()]((txtx-
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 24 2 + x( t) = 2 x t) + 2 t) e

- 1 1 1
x = 2 x( t) = 2 x t) 2 t) o( ) [ ( ) ] ( ( t x t x - - - -

xe(t)
1
2
xe(t) 1
2

0
–a a t
2.5 Impulse Signal
–a a t - 12
0

The impulse signal is a special signal which can be derived as follows. Consider a pulse signal,
PD(t) with height A/D and width D as shown in fig 2.28. Now, the
PD(t)
pulse signal, PD(t) can be defined as,
A
D

Pt D
A DD
()=££
;t
0

=
0
;t>
D
The area of the pulse signal for any value of t is given by,
A
Area Height Width = ´ = ´ = A
D
t0

DD
Fig 2.28 : Pulse signal.
In the signal, PD(t) if the width D is reduced, then the height A /D increases, but the area of the
pulse remains same as A. When the width D tends to zero, the height A /D tends to infinity. This
limiting value of the pulse signal is called impulse signal, d(t). Even when the width D tends to
zero, the area of
the pulse remains as A.

t Lt P t Lt A , ( ) ( )
d(t) ¥

Impulse Signal
d
D D
D 00 D0 ; t

\ = = = ®®
00
;t
=¹

z
+¥

,()()
dd
t0
Impulse Signal
t and t dt A
;t
0
\=¥==
Fig 2.29 : Impulse signal
00;t
=¹
-¥
(or Unit impulse signal).

In the above impulse signal if A=1, then the impulse signal is called a unit impulse signal. The
impulse signal or unit impulse signal can be represented graphically as shown in fig 2.29. An
impulse with infinite magnitude and zero duration is a mathematical fiction and does not exist in
reality. However a signal with large magnitude and short duration (when compared to time
constant of a system) can be considered as an impulse signal. Practically, the magnitude of the
impulse is measured by its area.
Definition of impulse signal : The impulse signal is a signal with infinite magnitude and zero
duration, but with an area of A. Mathematically, an impulse signal is defined as,

z
+¥
;t

Impulse Signal, ( ) ( ) d d t and t dt A = ¥ = =

0
= ¹ -¥
00
;t
Definition of unit impulse signal : The unit impulse signal is a signal with infinite magnitude and
zero duration, but with unit area. Mathematically, a unit impulse signal is defined as,

z
+¥
;t

Unit Impulse Signal, ( ) ( ) d d t and t dt = ¥ = =

01
= ¹ -¥
00
;t
2. 25 Signals & Systems
2.5.1 Properties of Impulse Signal

+¥
z =
Property-1: d(t)dt 1
-¥

Proof :
Consider a narrow pulse signal, PD(t) of width Dl and height 1/Dl as shown in fig 2.30.
1
Now the pulse signal is defined as, 0

;t
()=££
D
Pt DlDl
1
Dl
PD(t)

=
0
;t>
Dl
Now the impulse signal can be represented as, d(t) = ®
D
Dl 0( )
Lt P t
On integrating the above equation we get,
Dl
t 0 Fig 2.30.

zzzzz
+¥
====

+¥
+¥
Dl
Dl
1 1
d(t)dt Lt P (t) dt Lt P (t) dt Lt dt Lt dt Dl D Dl D Dl
®
-¥
®
-¥
® ® Dl

0000
Dl Dl
-¥
00
1 1
Lt Lt Lt 1 1
Dl

00

Dl DlDl
==-==
t

® ® ® Dl

Dl Dl
000

+¥
z = x(0)
Property- 2: x(t) dt d( )t -¥
Proof :

zz
z
Since d(t) is nonzero only at t=0,
+¥
+¥
x t (t) dt x 0 (t) dt =
()()
dd
x(t) is replaced by x(0).
-¥
-¥
+¥
Since x(0) is constant, it is
==´=
taken outside integration.
()
d
x 0 (t) dt x(0) 1 x(0)
-¥

+¥
z 00

Property- 3: x(t) dt d( ) ( ) t t x t - =
-¥
Proof :

zz
z
Using property-1

Since d(t0) is nonzero only at t=t0,

+¥ -¥

+¥
x(t) (t t ) dt x(t ) (t t ) dt d d
-=-
000
x(t) is replaced by x(t0).
-¥
+¥
Since x(t0) is constant, it is
=-=´=
d
x(t ) (t t ) dt x(t ) 1 x(t )
0000
-¥

+¥
z x(t)
Property- 4: x( ) d l l l d( ) t - =
-¥
taken outside integration. Using property-1

Proof :

z
+¥
Consider the property-3 of impulse signal. x(t) (t t ) dt x(t ) 0 0 d - =
-¥

z
+¥
On substituting t = l in the above equation we get, x( ) ( t ) d x(t ) l d l l - = 0 0 -¥

Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 26 z

+¥
On substituting t0 = t in the above equation we get, x( ) ( t) d x(t) l d l l - =
-¥

Since impulse signal is even, d(l-t) = d(t-l), Therefore the above equation is written as shown below.
+¥
z
x( ) ( ) d x(t) l d l l t - =
-¥

1
bg
Property 5- : d d ( ) at
a=t
Proof :
Consider a narrow pulse signal, PD(t) of width Dl and height 1/Dl as shown in fig 2.31(a).
PD(t)
1
Dl

t0
Time scale
PD(at)
1
Dl

t0

Fig 2.31 (a) . Fig 2.31 (b). Dl a

Dl
Fig 2.31 : A pulse signal and its time scaled version.
Now the signal, PD(at) will be time scaled version of signal PD(t) as shown in fig 2.31(b).Now the pulse signal and time
scaled pulse signal can be mathematically defined as,

1 1
0 0
D DDl
;t;t
P t P at a
()()=££=££
Dl
Dl Dl
Dl
00
;t>;t>==
Dl
a

zz
+¥
Dl
1
P (t) dt dt
....( . )
\=
27
-¥
D
0
Dl

zzzz a

+¥
Dl
Dl
+¥
1 1 11
P (at) dt dt dt P (t) dt 28

-¥
===
D
D
aa
Dl Dl
-¥
00
....( . )
Using equation (2.7)

Now the impulse signal and time scaled impulse signal can be represented as, d d (t) (at) = = ® ®

Lt P t and Lt P at
()()
D D
Dl Dl 00

On integrating the time scaled impulse signal we get,

zzzz
+¥
+¥
+¥
1
+¥
Lt P at Lt P at Lt
aPt
()()()
(at) dt dt dt dt
d
===
 D D
Dl Dl Dl D
®
-¥
000
-¥
®
-¥

zz
®
-¥
Using equation (2.8)
+¥
Lt P t
11a a
()
+¥
dt (t) dt
d
==
Dl D
0
®
-¥

zz
-¥
Using definition of impulse signal
+¥
1
+¥
(at) dt (t) dt d d
\ = -¥
a
-¥
On differentiating the above equation we get
,
1
dd
(at) = (t)
a
2. 27 Signals & Systems 2.5.2 Representation of Continuous Time Signal as Integral of Impulses

Let x(t) be a continuous time signal as shown in fig 2.32.

x(t)

0
~
x t( )
t

–3Dt

–2Dt

–Dt
0

Dt

2Dt

3Dt

4Dt
t t
5D 6D 7Dt
t

Fig 2.32.
Fig 2.33.

Let us divide x(t) as narrow pulses of width Dt as shown in fig 2.33.

Now the signal x(t) can be expressed as,
~
x t( ) = Lt x(t)
Dt ® 0

Each narrow pulse of fig 2.33 can be interpretted as shown below,

M
M

)~
x( 2 = x(t) ; for 2 t - - < < -

Dt Dt Dt ~
x( ) = x(t) ; for t 0 - - < <

Dt Dt

)~
x(0 = x(t) ; for 0 t
~
<<
Dt
x( ) = x(t) ; for t 2 Dt Dt Dt
<<

)~
x(2 = x(t) ; for 2 t 3 Dt Dt Dt < <

M
~
( ) t Dt
\®
x = Lt x(t)
0

= Lt [..... x( 2 ) + x( ) + x(0) + x( ) + x(2 ) + .....]

--
Dt Dt Dt Dt ® .....(2.9)
Dt 0
Consider the pulse signal of width Dt and height 1/ Dt as shown in fig 2.34. This pulse signal can
be expressed as,
1
P= ;0t
D
Dt ( )t £ £ Dt
= 0 ; otherwise
Now, PD(t) ´ Dt = A pulse of unit amplitude.
~ ~ ~ ~
\ On multiplying PD(t) ´ Dt with the signal x t( ), the signal x 0( ) is selected. \ = x(t) P ( ) x t
0 ( ) D Dt
PD(t)
1
Dt

t0
Dt
Fig 2.34.
Consider the shifted version of the pulse signal of fig 2.34, as shown in fig 2.35.
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 28

left shift
(or advance)
right shift (or delay)

PD P (t – 2Dt) D P (t – Dt) D P (t) D P (t + Dt) D(t + 2Dt)

–2Dt

–Dt
0

–Dt
0
0

Dt
0

Dt

2Dt
0

Dt

2Dt

3Dt
t t t t t Fig 2.35.

~
If we multiply x t( ) with shifted pulse signals shown in fig 2.35, then each product will select
~ as shown below.
one pulse of the signal x t( )
M
M

)~
x( 2 = x(t) P (t + 2 )
-
Dt Dt Dt

)~
D
x( = x(t) P (t + )
-
Dt Dt Dt

)~
D
x(0 = x(t) P (t)
Dt

)~
D
x( = x(t) P (t ) Dt Dt Dt

)~
D
-
x(2 = x(t) P (t 2 ) Dt Dt Dt
MM

D
-
 ~
In the above equation x t( ) can be replaced by respective selected pulses itself as shown
below,

M
M

)~
x( 2 = x( 2 ) P (t + 2 )
\--
Dt Dt Dt Dt

)~
D
x( = x( ) P (t + ) - -
Dt Dt Dt Dt

)~
D
0
x(0 = x( ) P (t)
Dt

)~
D
x( = x( ) P (t ) Dt Dt Dt Dt

)~
D
-
x(2 = x(2 ) P (t 2 ) Dt Dt Dt Dt

MM
D
-

On substituting the above equations in equation (2.9) we get,

L O
NM QP
~ ~ ~ ~ x(t) = Lt ..... x( 2 ) P (t + 2 ) + x( ) P (t + ) + x(0) P (t)

--
Dt Dt Dt Dt Dt Dt Dt
DDD
~~
+ x( ) P (t ) + x(2 ) P (t 2 ) + ........................ Dt Dt Dt Dt Dt Dt
Dt
®
0
+¥
--
DD

~
()
t-
å
= Lt x(n ) P n
Dt Dt Dt
Dt D
®
-¥
0
=
n
~
On applying limit Dt ® 0 the signal x n( ) Dt becomes continuous, the signal PD(t - nDt)
becomes an impulse and so the summation becomes integration.
Hence the above equation can be expressed as,

z
+
....(2.10)

tdtt-
¥

x(t) = x( ) (t ) d
-¥
The equation (2.10) is used to represent any continuous time signal x(t) as an integral of
impulses.
2. 29 Signals & Systems 2.6 Continuous Time System

A continuous time system (or Analog system) is a physical device that operates on a
continuous time signal (or an analog signal) called input or excitation, according to some well
defined rule, to produce another continuous time signal (or an analog signal) called output or
response. We can say that the input signal x(t) is transformed by the system into a signal y(t),
and the transformation can be expressed mathematically as shown in equation (2.11).The
diagrammatic representation of continuous time system is shown in fig 2.36.
Response, y(t) = H{x(t)} .....(2.11)
where, H denotes the transformation (also called an operator).
Continuous
time system

x(t) y(t)
H or Response
Input signal
or Excitation
Output signal
Fig 2.36 : Representation of
continuous time system.
LTI System

A continuous time system is linear if it obeys the principle of superposition and it is time
invariant if its input-output relationship does not change with time. When a continuous time
system satisfies the properties of linearity and time invariance then it is called an LTI system
(Linear Time Invariant system).
Impulse Response
When the input to a continuous time system is a unit impulse signal d(t) then the output
is called an impulse response of the system and it is denoted by h(t).
\ Impulse Response, h(t) = H{d(t)} .....(2.12)
Continuous
time system
d(t) h(t)
H
Impulse input
Impulse response
Fig 2.37 : Continuous time system with impulse input.

