1) Control Systems in Vehicles
A control system is any arrangement that forces a machine to behave the way we want
automatically.
In a car, the goal might be:
• keep engine speed stable
• keep air-fuel ratio correct
• prevent wheel lock
• maintain cabin temperature
The difference between systems is simple:
Does the system check the result… or just assume it worked?
Open-Loop Control
An open-loop system gives a command but never checks the outcome.
Input → Controller → Actuator → Result (no feedback)
The controller does not know whether the action succeeded.
Automotive Examples
1. Starter motor turning engine
2. Windshield washer pump spraying fluid
3. Old carburetor fuel delivery
4. Radiator fan in very old cars (on/off thermostat switch only)
Characteristics
• Simple
• Cheap
• Fast response
• No correction for errors
Problem
If conditions change, performance becomes wrong.
Example:
If engine temperature changes → fuel mixture still same → engine runs poorly.
Closed-Loop Control (Feedback Control)
A closed-loop system measures the result and corrects itself continuously.
Input → ECU → Actuator → Vehicle response → Sensor feedback → ECU correction
The system constantly compares:
Error = Desired value − Measured value
Then adjusts output.
Automotive Example: Fuel Injection
Goal:
Maintain correct air-fuel ratio (14.7:1)
Steps:
1. Oxygen sensor measures exhaust oxygen
2. ECU calculates mixture error
3. Injector pulse width adjusted
4. Sensor measures again
5. Repeat hundreds of times per second
This is why modern engines run smoothly in hot, cold, uphill, or downhill conditions.
More Closed-Loop Examples
• Idle speed control
• ABS braking pressure
• Electronic throttle
• Cruise control
• Automatic transmission shifting
• Climate control temperature
Open vs Closed Loop Comparison
Feature Open Loop Closed Loop
Feedback No Yes
Accuracy Low High
Cost Cheap Expensive
Stability Poor Stable
Adaptability None Self-adjusting
Example Washer pump Fuel injection
Hybrid Operation (Very Important Concept)
Cars often start open loop then switch to closed loop.
Example: Cold engine start
Cold start:
ECU ignores oxygen sensor → runs rich → open loop
After warm-up:
Oxygen sensor active → ECU corrects mixture → closed loop
2) Embedded Systems in Automobiles
An embedded system is a dedicated computer built inside a machine to control a specific
task.
A car does not have one computer — it has many specialized computers.
Each is designed to do ONE job perfectly and continuously.
These computers are called Electronic Control Units (ECUs).
Why Cars Use Embedded Systems
Mechanical systems cannot:
• Think
• Predict
• Adapt
• Communicate
Embedded systems can.
They allow:
• fuel savings
• emission reduction
• safety automation
• self-diagnostics
Structure of an Automotive Embedded System
Every ECU follows the same pattern:
Inputs → Processing → Outputs
Section Purpose
Sensors Measure condition
Microcontroller Decision making
Memory Stores program & learned data
Output drivers Control actuators
Communication Talk to other ECUs
Typical ECUs in a Car
ECU Function
Engine Control Fuel & ignition
Transmission Control Gear shifting
ABS Control Braking stability
Airbag Control Collision protection
Body Control Lights & doors
Climate Control Temperature regulation
A modern vehicle may contain 30–100 ECUs.
Real-Time Operation (Critical Concept)
Automotive embedded systems are real-time systems.
They must respond within strict time limits.
Example:
At 3000 RPM:
1 engine revolution = 20 ms
The ignition spark timing accuracy required:
±1 ms
If late → power loss
If early → engine knock damage
So the ECU must calculate in microseconds.
Sensors → ADC Conversion
Most sensors produce analog signals (voltage).
Microcontrollers only understand digital numbers.
Therefore ECU contains:
ADC — Analog to Digital Converter
Example:
0 V = 05 V = 1023
The ECU turns voltage into data it can compute.
Actuator Control (Output Stage)
The ECU cannot directly power devices.
It uses:
• Transistors
• MOSFET drivers
• PWM signals (Pulse Width Modulation)
PWM controls:
• injector fuel amount
• motor speed
• throttle opening
Embedded Software Characteristics
Automotive programs must be:
• deterministic (same result every time)
• fault tolerant
• fast
• low memory usage
• resistant to electrical noise