2.6.1 Mathematical Equation Governing LTI Continuous Time System

The electric heaters, motors, generators, etc., are examples of electrical continuous time
systems. The continuous time systems that operate on electrical energy can be modelled by
three basic elements Resistor(R), Inductor(L) and Capacitor(C). The models constructed using
these fundamental elements are called electric circuits.
In electric circuits the inputs and outputs are either voltage signals or current signals.
The continuous time voltage signal is denoted by v(t) and current signal by i(t).
The basic RL, RC, and RLC circuits and their time domain KVL (Kirchoff’s Voltage Law)
equations are shown in fig 2.38, fig 2.39 and fig 2.40 respectively. From these circuits it can be
observed that the equations governing the continuous time systems are differential equations.
Also, it can be shown that all continuous time systems like Mechanical systems, Thermal
systems, Hydraulic systems, etc., are all governed by differential equations.
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 30 R i t( ) + L di(t)

R
L dt = (t) n
–
+ +–
R i(t) di t n(t) by x(t)
L dt( ) Ry t L dy t
Replace i(t) by y(t) and
i(t) = y(t) ¯ ()()
+- dy t dt
+ = x(t)
R 1
+ L y = L x(t)
n(t) = x(t) \
()
() dtt

Fig 2.38 : RL circuit and the mathematical equation governing RL circuit.

 C 1 i(t) dt =
R i t( ) + C

R
C
i dt ( )t
z (t)
z n

– 1
+ +–
differentiate n
¯ 1
R i(t) dt + C i(t) = d (t)
i(t) = y(t)
R di(t) R dy(t) Replace i(t) by y(t) and
+- n(t) by x(t) ¯
n(t) = x(t)

dt
1
dt + C y(t) = dx(t)
dt
dy(t)
1 1
dt + RC y(t) = Rdx(t)
dt \

Fig 2.39 : RC circuit and the mathematical equation governing RC

1 i(t) dt =
circuit. dt + C

(t)
z n

R i t( ) + L di(t)
L
C ¯differentiate
R

L
di t ( ) 1 i dt ( )t
dt C z
–
+ + – R i(t) R di(t) i t
d 1
dt + L dt + C i(t) = d (t) ( ) n
+–
2
2

dt
 i(t) = y(t) + -
Ryt

Replace i(t) by y(t) and n(t) by x(t)

¯2
dy(t) ()
n(t) = x(t)
d 1
dt + L + C y(t) = dx(t)
2 dt
2
() dt
d R
+ Ldy(t)
yt dt
\ 2 dt
1 1
dt + LC y(t) = Ldx(t)
Fig 2.40 : RLC circuit and the mathematical equation governing RLC circuit.
2. 31 Signals & Systems
In general, the input-output relation of an LTI (Linear Time Invariant) continuous time
system is represented by a constant coefficient differential equation shown below (equation
(2.18)).
N 1 - M
N - N 2
d d d d d
a dt dt dt dt dtx t
()
y(t) + a y(t) + a y(t) + ....... + a y(t) + a y(t) = b - -
0

21
NN
12N0
N M
N -
- - M
1 M 2
1
d d d
b dtx t b dtx t dtx t b x t
+ + --
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) .....(2.13)
+ +.......+ b
1 -
M 12 MMM21

where, N = Order of the system, M £ N, and a0 = 1.

The solution of the above differential equation is the response y(t) of the system, for the input
x(t).
Note : A system is linear if it obeys the principle of superposition and it is time
invariant if its input-output relationship do not change with time.

2.6.2 Block Diagram and Signal Flow Graph Representation of LTI Continuous Time
System Block Diagram
 A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by
the system. The block diagram of a system is constructed using the mathematical equation
governing the system.
The basic elements of a block diagram are Differentiator, Integrator, Constant Multiplier
and Signal Adder. The symbols used for the basic elements and their input-ouput relation are
listed in table 2.2.
Table 2.2 : Basic Elements of Block Diagram and Signal Flow Graph

Description Elements of Elements of

block diagram signal flow graph
d
dt d
d
Differentiator ddt dt x(t) x t( ) dt x(t) x t( )

z z x dt ( )t x(t) a a x(t) z x t( ) dt x(t) a x(t)

x(t) a
x(t)
Integrator
(with zero initial condition)

Constant Multiplier z
x1(t) x1(t) x2(t)
x2(t)
Signal 1
x1(t) + x2(t)
Adder + 1
x1(t) + x2(t)
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 32 Signal Flow Graph

A signal flow graph of a system is a graphical representation of the functions performed

by the system. The signal flow graph shows the flow of signals from one point of a system to
another and gives the relationship among the signals. The signal flow graph of a system is
constructed using the mathemetical equation governing the system.
The basic elements of a signal flow graph are nodes and directed branches. Each node
represents a signal. The signal at a node is given by the sum of all incoming signals. Each
branch has an input node and an output node. The direction of signal flow is marked by an
arrow on the branch and the operation performed by the signal is indicated by an operator like
integrator/differentiator. When the signal passes from the input node to the output node, it is
operated by the operation specified by the branch. The basic operations performed by the
branches of a signal flow graph are listed in table 2.2.

Example 2.7
Construct the block diagram and signal flow graph of the system described by the
equation, 2

dyt dy t dx t
()()()
+ 2 + 3 y(t) = 4 + 5 x(t)
dt
Solution dt dt
2
Case i : Block diagram and signal flow graph using differentiators 2

Given that, d y(t)

dt + 2 dy(t)
dt + 3 y(t) = 4 dx(t)
2

2 dt + 5 x(t)
1 2 4 5
\ - - y(t) = 3 3 + 3 + 3 x(t) d y t
dy t dx t
()()()
.....(1)
dt dt dt
2

The equation (1) is used to construct the block diagram and signal flow graph using differentiators as shown
in fig 1 and fig 2 respectively.

3x t( )
y(t) 53
+

x(t) +
d
dt
d
dt dy t
dx t ()
() 2 dt
4 ( ) - 3dy t ( )
dx t
dt
+
4
3 dt
3 -2
dt 3 d
dt
2
dyt dyt
( (
) )
1 2 -1
3 dt
- 3 2 dt 2

Fig 1 : Block diagram using differentiators.

2. 33 Signals & Systems
t
dx(t) 3
d

d
dt
x(t) 4
5
3 3
 t
x ()+4
3

y(t) 5 y(t)

d
dt
d y(t) -2 dy t ( )
2 1 3
- - 3dy(t) 2
dx t dt dyt
() d
3 -1 dt
dt 3
dt
2 dt 2
()
Fig 2 : Signal flow graph using differentiators.
2
dt

Case ii : Block diagram and signal flow graph using integrators 2

Given that, d y(t)

dt + 2 dy(t)
dt + 3 y(t) = 4 dx(t)
2
dt + 5 x(t)
Integrate with zero
initial conditions

()
+ 2 y(t) + 3 y(t) dt = 4 x(t) + 5 x(t) dt zz
dy t dt ¯¯ Integrate
with zero
initial
conditions

y t( ) + 2 y(t) dt + 3 y(t) dt dt = 4 x(t) dt + 5 x(t) dt dt z zz z zz

\--
z zz z zz y = 2 y(t) dt 3 y(t) dt dt + 4 x(t) dt + 5 x(t) dt dt ( )t .....(2)

The equation (2) is used to construct the block diagram and signal flow graph using integrators as shown in
fig 3 and fig 4 respectively.

z
4 x t( ) dt
zx t( ) dt z4
x(t) +
+
y(t)
 z
z
x(t) dt dt
zz
y t( ) dt
z
5 x t( ) dtdt
zz -2 y(t)
dt
z z
5 –2 +

–3
y t( ) dt dt
zz
-
3yt
zz ( ) dt dt
Fig 3 : Block diagram using integrators.
1 2 21
2. 43 Signals & Systems From the equation (7), C = 1 C = + 3 = 3 ----1

1 2 zs
\ - - - - - y (t) = 3 e 3 e + e 4t t t 2
Total Response, y(t) = y + y
\
( ) ( ) t t zi zs
1 1 1 2
= 3e+ 3e 3e 3e+e
-4 - - - -
42
ttttt
---

2 1
= 3e 3e+e;t0
-4 - - 2

ttt
--³

F I
- - HG KJ
2 1
= e 3 e 3 e u(t) - -4 -

2
ttt

2.8 Classification of Continuous Time Systems

The continuous time systems are classified based on their characteristics. Some of the
classifications of continuous time systems are,
1. Static and dynamic systems
2. Time invariant and time variant systems
3. Linear and nonlinear systems
4. Causal and noncausal systems
 5. Stable and unstable systems
6. Feedback and nonfeedback systems
2.8.1 Static and Dynamic Systems
A continuous time system is called static or memoryless if its output at any instant of
time t depends at most on the input signal at the same time but not on the past or future input.
In any other case, the system is said to be dynamic or to have memory.
Example :
y(t) = a x(t) 3
y(t) = t x(t) + 6
12 Static
systems
x3(t)
y(t) = t x(t) + 2) systems

3 x(t2) y(t) = 3
x(t) + 3 x(t – 12
Dynamic

2.8.2 Time Invariant and Time Variant Systems

A system is said to be time invariant if its input-output characteristics does not change with
time. Definition : A relaxed system H is time invariant or shift invariant if and only if x(t) y(t)
implies that, x(t m) y(t m) ¾ ®¾ - ¾ ® H H¾ -

for every input signal x(t) and every time shift m.

i.e., in time invariant systems, if y(t) = H{x(t)} then y(t – m) = H{x(t – m)}.
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 44 Alternative Definition for Time
Invariance
A system H is time invariant if the response to a shifted (or delayed) version of the input
is identical to a shifted (or delayed) version of the response based on the unshifted (or
undelayed) input.
The diagrammatic explanation of the above definition of time invariance is shown in fig
2.41.
Delayed input
System
x(t - m)
Input signalDelay H y1(t)
x(t) Response for delayed input
y(t)
x(t) Delay y2(t) Delayed
H Input signal Response for response
undelayed input
System

If y1(t) = y2(t) then the system is time invariant

Fig 2.41 : Diagrammatic explanation of time invariance.

Procedure to test for time invariance

 1. Delay the input signal by m units of time and determine the response of the system
for this delayed input signal. Let this response be y1(t).
2. Delay the response of the system for unshifted input by m units of time. Let this
delayed response be y2(t).
3. Check whether y 1(t) = y2(t). If they are equal then the system is time
invariant. Otherwise the system is time variant.
Example 2.11
State whether the following systems are time invariant or not.
a) y(t) = 2t x(t) b) y(t) = x(t) sin20pt c) y(t) = 3x(t2) d) y(t) = x(-t)

Solution
a) Given that, y(t) = 2t x(t)

Test 1 : Response for delayed input

Test 2 : Delayed response
Delay H x(t - m) y1(t) = 2t x(t - m) Response for
Input signal
x(t) delayed input

Delayed input
System
y(t) = 2t x(t)
y2(t) = 2 (t - m) x(t - m)
x(t)

Input signalH Delay Delayed response

System undelayed
Response input
for

Conclusion : Here, y1(t) ¹ y2(t), therefore the system is time variant.

2. 45 Signals & Systems b) Given that, y(t) = x(t) sin20pt

Test 1 : Response for delayed input

System
x(t) Test 2 : Delayed response
Delay x(t - m) Delayed input y1(t) = x(t - m) sin20pt Response for
Input signal H delayed input
y(t) =x(t) sin20pt
y2(t) = x(t - m) sin(20p(t - m))
x(t)

Input signal H Delay Delayed response

System undelayed
Response input
for

Conclusion : Here, y1(t) ¹ y2(t), therefore the Test 1 : Response for delayed input
system is time variant. c) Given that, y(t) =
x(t)
3x(t2) Delay x(t - m)
Input signal H
 Test 2 : Delayed response

Delayed input y1(t) = 3 x(t2 - m) Response for delayed input

System
y(t) = 3x(t2)
y2(t) = 3 x((t - m)2)
x(t)
Delay
Input signal H Delayed response
System undelayed
Response input
for

Test 2 : Delayed response

Conclusion : Here, y1(t) ¹ y2(t), therefore the
system is time variant. d) Given that, y(t) =
x(-t)

Test 1 : Response for delayed input

x(t) y1(t) = x(- t - m) Response for delayed input

Delay x(t - m)
Input signal H

Delayed input
System
y(t) = x(- t)
y2(t) = x(- (t - m))=x(- t + m)

x(t)
Delay
Input signal H Delayed response
System undelayed
Response input
for

Conclusion : Here, y1(t) ¹ y2(t), therefore the system is time variant.

Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 46 Example 2.12
State whether the following systems are time invariant
or not.

dt ) ( ) ( )
( ) = + e) y t x t x t dt ( ) ( ) ( ) = +
z
a) y(t) = 2 ex(t) b) y(t) = x(t) + C c) y(t) = 3x2(t) d y t x t dx t
Solution
a) Given that, y(t) = 2 ex(t)

Test 1 : Response for delayed input

System
x(t)
Test 2 : Delayed response
Delay x(t - m) Delayed input y1(t) = 2 ex(t - m) Response for delayed input
Input signal H
y(t) = 2 ex(t)
y2(t) = 2 ex(t - m)
x(t)
Delay
Input signal H Delayed response
System undelayed
Response input
for
Test 2 : Delayed response
Conclusion : Here, y1(t) = y2(t), therefore the
system is time invariant. b) Given that, y(t) = x(t) +
C

Test 1 : Response for delayed input

x(t) y1(t) = x(t - m) + C Response for

Delay x(t - m) delayed input
Input signal H

Delayed input
System
y(t) = x(t) + C
y2(t) = x(t - m) + C
x(t)
Delay
Input signal H Delayed response
System undelayed
Response input
for
Test 2 : Delayed response
Conclusion : Here, y1(t) = y2(t), therefore the
system is time invariant. c) Given that, y(t) = 3x2(t)

Test 1 : Response for delayed input

Delay x(t - m)
Input signal H y1(t) = 3x2(t - m) Response for delayed input
x(t)

Delayed input
System
 y(t) = 3x2(t)
y2(t) = 3x2(t - m)

x(t)
Delay
Input signal H Delayed response
System undelayed
Response input
for

Conclusion : Here, y1(t) = y2(t), therefore the system is time invariant.

2. 47 Signals & Systems d) Given that, y t x t dx t

()
dt ( ) ( ) =+
Test 1 : Response for delayed input
Delayed input
System y t x t m dx t m
Delay x(t - m) 1 ()
Input signal H x(t) dt ( ) ( ) = - + - Response for
delayed input
Test 2 : Delayed response

y t x t dx t 2 ()
() y t x t m dx t m dt ( ) ( ) =-+-
dt ( ) ( ) = +
x(t)
Delay
Input signal H
System undelayed input Delayed response
Response for

Conclusion : Here, y1(t) = y2(t), therefore the system is time invariant.

e) Given that,
y t x t x t dt ( ) ( ) ( ) = +
z
z
Test 1 : Response for delayed input
()()()=-+-
y t x t m x t m dt 1
x(t)
Delay x(t - m) Delayed input Response for
Input signal H delayed input
System

z z
Test 2 : Delayed response x(t)
+-
y t x t x t dt ( ) ( ) ( ) = +

()()()=-
y t x t m x t m dt 2
Delay
Input signal H
System undelayed input
Delayed response
Response for

Conclusion : Here, y1(t) = y2(t), therefore the system is time invariant.

2.8.3 Linear and Nonlinear Systems

A linear system is the one that satisfies the superposition principle.
 The principle of superposition requires that the response of a system to a weighted sum
of the signals is equal to the corresponding weighted sum of the responses to each of the
individual input signals.

Definition : A relaxed system H is linear if

H{a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)} = a1 H{x1(t)} + a2 H{x2(t)}
for any arbitrary input signal x1(t) and x2(t) and for any arbitrary constants a1 and a2.

If a relaxed system does not satisfy the superposition principle as given by the above
definition, the system is nonlinear. The diagrammatic explanation of linearity is shown in fig.
2.42.
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 48

x1(t) a1x1(t)
a1
a1x1(t) + a2x2(t) H{a1x1(t) + a2x2(t)}
+H
x2(t) a2x2(t)
a2

x1(t) H{x1(t)} a1H{x1(t)}

H a1H{x1(t)} + a2H{x2(t)}
a1
+

x2(t) H{x2(t)} a2H{x2(t)}

H a2

The system, H is linear if and only if, H{a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)} = a1 H{x1(t)} + a2 H{x2(t)}
Fig 2.42 : Diagrammatic explanation of linearity.

Procedure to test for linearity

1. Let x1(t) and x2(t) be two inputs to the system H, and y1(t) and y2(t) be the
corresponding responses. 2. Consider a signal, x3(t) = a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t) which is a
weighed sum of x1(t) and x2(t). 3. Let y3(t) be the response for x3(t).
4. Check whether y3(t) = a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t). If equal then the system is linear, otherwise it is
nonlinear.

Example 2.13
Test the following systems for linearity.
a) y(t) = t x(t), b) y(t) = x(t2), c) y(t) = x2(t), d) y(t) = A x(t) + B, e) y(t) = ex(t). Solution
a) Given that, y(t) = t x(t)
Let H be the system operating on x(t) to produce, y(t) = H{x(t)} = t x(t).
Consider two signals x1(t) and x2(t).
 Let y1(t) and y2(t) be the response of the system H for inputs x1(t) and x2(t) respectively.
\ y1(t) = H{x1(t)} = t x1(t) ....(1) y2(t) = H{x2(t)} = t x2(t) .....(2)
Let x3(t) = a1 x1(t) +a2 x2(t). equations (1) and (2)
Let y3(t) be the response of the system H for input
x3(t). \ y3(t) = H{ x3(t)} = H{ a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)}
= t(a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)) = a1 t x1(t) + a2 t x2(t) = a1 y1(t) +
a2 y2(t))
Since, y3(t) = a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t), the given system is
linear.
A linear combination of inputs x1(t) and x2(t)Using

2. 49 Signals & Systems b) Given that, y(t) = x(t2)

Let H be the system operating on x(t) to produce, y(t) = H{x(t)} = x(t2).
Consider two signals x1(t) and x2(t).
Let y1(t) and y2(t) be the response of the system H for inputs x1(t) and x2(t) respectively.
\ y1(t) = H{x1(t)} = x1(t2) ....(1) y2(t) = H{x2(t)} = x2(t2) .....(2)
Let x3(t) = a1 x1(t) +a2 x2(t). equations (1) and (2)
Let y3(t) be the response of the system H for input x3(t). \
y3(t) = H{x3(t)} = H{a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)}
= (a1 x1(t2) + a2 x2(t2))
= a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t))
Since, y3(t) = a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t), the given system is linear.
c) Given that, y(t) = x2(t)
A linear combination of inputs x1(t) and x2(t) Using

Let H be the system operating on x(t) to produce, y(t) = H{x(t)} = x2(t).

Consider two signals x1(t) and x2(t).
Let y1(t) and y2(t) be the response of the system H for inputs x1(t) and x2(t) respectively. \ y1(t) = H{x1(t)} = x t
2 2
1 ( ) .....(1) y2(t) = H{x2(t)} = x t 2 ( ) .....(2)

Let x3(t) = a1 x1(t) +a2 x2(t). x3(t).

Let y (t) be the response of the system H for input A linear combination of inputs x1(t) and x2(t)
3

\ y3(t) = H{x3(t)} = H{ a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)} = (a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t))2

2 2 2 2
=++
axtaxtaaxtxt()()()()

1
1 2 equations
2
2 2 (1) and (2)
21211 Using
=++
aytaytaaxtxt()()()()
1 21211
12
2

Here, y3(t) ¹ a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t). Hence the given system is nonlinear.

d) Given that, y(t) = A x(t) + B
Let H be the system operating on x(t) to produce, y(t) = H{x(t)} = A x(t) + B.
Consider two signals x1(t) and x2(t).
Let y1(t) and y2(t) be the response of the system H for inputs x1(t) and x2(t) respectively.
\ y1(t) = H{x1(t)} = A x1(t) + B .....(1) y2(t) = H{x2(t)} = A x2(t) + B .....(2)
Let x3(t) = a1 x1(t) +a2 x2(t). Let y3(t) be the response of the system H for input
 x3(t). \ y3(t) = H{x3(t)}= H{ a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)} = a1 ( y1(t) - B ) + a2 ( y2(t) - B ) + B
A linear combination of inputs x1(t) and x2(t) Here, y3(t) ¹ a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t). Hence the given system
is nonlinear.

= A ( a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t) ) + B = A a1 x1(t) + A a2 x2(t) + B

Using equations (1) and (2)
= a1 A x1(t) + a2 Ax2(t) + B
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 50 e) Given that, y(t) = ex(t)
Let H be the system operating on x(t) to produce, y(t) = H{x(t)} = ex(t).
Consider two signals x1(t) and x2(t).
Let y1(t) and y2(t) be the response of the system H for inputs x1(t) and x2(t) respectively.
\ y1(t) = H{x1(t)} = ex t 1( ) .....(1) y2(t) = H{x2(t)} = ex t 2 ( ) .....(2)
( ( ) ( )) ( ) ( )
Let x3(t) = a1 x1(t) +a2 x2(t). axtaxtaxtxt
1122112
Let y3(t) be the response of the system H for input A linear combination of inputs x1(t) and x2(t)
x3(t). \ y3(t) = H{x3(t)} = H{ a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)}
+
ee
e
a2

==
==
ejejbgbg eeyy
a a
aa
(t) (t)
xt xt 12
1 2
1 2 12
Using equations (1) and (2)
()()

Here, y3(t) ¹ a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t). Hence the given system is nonlinear.

Example 2.14
Test the following systems for linearity.
2

a) y(t) = 4 x(t) + 2 dx(t)

dt b) d y(t)
dt + 2 dy(t)
2
dt
Solution dt + 3 y(t) = x(t)
a) Given that, y(t) = 4 x(t) + 2 dx(t)

Let H be the system operating on x(t) to produce, y(t) = H{x(t)} = 4 x(t) + 2 dx(t)
dt
Consider two signals x1(t) and x2(t).
Let y1(t) and y2(t) be the response of the system H for inputs x1(t) and x2(t)
respectively. \ y (t) = x (t)} = 4 x (t) + 2 dx (t)
111
dt H{ 1 .....(1) y (t) = x (t)} = 4 x (t) + 2 dx (t)
222
dt H{ 2 .....(2)
Let x3(t) = a1 x1(t) +a2 x2(t). x3(t).
Let y3(t) be the response of the system H for input A linear combination of inputs x1(t) and x2(t)
 (t)} 3 3

\
H{

y (t) = x

= 4 x (t) + 2 dx (t) tt
33
dt dtt t
1
1 1 2 22
d
= 4(a x (t) + a x (t)) + 2 dt x (t) + a x
( ( ))
at

1
1122122

dx dt
= 4a x (t) + 4a x (t) + 2a dt + 2a dx
=ay+ay
()()
tt
1122

Since, y3(t) = a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t), the given system is

()() linear.
tt
1
1 1 2 2 1 22

dt
Using equations (1) and (2)
F I F I
HG KJ HG KJ
dx ()
=a4x+2 + a 4 x + 2 dx ( ) ()()

2. 51 Signals & Systems 2

b) Given that, d y(t)

dt + 2 dy(t)
dt + 3 y(t) = x(t)
2

Let H be the system operating on x(t) to produce, y(t).

Consider two signals x1(t) and x2(t).
Let y1(t) and y2(t) be the response of the system H for inputs x1(t) and x2(t) respectively. When the input
is x1(t), the response is y1(t). Hence the system equation for the input x1(t) can be written as, 2
d y (t)

dt + 2 dy (t)
1

dt + 3 y (t) = x (t)
1
1 1 .....(1) 2
 When the input is x2(t), the response is y2(t). Hence the system equation for the input x2(t) can be written
as, 2
d y (t)

dt + 2 dy (t)
2

dt + 3 y (t) = x (t)
2
2 2 .....(2) 2

Let, x3(t) = a1 x1(t) +a2 x2(t). x3(t).

Let, y3(t) be the response of the system H for input A linear combination of inputs x1(t) and x2(t)

When the input is x3(t), the response is y3(t). Hence the system equation for the input x3(t) is given
by, 2
d y (t)

dt + 2 dy (t)
3

dt + 3 y (t) = x (t)
3
3 3 .....(3) 2

Let us multiply equation (1) by a1.

\ a d y (t)
dt + 2a dy (t)
21 1
dt + 3a y (t) = a x (t) 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 .....(4) Let us multiply equation (2) by a2.

\ a d y (t)
dt + 2a dy (t)
22 2
dt + 3a y (t) = a x (t) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 .....(5) On adding equation (4) and (5) we get,

a d y (t)
dt + 2a dy (t)
dt + 3a y (t) + a d y (t)
dt + 2a dy (t)
21 1 22 2
dt + 3a y (t) = a x (t) + a x (t) 1 21 112 22 2211222
d d
y + a y + 2 dt y + a y + 3 y + a y = a x + a x
122122122122
dta t t a t t a t t t t 2 1 1 1 1 [ ( ) ( )] [ ( ) ( )] [ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( ) .....(6) On comparing equations (3)
and (6) we can say that,
if, x3(t) = a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t), then y3(t) = a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t)
Hence the sytem is linear.

2.8.4 Causal and Noncausal Systems

Definition : A system is said to be causal if the output of the system at any time t depends only
on the present input, past inputs and past outputs but does not depend on the future inputs
and outputs.
If the system output at any time t depends on future inputs or outputs then the system is
called a noncausal system.
The causality refers to a system that is realizable in real time. It can be shown that an
LTI system is causal if and only if the impulse response is zero for t < 0, (i.e., h(t) = 0 for t < 0).
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 52 Example 2.15
Test the casuality of the following systems.

t
a) y(t) = x(t) – x(t – 1) b) y(t) = x(t) +2 x(3 – t) c) y(t) = t x(t)
z e) x d

dxd

z f) y(t) = 2x(t) + dx(t) t

) ( ) y(t) = x(t) + l l
0
a) Given that, y(t) = x(t) – x(t – 1) dt
y(t) = x(t) + ( ) l l 0
Solution

When t = 0, y(0) = x(0) – x(–1) Þ The response at t = 0, i.e., y(0) depends on the
present input x(0) and past input x(–1).
When t = 1, y(1) = x(1) – x(0) Þ The response at t = 1, i.e., y(1) depends on the
present input x(1) and past input x(0).
From the above analysis we can say that for any value of t, the system output depends on present and past
inputs. Hence the system is causal.

b) Given that, y(t) = x(t) + 2 x(3 – t)

When t = – 1, y(– 1) = x(– 1) + 2 x(4) Þ The response at t = – 1, i.e., y(– 1) depends on the present
input x(– 1) and future input x(4).
When t = 0, y(0) = x(0) + 2 x(3) Þ The response at t = 0, i.e., y(0) depends on the present input
x(0) and future input x(3).
When t = 1, y(1) = x(1) + 2 x(2) Þ The response at t = 1, i.e., y(1) depends on the present input
x(1) and future input x(2).
When t = 2, y(2) = x(2) + 2 x(1) Þ The response at t = 2, i.e., y(2) depends on the present input
x(2) and past input x(1).
From the above analysis we can say that for t< 2, the system output depends on present and future inputs.
Hence the system is noncausal.

c) Given that, y(t) = t x(t)

When t = 0, y(0) = 0 ´ x(0) Þ The response at t = 0, i.e., y(0) depends on the present input x(0). When t =
1, y(1) = 1 ´ x(1) Þ The response at t = 1, i.e., y(1) depends on the present input x(1). When t = 2, y(2) = 2
´ x(2) Þ The response at t = 2, i.e., y(2) depends on the present input x(2).
From the above analysis we can say that the response for any value of t depends on the present input.
Hence the system is causal.
 z t
dxd
) ( ) Given that, y(t) = x(t) + l l
0

0
0

tt
zz ==+-=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ), , ( ) ( ) l l l l l l
y(t) = x(t) + x(t) + x d z x t z t z where z x d
0

When t = 0, y(0) = x(0) + z(0) - z(0) Þ The response at t = 0, i.e., y(0) depends on present input. When t = 1,
y(1) = x(1) + z(1) - z(0) Þ The response at t = 1, i.e., y(1) depends on present and past input. When t = 2, y(2)
= x(2) + z(1) - z(0) Þ The response at t = 2, i.e., y(2) depends on present and past input.
From the above analysis we can say that the response for any value of t depends on the present and past
input. Hence the system is causal.

2. 53 Signals & Systems 3 z

t
exd
) ( ) Given that, y(t) = x(t) + l l
0

3
33 0
zz ==+-=

tt
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ), ( ) ( ) l l l l l l
y(t) = x(t) + x(t) + x d z x t z t z where z x d
0 0

When t = 0, y(0) = x(0)+z(0)- z(0) Þ The response at t = 0, i.e., y(0) depends on present input. When t = 1,
y(1) = x(1) + z(3) - z(0) Þ The response at t =1, i.e., y(1) depends on present, past and future inputs. When t
= 2, y(2) = x(2) + z(6) - z(0) Þ The response at t = 2, i.e., y(2) depends on present, past and future inputs.
From the above analysis we can say that the response for t > 0 depends on the present, past and future
inputs. Hence the system is noncausal.

f) Given that, y(t) = 2x(t) + dx(t)

dt

y(t) = 2x(t) + dx(t)

dt
® 2 DD
xtxtt
()()

=--
x(t) + Lt (Using definition of differentiation, refer section 2.4.6)
t0
D t

In the above equation, for any value of t, the x(t) is present input and x(t-Dt) is the past input.
Therefore we can say that the response for any value of t depends on present and past input. Hence the
system is causal.

Example 2.16
 Test the causality of the following systems.
a) y(t) = x(t) + 3 x(t + 4) b) y(t) = x(t2)
c) y(t) = x(2t) d) y(t) = x(–t)

Solution
a) Given that, y(t) = x(t) + 3 x(t + 4)
When t = 0, y(0) = x(0) + 3 x(4) Þ The response at t = 0, i.e., y(0) depends on the present
input x(0) and future input x(4).
When t = 1, y(1) = x(1) + 3 x(5) Þ The response at t = 1, i.e., y(1) depends on the present
input x(1) and future input x(5).
From the above analysis we can say that the response for any value of t depends on present and future
inputs. Hence the system is noncausal.

b) Given that, y(t) = x(t2)

When t = –1 ; y(–1) = x(1) Þ The response at t = –1, depends on the future input x(1). When t = 0 ;
y(0) = x(0) Þ The response at t = 0, depends on the present input x(0). When t = 1 ; y(1) = x(1) Þ
The response at t = 1, depends on the present input x(1).
When t = 2 ; y(2) = x(4) Þ The response at t = 2, depends on the future input x(4).
From the above analysis we can say that the response for any value of t (except t = 0 & t = 1) depends on
future input. Hence the system is noncausal.
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 54 c) Given that, y(t) = x(2t)
When t = –1 ; y(–1) = x(–2) Þ The response at t = –1, depends on the past input x(–2). When t = 0 ;
y(0) = x(0) Þ The response at t = 0, depends on the present input x(0). When t = 1 ; y(1) = x(2) Þ
The response at t = 1, depends on the future input x(2).
From the above analysis we can say that the response of the system for t > 0, depends on future input.
Hence the system is noncausal.
d) Given that, y(t) = x(–t)
When t = –2 ; y(–2) = x(2) Þ The response at t = –2, depends on the future input x(2). When t = –1 ;
y(–1) = x(1) Þ The response at t = –1, depends on the future input x(1). When t = 0 ; y(0) = x(0) Þ
The response at t = 0, depends on the present input x(0).
When t = 1 ; y(1) = x(–1) Þ The response at t = 1, depends on the past input x(–1).
From the above analysis we can say that the response of the system for t < 0 depends on future input. Hence
the system is noncausal.

2.8.5 Stable and Unstable Systems

Definition : An arbitrary relaxed system is said to be BIBO stable (Bounded Input-Bounded
Output stable) if and only if every bounded input produces a bounded output.
Let x(t) be the input of continuous time system and y(t) be the response or output for x(t).
The term bounded input refers to finite value of the input signal x(t) for any value of t.
Hence if input x(t) is bounded then there exists a constant Mx such that |x(t)| £ Mx and Mx< ¥, for
all t. Examples of bounded input signal are step signal, decaying exponential signal and
impulse signal. Examples of unbounded input signal are ramp signal and increasing
exponential signal.
The term bounded output refers to finite and predictable output for any value of t. Hence
if output y(t) is bounded then there exists a constant My such that |y(t)| £ My and My< ¥, for all t.
In general, the test for stability of the system is performed by applying specific input. On
applying a bounded input to a system if the output is bounded then the system is said to be
BIBO stable.
Condition for Stability of an LTI System
For an LTI (Linear Time Invariant) system, the condition for BIBO stability can be
transformed to a condition on impulse response, h(t). For BIBO stability of an LTI continuous
time system, the integral of impulse response should be finite.

z
+¥
| ( )| , . h t for stability of an LTI system dt

\<¥
-¥

Proof :

The response of a system y(t) for any input x(t) is given by convolution of the input and impulse

response. +¥ z t t t x(t d .....(2.18)

yth()())=-
-¥

2. 55 Signals & Systems

On taking the absolute value on both sides of equation (2.18), we get,

zz
+¥ +¥
ythh

()())())=-=- x(t d x(t d t t t t t t

-¥ +¥
=-

z -¥

ttt
h
-¥ x(t d .....(2.19)
())

If the input x(t) is bounded then there exists a constant MX, such that | x(t-t) | £ MX< ¥. Hence

equation(2.19) can be written as, z t td .....(2.20)

+¥
y t M h x( ) ( ) =
-¥

From equation (2.20) we can say that the output y(t) is bounded, if the impulse response satisfies
 the condition, +¥ z <¥

d h( ) t t
-¥

Since t is a dummy variable in the above condition we can replace t by t.

z
+¥
h t( ) dt

\<¥
-¥

Example 2.17
Test the stability of the following systems.

a) y(t) = cos (x(t)) b) y(t) = x(–t – 2) c) y(t) = t x(t)

Solution
a) Given that, y(t) = cos (x(t))
The given system is a nonlinear system, and so the test for stability should be performed for specific inputs.
The value of cos q lies between –1 to +1 for any value of q. Therefore the output y(t) is bounded for any value of
input x(t). Hence the given system is stable.

b) Given that, y(t) = x(–t – 2)

The given system is a time variant system, and so the test for stability should be performed for specific inputs.
The operations performed by the system on the input signal are folding and shifting. A bounded input signal
will remain bounded even after folding and shifting. Therefore in the given system, the output will be bounded as
long as input is bounded. Hence the given system is BIBO stable.

c) Given that, y(t) = t x(t)

The given system is a time variant system, and so the test for stability should be performed for specific inputs.
Case i : Let x(t) tends to ¥ or constant, as t tends to infinity. In this case, y(t) = t x(t) will be infinity as t tends
to inifnity and so the system is unstable.
Case ii : Let x(t) tends to 0, as t tends to infinity. In this case y(t) = t x(t) will be zero as t tends to infinity and
so the system is stable.
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 56 Example 2.18
Test the stability of the LTI systems, whose impulse responses are given below.
a) h(t) = e–5|t| b) h(t) = e4t u(t) c) h(t) = e–4t u(t)
d) h(t) = t e–3t u(t) e) h(t) = t cost u(t) f) h(t) = e–t sint u(t)

Solution
a) Given that, h(t) = e–5|t|

z ¥

+ ¥
For stability, h(t) dt <
-¥
 +
zzz + - + -
¥ ¥ 5|t| ¥ 5|t|
\

h(t) dt = e dt = e dt
-¥
-¥
O O
L Q - QP
P
zz
-¥
NM
L -¥

NM
0
+ 0
5t 5t ¥

e
= e dt + e dt = +e
-
5t 5t
005 5
-¥ -¥
-¥ -¥
00
ee e e 1 1 2
= 5+ 5 5= 50+0+ 5= 5
- -

z - --5

+ ¥
2
Here, h(t) dt = 5 = constant. Hence the system is stable. -¥
4t
b) Given that, h(t) = e u(t)

z ¥

+ ¥
For stability, h(t) dt <
-¥

+
zzz + 4t ¥
¥ ¥ + 4t

h(t) dt = e u(t) dt = e u(t) dt \

-¥
-¥
L O
NM QP - = ¥ - ¥
-¥

z ¥
¥ ¥
 +
4t
0
e ee 1
= e dt = = 4 4=
4t
44
00

z ¥.

+ ¥

Here, h(t) dt = Hence the system is unstable. -¥

c) Given that, h(t) = e–4t u(t)

z ¥

+ ¥
For stability, h(t) dt <
-¥

+
zzz + - +
¥ ¥ 4t ¥ -
4t

h(t) dt = e u(t) dt = e u(t) dt \

-¥ -¥

L O
-¥ z NM QP - -
-

¥ ¥ +
- -¥ 4t

0
e ee 1 1
= e dt = = 4=0+ 4= 4
-
4t
- 44
00

z 1
4
+ ¥

Here, h(t) dt = = constant. Hence the system is stable. -¥

2. 57 Signals & Systems
d) Given that, h(t) = t e u(t) –3t

z ¥

+ ¥
For stability, h(t) dt <
-¥

+
zzz + - +
¥ ¥ 3t ¥ -
3t
\
 h(t) dt = t e u(t) dt = t e dt
-¥

z z z z QP
-¥
u v = u v du v -
L O
z
0
NM
L O
NM QP - -
L O
¥
NM QP
-- --¥
3t 3t 3t 3t
e e te
= 1 3dt = e
-´
- -
t
003 39
-¥ -¥ 00
¥´
- -+´
ee0e
= +e3939
¥´
- -+
0 1 1
= 00+ = 9
39

z 1
9
+ ¥
Since, h(t) dt = = constant, the system is stable. -¥
e) Given that, h(t) = t cost u(t)

z ¥

+ ¥
For stability, h(t) dt <
-¥

zzz ¥
¥¥
+++

h(t) dt = t cost u(t) dt = t cost dt

-¥

z z z z QP
-¥
u v = u v du v -

z
0
L
NM
O
 L
¥
¥

- ´ NM

O
QP
= t sint 1 sint dt = t sint + cost 00

¥´¥¥-´-
= sin + cos 0 sin 0 cos 0 ¥ ¥ - - ¥
= + cos 0 1 =

+
z ¥

Since, h(t) dt = , the system is unstable.

-¥

f) Given that, h(t) = e–t sint u(t)

z ¥

+ ¥
For stability, h(t) dt <
-¥

+ ¥
zzz +
¥
h(t) dt = e sint u(t) dt = e sint dt

t
+
¥
-
t
\ -
.....(1)
-¥

zzzz
-¥
0

L O
u v = u v du v - NM QP
zz
¥ ¥
- ¥ - tt

t
-
--
--
()()e
e sint dt = e cost
1 cost dt
0

z
0
0
¥

¥
- -t

t
--
= e cost cost dt
0

L O
z
0

e L u v = u v du v -
NM
 QP
zzz z
M O P
¥ ¥
N M Q P
- -¥ - tt

t
e
---
-
= e cost e sint
1 sint dt
00 ¥

z ¥ ¥
.....(2)
- - -
t
tt
---
= e cost e sint e sint dt
00
0
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 58
From equation (2) we can write,

z
¥ ¥
- -¥
-
t
--
tt
2 e sint dt = e cost e sint 0
0 0

z
¥ ¥
- -¥
1 1
t t .....(3) e sint dt = 2e cost 2e sint
- t
\--
0
0 0

Using equation (3), the equation (1) can be written as,

zz
¥
--

¥ ¥
+ - -¥

1 1
h(t) dt = e sint dt = 2e cost 2e sint
-¥ ttt00
- 0

1 1
= 2e cos + e cos 0 2e sin e sin 0
-¥ -¥
00
-¥-¥-
 1 1
= 20 cos + 1 20 sin 0
-´¥-´¥-

1 1 1
= 20 + 1 20 0 = 2
--

z + ¥
1
Since, h(t) dt = 2 = constant, the system is stable.
-¥

Example 2.19
Determine the range of values of "a" and "b" for the stability of LTI system with impulse
response. h(t) = eat u(t) + e-bt u(t)

Solution
Given that, h(t) = eat u(t) + e-bt u(t).

zzz
+¥ +¥
+¥
+- +-
at bt at bt
==
dt e e e e | ( )| ( ) ( ) ( ( ) ( )) h t u t u t dt u t u t dt
-¥ -¥

zz
-¥

L O L
=+= NM QP +
-
NM

QP
¥
¥ -¥¥

at bt
e e
ee a b
-
at bt
dt dt
0000
´¥ ´ - ´¥ - ´ ´¥ - ´¥
aa0bb0ab
11
 e e e e e e
a a b b a b
=-+ - =-+
- - -+
ab
"".
a" b"
In the above equation if is negative and is positive then it converges tofinite value b"
," negative and
a" is positive
Therefore when is ",

z
¥ =-+
-+
0 1 0 1
dt a a b b
| ( )|
ht
0
b
Cons t
- 1 1 a
= - + = = a b ab tan

Here the integral of impulse response is a constant when "a" is negative and "b" is
positive. Therefore the range of values of "a" and "b" for stability of LTI system are, a < 0
and b > 0.

2. 59 Signals & Systems 2.8.6 Feedback and Nonfeedback Systems

The system in which the output y(t) at any time t depends on past output, past input and
present input is called a feedback system. The integration and differentiation of a signal at any
time depends on past value and so the equations governing feedback systems will have terms
involving differentiations and integrations of output and input.

The equations governing feedback systems will be in the form,

N - 1 N - 2 M
N
d d d d d
a dt dt dt dt dtx t
y(t) + a y(t) + a y(t) + ....... + a y(t) + a y(t) = b
()
--
0

21
NN
12N0
N M
N
-
- - M
1 M 2
1
d d d
b dtx t b dtx t dtx t b x t
+ +.......+ b + + - -
()()()()1
M
- 12 MMM21
 The system in which the output depends only on the present and past input is called a
nonfeedback system. The equations governing nonfeedback systems will not have terms
involving differentiations and integrations of output.

The equations governing nonfeedback systems will be in the form,

M - 1 M - 2
M
d d d d
y(t) = b + +.......+ b 0 dtx t b dtx t b dtx t dtx t b x t
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) + + MMM1--
M M -
12 21

2.9 Convolution of Continuous Time Signals

The convolution of two continuous time signals x1(t) and x2(t) is defined as,

+¥
z ....(2.21)

x = x x d 3( ) ( ) ( ) t t 1 2 l l l -
-¥

where, x3(t) is the signal obtained by convolving x1(t) and x2(t),

and l is a dummy variable used for integration.
The convolution relation of equation (2.21) can be symbolically expressed as,
(t) where the symbol
x3(t) = x1 * x2(t) ..... (2.22) * indicates convolution operation.
2.9.1 Response of LTI Continuous Time System Using Convolution

In an LTI continuous time system, the response y(t) of the system for an arbitrary input x(t) is
given by convolution of input x(t) with impulse response h(t) of the system. It is expressed as,

+¥
z lll
....(2.23)

y=xh=xhd()()()()()tttt*-
-¥

where the symbol

* represents convolution operation.
In an LTI system, if the input x(t) is a unit step signal, then the response is called a unit
step response.
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 60 Proof :
Let y(t) be the response of system H for an input x(t)
\ y(t) = H[x(t)] .....(2.24)
From equation (2.10) we know that the signal x(t) can be expressed as an integral of impulses,

+¥
z .....(2.25)
 i e t t . ., ( ) ( ) ( ) x = x d l d l l -
-¥

where, d(t – l) is the delayed unit impulse signal

From equation (2.24) and (2.25) we get,

z
M O P
N M Q P +¥

L
ytt
()()() =Hxdldll
-
+¥

z
-¥

-
-¥
=Hd
xt In linear system, integration and
()() system operation H can be
ldll interchanged
-¥

z
The system H is a function
of t and not a function of l.
.....(2.26)
+¥

=xHd()()ldllt-

Let the response of the LTI system to the unit impulse input d(t) be denoted by h(t).
\ h(t) = H[d(t)]
Then by time invariance property, the response of the system to delayed unit impulse input d(t – l) is
given by, H[d(t – l)] = h(t – l) .....(2.27)
Using equation (2.27), the equation (2.26) can be expressed as,

+¥
z .....(2.28)

ytt()()()=xhdlll-
-¥

The equation (2.28) represents the convolution of input x(t) with the impulse response h(t) to yield
the output y(t). Hence it is proved that the response y(t) of LTI continuous time system for an
arbitrary input x(t) is given by convolution of input x(t) with impulse response h(t) of the system.

2.9.2 Properties of Convolution

The convolution of continuous time signals will satisfy the following

(t) (t)
properties. Commutative property : x1 * x2(t) = x2 * x1(t)

(t) (t) ] (t) (t)

Associative property : [ x1 * x2 * x3(t) = x1 * [ x2 * x3(t) ] Distributive
 (t) (t) (t)
property : x1 * [ x2(t) + x3(t) ] = [ x1 * x2(t) ] + [ x1 * x3(t) ]

Proof of Commutative Property :

Consider two continuous time signals, x1(t) and x2(t).
By Commutative property we can write,
x1(t) * x2(t) = x2(t) * x1(t)
(LHS) (RHS)
2. 61 Signals & Systems
LHS = x1(t) * x2(t)

z
+¥
.....(2.29) = x (t m) dm 2 x m

m
= -¥ 1( )-

where m is a dummy variable used for convolution

operation. Let, t – m = p when m = –¥, p = t – m = t + ¥ = +¥ \
m = t – p when m = +¥, p = t – m = t – ¥ = –¥ dm = –dp
On replacing m by (t – p) and (t – m) by p in equation (2.29)

-¥
we get, zz 12( ))())

+¥
used
Here p is a dummy variable
LHS x t p x t = p x ( dp = p x ( p dp 2 - - - 1
for convolution operation
=¥
+
pp Proof of Associative
Property :
= -¥
= x2(t) * x1(t)
= RHS

Consider three continuous time signals x1(t), x2(t) and x3(t). By Associative property we
can write, [ x1(t) * x2(t) ] * x3(t) = x1(t) * [ x2(t) * x3(t) ]
LHS RHS
Let, y1(t) = x1(t) * x2(t) .....(2.30) Let us replace t by p.
\ y1(p) = x1(p) * x2(p)

z
+¥
.....(2.31) = m) x (p m) dm 2 x

m
= -¥ 1( -

Let, y2(t) = x2(t) * x3(t) .....(2.32) +¥

z y t = x (t q dq 2 3 ( ) ( ) ) x q
 \-
q = -¥ 2

+¥

z y (t m) = x (t q m) dq 2 3 x q \

---
q

2( ) .....(2.33) = -¥
= y x (t p dp
where p, m and q are dummy variables used for
())
convolution operation. LHS = [ x1 (t) * x2(t) ] * x3(t)
= y1(t) * x3(t)

z
+¥
Using equation (2.30)

= -¥
1
-
p
p 3

zz
+¥
+¥ 23
= x (p m) x (t p) dm dp x m
= -¥ 1
pm
-- (2.31)
= -¥
() Using equation

+¥ +¥
zz --
.....(2.34)

1
= x (m) dm x (p m) x (t p) dp 23
m p = -¥ = -¥
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 62 Let, p – m = q when p = –¥, q = p – m = –¥ – m =
–¥
\ p = q + m when p = +¥, q = p – m = +¥ – m = +¥
dp = dq
On replacing (p – m) by q and p by (q + m) in the equation (2.34) we get,

zz +¥
+¥
--
LHS = x dm x x q m) dq ( ) ( ) (

mqt
= -¥ 3
12
+¥

mq z -
= -¥
 = x y m) dm ( ) (
m
= -¥
mt1
Using equation (2.33)
2

= x1(t) * y2(t)
= x1(t) * [x2(t) * x3(t)] Using equation (2.32)
= RHS

Proof of Distributive Property :

Consider three continuous time signals x1(t), x2(t) and x3(t). By distributive property we
can write, x1(t) * [ x2(t) + x3(t) ] = [ x1(t) * x2(t) ] + [ x1(t) * x3 (t) ]
LHS RHS
LHS = x1(t) * [ x2(t) + x3(t) ]
= x ) x (t m) dm

zz
= x1(t) * x4(t)
x4(t) = x2(t) + x3(t)

zz m is dummy variable
+¥
1
m - integration x2(t) + x3(t),
m ( if, x4(t) = then
= -¥ +¥ 4 used for
= x m) [ x m) + x (t m) ] dm
((1 t x4(t-m) = x2(t-m) + x3(t-m)
--
m
= -¥ +¥
23
+¥
= x ) x (t m) dm + x ) x (t m) dm ( (
mm
--
11
= -¥
23
= RHS
= -¥
mm = [ x1(t) * x2(t)
] + [ x1(t) * x3(t) ]

2.9.3 Interconnections of Continuous Time Systems

Smaller continuous time systems may be interconnected to form larger systems. Two
possible basic ways of interconnection are cascade connection and parallel connection. The
cascade and parallel connections of two continuous time systems with impulse responses h1(t)
and h2(t) are shown in
fig 2.43. h1(t)
® ®
(t)
®h 1 ® ®y(t) x(t) y (t) 1 x(t) y(t) ® ®
+
h2(t)
 h2(t) ®
®
Fig 2.43b : Parallel connection. Fig 2.43a : Cascade connection. Fig 2.43 :
Interconnection of continuous time systems.
2. 63 Signals & Systems Cascade Connected Continuous Time Systems

Two cascade connected continuous time systems with impulse response h1(t) and h2(t)
can be replaced by a single equivalent continuous time system whose impulse response is
given by convolution of individual impulse responses.
x(t) y (t)
Þ 1 ®h (t) ® ®y(t) x(t) y(t)
1

h2(t) ®h1(t)*h2(t) ®
Fig 2.44 : Cascade connected continuous time systems and their equivalent.
Proof :
With reference to fig 2.44 we can write,
y1(t) = x(t) * h1(t) .....(2.35) y(t) = y1(t) * h2(t) .....(2.36) Using equation (2.35) the equation
(2.36) can be written as,
y(t) =[ x(t) * h1(t) ] *
h2(t) = x(t) * [ h1(t) * h2(t) Using associative property
]
= x(t) * h(t) .....(2.37) where, h(t) = h1(t) * h2(t)
From equation (2.37) we can say that the overall impulse response of two cascaded continuous
time systems is given by convolution of individual impulse responses.

Parallel Connected Continuous Time Systems

Two parallel connected continuous time systems with impulse responses h1(t) and h2(t)
can be replaced by a single equivalent continuous time system whose impulse response is
given by the sum of individual impulse responses.
h1(t)
®
® y1(t)

x(t) y(t) ® ® x(t) y(t)

Þ ®h (t)+h (t) ®
1 2

+
(t) ®
® y2 h2(t)
y(t) = y1(t) + y2(t) .....(2.40)
On substituting for y1(t) and y2(t) from equations (2.38)
and (2.39) in equation (2.40) we get, y(t) = [ x(t) * h1(t)
Proof: ] + [ x(t) * h2(t) ] .....(2.41) By using distributive
Fig 2.45 : Parallel connected continuous time property of convolution, the equation (2.41) can be
systems and their equivalent. written as shown below. y(t) = x(t) * [ h1(t) + h2(t) ]
= x(t) * h(t) .....(2.42) where, h(t) = h1(t) + h2(t)
From equation (2.42) we can say that the overall
impulse response of two parallel connected
With reference to fig 2.45 we can write, continuous time systems is given by the sum of
y1(t) = x(t) * h1(t) .....(2.38) y2(t) = x(t) * h2(t) .....(2.39) individual impulse responses.
Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 64 2.9.4 Procedure to Perform Convolution

The convolution of two continuous time signals x1(t) and x2(t) is defined as,
 z
+¥
12 lll

x = x x x x d 312( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t t t t * = -
-¥

where, x3(t) is the signal obtained by convolving x1(t) and x2(t),

l is a dummy variable used for integration,

* indicates convolution operation.

The computation of x3(t) using the above convolution equation for any value of t involves
the following operations,

1. Change of time index : The time index t in signals x1(t) and x2(t) is changed to l to get
x1(l) and x2(l).
2. Folding : The signal x2(l) is folded to get x2(-l).
3. Shifting : The signal x2(-l) is shifted by t units of time to get x2(t-l). 4. Multiplication :
The signals x1(l) and x2(t-l) are multiplied to get a product signal.
5. Integration : The product signal is integrated to get x3(t). Let the product signal is
nonzero in the interval l=l1 to l=l2 , Now the signal x3(t) is given
by,

ll
=
z 2

x t x x t d 312( ) ( ) ( ) = -
lll
ll
= 1

If both x1(t) and x2(t) are defined for t > 0, (i.e., both x1(t) and
are causal) then the product signal is nonzero in the
x2(t)
interval l=0
to l=t, Now the signal x3(t) is given by,

l
=
z t
x t x x t d 2( ) ( ) ( ) = -
31
lll
l = 0

In order to determine the range of values of l for product signal, graphical representation
of signals will be very useful. The operations like folding, shifting and multiplication can be
performed graphically to ascertain the range of values of l over which the product signal is
nonzero.
In the above convolution, if the signals x1(t) and x2(t) are defined by a single
mathematical equation for t = -¥ to +¥, then time shift is valid for any value of t in the range t =
-¥ to +¥. Therefore the time shift, multiplication and integration are performed only once by
taking general time shift t.
In the above convolution, if the signals x1(t) and x2(t) are defined by different
mathematical equations in various intervals of time, then the time shift, multiplication and
integration are performed in each interval of time by considering a time shift t in each interval.
2. 65 Signals & Systems 2.9.5 Unit Step Response Using Convolution
In general the response y(t) of a system is given by convolution of input x(t) and impulse
response
h(t) of the system.

z lll
= +¥

y=xhxhd()()()()()tttt*=-
l = -¥

Let the input x(t) be unit step input u(t), and the corresponding response be s(t). Now
the unit step response s(t) is given by,

Unit Step Response, s = u h

()()()
ttt
*
=hu()() *
Using Commutative property
tt

l
z lll

=+¥

=- hud

()()
t
l =-¥

In the above convolution operation, u(l) = 1 for l > 0,

u(-l) = 1 for l < 0,
u(t-l) = 1 for l < t, and u(t-l) = 0 for l > t.
Therefore the unit step response s(t) is given by,

=
z l
ll

t
 Unit Step Response, s h d ( ) ( ) t
=

l = -¥

Example 2.20

Perform convolution of the following causal signals.

a) x1(t) = 2 u(t), x2(t) = u(t) b) x1(t) = e–2t u(t) , x2(t) = e–5t
u(t) c) x1(t) = t u(t), x2(t) = e–5t u(t) d) x1(t) = cos t u(t) , x2(t)
= t u(t) Solution
a) Given that, x1(t) = 2 u(t) = 2 ; t ³ 0
x 2(t) = u(t) = 1 ; t ³ 0
Since x1(t) and x2(t) are causal, the limits of integration is
Let, x3(t) = x1(t) * x2(t) 0 to t.
By definition of convolution,

zzz lllll
l

=t l =t l =t
= * = - = ´ = x (t) x (t) x (t) x ( ) x t d 1 d d 3 1 2 1 2
l =0
() l 22l =0
=0
t
220202 0 t t for t t u t = = - = ³ =
l

b) Given that, x1(t) = e–2t u(t) = e–2t ; t ³ 0 x 2(t)

= e–5t u(t) = e–5t ; t ³ 0
Let, x3(t) = x1(t) * x2(t)
By definition of convolution, Since x1(t) and x2(t) are causal,
;() the limits of integration is 0 to t.

l =t l =t ll
=*=-==
l
zzz =t
-----
lllll

ll
( ) 2 5 2 5 5 (t t )
x (t) x (t) x (t) x ( ) x t d e e d e e e d 3 1 2 1 2
l =0 l =0 l =0

Chapter 2 - Continuous Time Signals and Systems 2. 66 z z eedeede e

ee e

L O L O
l =t l
= = = NM
=t
Q = - NM QP
P
t
l
30t
5 2 5 5 3 53 - - + - - -
ll l
ttt
t
5
ll
333
 - 5 t l l =0 0
=0

d i d i d i ;()
1 1
31 30 3
e
eeeee
----
ttttt
for t u t
32525
=-=-³=-

c) Given that, x1(t) = t u(t) = t ; t ³ 0

x 2(t) = e–5t u(t) = e–5t ; t ³ 0
Let, x3(t) = x1(t) * x2(t)
By definition of convolution,

z
Since x1(t) and x2(t) are
l causal,

=t
=*=- x (t) x (t) x (t) x ( ) x t d
lll the limits of integration is 0 to t.
31212
()
l =0

zz l

=t l =t
---
l
l
555()
tt
==
llll edeed

l
zzzz =0
- du v

O P
z
=0
M
N M Q P
l

L uv = u v

z
L O
==-´ NM QP t

l
=t ll l
ee llll
5 5 55 5 e ede d
-- l 5l
tt
l 1 u=v=e
5 5
=0
0
 L O
t
= - NM QP = - - ´
ll

L O
+ NM QP
55 5 tt t 55 5 00e

ee
e e e e e --
t
l
5 25 5 250 t 5 25
0

tt t t
d i d i ; ( ) for t u t
e
5te e e + 5t
-
-
5
555
1
251 0 251
=-+³=-

d) Given that, x1(t) = cos t u(t) = cos t ; t ³ 0

x 2(t) = t u(t) = t ; t ³ 0
Let, x3(t) = x1(t) * x2(t) integration is 0 to t.

zzzz
By definition of convolution,

z
- du v
=*=- lll

Since x1(t) and x2(t) are causal, the limits of

l
=t uv = u v
x (t) x (t) x (t) x ( ) x t d 3 1 2 1 2 ( )
l
=0
u = v = cos
ll

=´-=-
zzzl =t
cos t d cos d cos d

l =t l =t
llllllll()t
l l =0 l =0
=0

z tt

ttt
t sin sin sin sin sin cos
=--´=-+
0
lllllllll 0001
d

=--+-´-
 ttttt
sin sin sin cos sin cos
0000
=---++=-³=-
t t t t t t for t t u t
sin sin cos cos ; ( cos ) ( )
001101

Example 2.21
Determine the unit step response of the following systems whose impulse responses are given
below. a) h(t) = 3t u(t) b) h(t) = e–5t u(t) c) h(t) = u(t + 2) d) h(t) = u(t - 2) e) h(t) = u(t + 2) + u(t - 2)
2. 67 Signals & Systems Solution
a) Given that, h(t) = 3t u(t) = 3t ; t ³ 0

zzz llllll
l

=t l =t l =t
===
Unit Step Response, s(t) h( ) d 3 d d 3
l -¥ l =0 l =0
=

L O L O
= NM QP = - NM QP = ³ =
2
2
22

tt
t for t t u t ; ( ) l

3 3 0 3 3
2 2 2 20 2
0

b) Given that, h(t) = e u(t) = e ; t ³ 0

–5t –5t

ll
O
zz
l

l QP
L t

=t
NM
l -- 55
l
=t

===-

Unit Step Response, s(t) h( ) d e d e l

l -¥ =0 0
= l 5

L O
NM QP = - ³ = - ttt
( ); ( ) ( ) for t u t
1
ee
ee
- 50
-- 55
= -
- - c) Given that, h(t) = u(t + 2) = 1 ; t ³ -2
1
55 51 0 51

zz -l llll

=t =t
l t
t
====+
Unit Step Response, s(t) h( ) d d
22
l
-¥ -
l = 2
=
=+³-=++
t for t t u t ; ( ) ( )
2222

d) Given that, h(t) = u(t - 2) = 1 ; t ³ 2

zz llll
l

=t =t
l t
t
====-
Unit Step Response, s(t) h( ) d d
22
l -¥ l = 2
=
=-³=--
t for t t u t ; ( ) ( )
2222

e) Given that, h(t) = u(t + 2) + u(t - 2)

Let, h(t) = h1(t) + h2(t)
where, h1(t) = u(t+2) = 1 ; t ³ -2
h2(t) = u(t-2) = 1 ; t ³ 2
Unit step response, s(t) = h(t) * u(t) = [ h1(t) + h2(t) ] * u(t)
= [ h1(t) * u(t) ] + [ h2(t) * u(t) ] = s1(t) + s2(t)
where, s1(t) = h1(t) * u(t)
s2(t) = h2(t) * u(t)

zz -l llll

l
=t =t
2d t t for t 2 2 2 t ;
= = = = + = + > - s (t) h ( ) d 1 1
l
-¥ -
= l = 2
 zzz lllll
l

=t l =t l =t

2d d t t for t 2 2 2 t ;
= = = = = - = - > s (t) h( ) d 2
l -¥ = 22 =
= l l
Now, Unit step response, s(t) = s1(t) ; for t = - 2 to 2 = s1(t) +
s2(t) ; for t > 2

\ Unit step response, s(t) = t + 2 ; for t = - 2 to 2 = t + 2 + t - 2 = 2t ;

for t > 2

CHAPTER 6
Discrete Time Signals and Systems
6.1 Discrete and Digital Signals
The discrete signal is a function of a discrete independent variable. The independent
variable is divided into uniform intervals and each interval is represented by an integer. The
letter "n" is used to denote the independent variable. The discrete or digital signal is denoted
by x(n). The discrete signal is defined for every integer value of the independent variable "n".
The magnitude (or value) of discrete signal can take any discrete value in the specified range.
Here both the value of the signal and the independent variable are discrete.
When the independent variable is time t, the discrete signal is called discrete time
signal. In discrete time signal, the time is quantized uniformly using the relation t = nT, where T
is the sampling time period. (The sampling time period is inverse of sampling frequency). The
discrete time signal is denoted by x(n) or x(nT).
The digital signal is same as discrete signal except that the magnitude of the signal is
quantized. The magnitude of the signal can take one of the values in a set of quantized
values. Here quantization is necessary to represent the signal in binary codes.
The discrete or digital signals have a sequence of numbers (or values) defined for
integer values of the independent variable. Hence the discrete or digital signals are also known
as discrete sequence. In this book the term sequence and signal are used synonymously. Also
in this book the discrete signal is referred as discrete time signal.
6.1.1 Generation of Discrete Signals
A discrete signal can be generated in the following three methods.
The methods 1 and 2 are independent of any time frame but method 3 depends critically
on time. 1. Generate a set of numbers and arrange them as a sequence.
Example :
 The numbers 0, 1, 2, ...., (N – 1) form the ramp like sequence and can be expressed as,

x(n) = n ; 0 £ n £ (N – 1)

2. Evaluation of a numerical recursion relation will generate a discrete signal.

Example :

F I with initial condition x(0) = 1, gives the sequence, x n

-
3= = HG K J £<¥
n
1

x(n) x(n 1)

30n
();

F I
HG KJ 0
1
When n = 0 ; x 0 = 1 ( initial condition) = 3
()

F I
-
HG KJ 1

When n = 1 ; x 1 = x(1 1)
()()
x0 1 1
3= 3= 3= 3
Chapter 6 - Discrete Time Signals and Systems 6. 2

F I
-
HG KJ 2

When n = 2 ; x(2) = x(2 1)

x(1) 1 1
3= 3= 9= 3

F I
-
HG KJ 3

When n = 3 ; x(3) = x(3 1)

x(2) 1 1
3= 3 = 27 = 3 and so on

F I
\ HG KJ £ < ¥ n
1
n
x(n) = ; 0
3
 3. A third method is by uniformly sampling a continuous time signal and using the
amplitudes of the samples to form a sequence.
Let, x(t) = Continuous time signal

Now, Discrete signal, x(nT) = x(t) ; < n < t nT = -¥ ¥

where, T is the sampling interval
The generation of discrete signal by sampling an analog ramp signal is shown in fig 6.1.
.
x(t)
x(nT)
......
0T 0 N-1
t 1 n
2345

Fig 6.1a. Analog signal. Fig 6.1b. Discrete time signal.

Fig 6.1 : Generation of a discrete time signal.

6.1.2 Representation of Discrete Time Signals

The discrete time signal can be represented by the following methods.

1. Functional representation
In functional representation the signal is represented as mathematical equation, as
shown in the following example.
x(n) = – 1 ; n = – 2
=2;n=–1
= 1.5 ; n = 0
= – 0.9 ; n = 1
= 1.4 ; n = 2 horizontal axis and the
= 1.6 ; n = 3
= 0 ; other n
value of the signal is
2 represented in the vertical
1.5
2. Graphical representation 1.6 1.4 axis as shown in fig 6.2.
In graphical representation in a two dimensional plane. –2
–1
the signal is represented
The independent variable –1 0 1 2 3 n –0.9
x(n)
is represented in the

Fig 6.2 : Graphical representation of

a discrete time signal.
6. 3 Signals & Systems 3. Tabular representation

In tabular representation, two rows of a table are used to represent a discrete time
signal. In the first row the independent variable "n" is tabulated and in the second row the
value of the signal for each value of "n" are tabulated as shown in the following example.
n ........... –2 -1 0 1 2 3 ..............
x(n) ........... –1 2 1.5 –0.9 1.4 1.6 ..............
4. Sequence representation
 In sequence representation, the discrete time signal is represented as one dimensional
array as shown in the following examples.
An infinite duration discrete time signal with the time origin, n = 0, indicated by the symbol ­is represented as,
x(n) = { ..... – 1, 2, 1.5, – 0.9, 1.4, 1.6, ..... }
­

An infinite duration discrete time signal that satisfies the condition x(n) = 0 for n < 0 is represented as,
x(n) = { 1.5, – 0.9, 1.4, 1.6, ... } or x(n) = {1.5, – 0.9, 1.4, 1.6, ... }
­

A finite duration discrete time signal with the time origin, n = 0, indicated by the symbol ­is represented as,
x(n) = { – 1, 2, 1.5, – 0.9, 1.4, 1.6 }
­

A finite duration discrete time signal that satisfies the condition x(n) = 0 for n < 0 is represented as,
x(n) = { 1.5, – 0.9, 1.4, 1.6 } or x(n) = { 1.5, – 0.9, 1.4, 1.6}
­

6.2 Standard Discrete Time Signals

or Unit sample signal, n ; n = 0
1. Digital impulse signal
sequence Impulse d(n)
u(n)
1 1
.....
d( ) = 1

=¹
0 0 45
0123 n
Fig 6.3 : Digital impulse n Fig 6.4 : Unit step
2. Unit step signal signal. signal.
;n0
5
Ramp signal, u n n ; n 0 r ( ) = ³ 4
3
Unit step signal, u n 1 ; n 0 2
()=³ ur(n)
.....
= 0 ; n < 0 3. Ramp signal

1
n
=0;n<0 Fig 6.5 : Ramp signal.
012435
Chapter 6 - Discrete Time Signals and Systems 6. 4

4. Exponential signal
n
()=³

Exponential signal, g n a ; n 0
= 0 ; n < 0 g(n)
0<a<1
 .....
.....
g(n)

a>1
01234
0123456n n

Fig 6.6a : Decreasing exponential signal. Fig 6.6b : Increasing exponential signal.
signal
Fig 6.6 : Exponential signal.
5. Discrete time sinusoidal

The discrete time sinusoidal signal may be expressed as,

x n A cos n b g b g = + w q ; for n in the range -¥ < n < +¥

0

x n A sin n b g b g = + w q ; for n in the range -¥ < n < +¥

0

where, w0 = Frequency in radians/sample ; q = Phase in

w
radians f0 = p0
= Frequency in cycles/sample
2
x(n)

–6 –5 –4
–9 –8 –7 456789
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 n
sinusoidal signal represented
by equation x(n) = A cos(w0n).
Fig 6.7a : Discrete time x(n)
–1 5 12
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 1 2 3 4 67 8 9 10 11 n 0

x(n) Fig 6.7b : Discrete time sinusoidal signal

represented by

15
23467
p
3
0
–5 –4 –3 -2 -1 n 1 24 34 equation x(n) = Asin(w0n).

Fig 6.7c : Discrete time sinusoidal signal represented by

 ppp p F I w.
equation q + H K
x(n)= A cos n ;= ;=
6 3 6 30

Fig 6.7 : Discrete time sinusoidal signals.

6. 5 Signals & Systems Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoid

1. A discrete time sinusoid is periodic only if its frequency f is a rational number, (i.e.,
ratio of two integers).
2. Discrete time sinusoids whose frequencies are separated by integer multiples of 2p are
identical.
\x(n) = A cos[( w0 + 2pk ) n + q ], for k = 0,1,2...........are identical in the interval - p
£ w0 £ p and so they are indistinguishable.
Proof :

cos[( w0 + 2pk) n + q] = cos(w0n + 2pnk + q) = cos[(w0n + q) + 2pnk]

= cos(w0n + q) cos 2pnk - sin (w0n + q) sin 2pnk
Since n and k are integers, cos 2pnk =1 & sin 2pnk = 0

\ cos[( w0 + 2pk) n + q] = cos(w0n + q), for k = 1, 2, 3, .....

Conclusion

[Link] sequences of any two sinusoids with frequencies in the range, -p £ wo £ p , or,
-1/2 £ f0 £ 1/2, are distinct.
[-p £ w £ p divide by 2p ¾ ® ¾¾¾¾ -1/2 £ f £ 1/2]
2. Any discrete time sinusoid with frequency w0 > |p| (or f0 > |1/2|) will be identical to
another discrete time sinusoid with frequency w0 < |p| (or f0 < |1/2|).
6. Discrete time complex exponential signal
The discrete time complex exponential signal is defined as,
x(n) = a e n j( n ) w q 0 + = an [cos(w0n + q) + j sin(w0n + q)]
= an cos(w0n + q) + j an sin(w0n + q) = xr(n) + j xi(n)
where, xr(n) = Real part of x(n) = an cos(w0n + q)
xi(n) = Imaginary part of x(n) = an sin(w0n + q)
The real part of x(n) will give an exponentially increasing cosinusoid sequence for a > 1 and
exponentially decreasing cosinusoid sequence for 0 < a < 1.
xr(n) xr(n)
a>1
0<a<1

...... n
n .....
 Fig 6.8a : The discrete time sequence represented represented by the equation xr(n) = an cos w0n
by the equation, xr(n) = an cos w0n for 0 < a < 1. for a > 1.
Fig 6.8b : The discrete time sequence
Fig 6.8 : Real part of complex exponential signal.
Chapter 6 - Discrete Time Signals and Systems 6. 6
The imaginary part of x(n) will give rise to an exponentially increasing sinusoid sequence
for a > 1 and exponentially decreasing sinusoid sequence for 0 < a < 1.
(n)
xi xi(n)
0<a<1
a>1

nn

Fig 6.9a : The discrete time sequence

represented by the equation, xi(n) = an sin w0n for
0 < a < 1.
Fig 6.9b : The discrete time sequence
.......... represented by the equation
xi(n) = an sin w0n for a > 1.

Fig 6.9 : Imaginary part of complex exponential signal.

6.3 Sampling of Continuous Time (Analog) Signals

The sampling is the process of conversion of a continuous time signal into a discrete
time signal. The sampling is performed by taking samples of continuous time signal at definite
intervals of time. Usually, the time interval between two successive samples will be same and
such type of sampling is called periodic or uniform sampling.
The time interval between successive samples is called sampling time (or sampling
period or sampling interval), and it is denoted by “T”. The unit of sampling period is second
(s). (The lower units are milli-second (ms) and micro-second (ms)).
The inverse of sampling period is called sampling frequency (or sampling rate), and it is
denoted by Fs. The unit of sampling frequency is Hertz (Hz). (The higher units are kHz and
MHz). Let, xa(t) = Analog / Continuous time signal.
x(n) = Discrete time signal obtained by sampling xa(t).
Mathematically the relation between x(n) and xa(t) can be expressed as,
F I
==== HG KJ ; for n in the range -¥ < n < ¥
 n a aa
x(n) x (t) x (nT) x F t nT s
where, T = Sampling period or interval in seconds
1 = Sampling rate or Sampling frequency in Hertz
Fs = T
Example : Let, x t A cos t a b g b g = + W q = + A cos F t b g 2p q
0 0

where, W0 = Frequency of analog signal in rad/s

W
F0 = 0

2p = Frequency of analog signal in Hz

=1
T
Let xa (t) be sampled at intervals of T seconds to get x(n), where Fs
6. 7 Signals & Systems

a
\ = + = = x(n) x (t) = A cos( t ) t nT W0 q t nT

F I A cos( nT ) = A cos 2 F
HG K J Fn+ 0
=+

= + + A cos = A cos 2p q w q f n n
W0 q q p oo didi
s
F
where, f 0 = Fs0 = Frequency of discrete sinusoid in cycles/sample
= 2pf
w0 0= Frequency of discrete sinusoid in radians/sample

6.3.1 Sampling and Aliasing

In section 6.2 it is observed that any two sinusoid signals with frequencies in the range
-1/2 £ f £ +1/2 are distinct and a discrete sinusoid with frequency, f > 1/2 will be identical to
another discrete sinusoid with frequency, f < 1/2 . Therefore we can conclude that range of
discrete frequency is -1/2 to +1/2 . But the range of analog frequency is -¥ to +¥ . While
sampling analog signals, the infinite frequency range continuous time signals are mapped or
converted to finite range discrete time signals.
The relation between analog and digital frequency is,
F
f = Fs .....(6.1) The range of discrete frequency is,
1 .....(6.2)
2f 2
1
-££

On substituting for f from equation (6.1) in equation (6.2) we get,

F 1
2 F 2 s .....(6.3)
1
-££

On multiplying equation (6.3) by Fs we get,

F
 F
2F 2
ss
.....(6.4) - £ £
From equation (6.4) we can say that when an analog signal is sampled at a frequency
Fs, the highest analog frequency that can be uniquely represented by a discrete time signal will
be Fs/2. The continuous time signal with frequency above Fs/2 will be represented as a signal
within the range + Fs/2 to - Fs/2 . Hence the signal with frequency above Fs/2 will have an
identical signal with frequency below Fs/2 in the discrete form.
Hence infinite number of high frequency continuous time signals will be represented by a
single discrete time signal. Such signals are called alias. While sampling at Fs, the frequency
above Fs/2 will have alias with frequency below Fs/2. Hence the point of reflection is Fs/2, and
the frequency Fs/2 is called folding frequency.
The discrete time sinusoids, A sin((2pf + 2pk)n), will be alias for integer values of k. It is
also observed that, a sinusoidal signal with frequency F1 will be an alias of sinusoidal signal
with frequency F2 if it is sampled at a frequency Fs = F1 - F2. In general if the sampling
frequency is any multiple of F1 - F2, (i.e., Fs = k(F1 - F2) where k = 1, 2, 3, ........) the signal with
frequency F2 will be an alias of the signal with frequency F1. The phenomenon of high
frequency component getting the identity of low frequency component during sampling is
called aliasing.