Chapter 1 Physical Processes and

Natural Systems

In this chapter, you will …

Chapter Question: How
effective are strategies
to protect Canada’s
explain how physical processes formed
Canada’s landscape
explain how Canada can be divided into
natural regions
natural environment?
analyse the interrelationships between How are natural systems and human systems
Canada’s physical characteristics and connected? What makes the different regions of
human activities Canada unique?
analyse ideas and beliefs about the The interactions between people and the
value of Canada’s natural environment natural environment can have both positive
and negative consequences. While the physical
environment provides Canadians with many
benefits, natural species and spaces can also be
Key Geographic
put at risk by human activities.
Thinking Concepts
How can Canadians live more sustainably
• Interrelationships by balancing human needs with those of the
• Geographic Perspective environment?

Big Ideas

• Natural environmental characteristics,

such as climate, geology, drainage,
and vegetation, define Canada’s
physical regions.
• People have different beliefs about
the impact of human actions on
the natural environment and global
system.

Key Terms

bedrock high pressure

coniferous low pressure
deciduous sustainable
ecosystem tectonic
fossil fuels

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 Figure 1–1 A boardwalk
was built in Mount
Revelstoke National Park
in British Columbia to
minimize damage to the
sensitive ecosystem of
the forest floor. Why is it
important to protect our
natural environment?

Inquiry Questions
• What factors contribute to physical
diversity in Canada?
• How do we determine Canada’s natural
regions?
• Why is physical diversity important?
• How well does Canada respect and protect
its natural environment?

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 What factors contribute to physical diversity in
Canada?

Before You Read Canada is the second-largest nation by area in the world and as a
Look at the images in this result has great physical diversity. Visitors from around the globe
section. Predict what the come to experience Canada’s natural wonders, from mountains and
text in the section is about. glaciers to secluded lakes and forests. What factors contribute to
our nation’s physical diversity? What are the impacts when natural
systems and humans interact?

A Systems Approach
Think of the world as a giant jigsaw puzzle. When geographers look
at the world around them, they try to understand how each piece fits
together as part of a connected and interactive whole. This is what
geographers call a systems approach to studying the world.
These systems include both natural systems and human systems.
Natural systems include the land, water, and air, along with all of
the living creatures in the environment. Human systems involve
everything we do—how we live, work, and play. First Nations, Métis,
 Figure 1–2 How does this and Inuit peoples see the human system as part of the natural system.
photo of Earth from space When humans interact with natural systems, there are often
show the importance of using
a systems approach?
consequences for the environment. It is important that we understand
how people interact with their natural environment, and what effects they
have, so that we can take actions that are responsible and sustainable.
CONNECTschool
Go online to explore images
of Earth at night.
Human–Environment Interactions
One of our greatest challenges is trying to balance our wants
sustainable: able to and needs as humans with the need to protect and preserve our
be used without being environment. This balance is hard to achieve because we often fail
completely used up or to see the impact of humans on our planet and on its resources.
destroyed
However, Earth’s growing environmental crises have made it clear
that we need to find solutions to these problems.

Reflect and Respond

1. What is the systems approach to studying Earth? How is it a useful tool for studying geographic
issues?
2. How have humans altered natural systems to meet their own needs? Use specific examples from
your own community to support your answer.

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Thinking Geographically: Interrelationships

Accommodating Growing Populations

As geographers, studying interrelationships means exploring the
connections within and between natural and human environments.
Consider the City of Brampton in southern Ontario, shown
in Figure 1–3. In the 1950s, Brampton was a small town of about
8000 people. Now, Brampton is the ninth-largest city in Canada
with a population of over 550 000 people. Experts believe that
Brampton’s population will reach 725 000 by 2031.
As the city has expanded to meet the needs of its growing
population, the impacts have been significant. Prime agricultural
land, forested areas, and wetlands have been replaced by
highways, housing developments, and shopping malls. Plant and
animal species have been displaced. Creeks and rivers have been
diverted (their direction changed), wetlands drained, and ground
water depleted (overused). Soil, water, and air have been polluted
by hazardous spills, improper waste disposal, and emissions from
heavy traffic and industries.
Like many municipalities, Brampton has struggled to preserve
and protect its natural areas in the face of growing pressures to
develop. City planners are faced with many challenges, including
• How many more people can the City of Brampton
accommodate?
• What will happen when we run out of space?
• Will there be enough water for all the residents and industries
in the area?
• How will we deal with problems of increased pollution and
traffic congestion?
• Can we protect local woodland and wetland habitats and the
 Figure 1–3 How does the
species that rely on them? growth of a major city like
• What happens when we pave over our best farmland? Brampton, Ontario, show the
challenges of balancing the
These are difficult questions. The depletion of our natural needs of people and those of
resources is an issue that all Canadians should be concerned about. the natural environment?

Explorations
1. Many cities in southern Ontario began as small farming communities. How does the surrounding
farmland support the growth of a major city like Brampton? How do cities affect farmers and their
land?
2. How could we change the way we design our cities to minimize our impact on the environment?

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 The Inquiry Process
Case Study: Protecting Ontario’s Niagara Escarpment

The Inquiry Process

How effective are the efforts to protect the Niagara
Communicate Formulate Escarpment?
Questions
The Niagara Escarpment is a long ridge that formed from the
Evaluate
& Draw Gather & uplift and then erosion of rock over time, which makes it a
Conclusions Organize
unique landform. A detailed land-use plan guides development
Interpret & Analyse in the area. A number of groups have worked together over many
years to balance conservation and preservation with development
A Sense of Place and enjoyment of this important natural area. How effective
Keep in mind the following are the measures that have been taken to preserve the Niagara
questions as you work on Escarpment?
an inquiry: What is where?
Why there? Why care? What
to do? A Natural Wonder
The Niagara Escarpment is one of southern Ontario’s most
important geographic features. It is also one of Canada’s most
Gather & Organize magnificent landforms. This forested ridge of rock extends
Is the information in this approximately 725 km from Queenston, near Niagara Falls,
case study relevant to the
inquiry? Where could you
to Tobermory at the tip of the Bruce Peninsula, as shown in
find additional information Figure 1–4.
on the topic?
How was it formed?
Geological processes that began 430 to 450 million years ago
formed the Escarpment. At that time, the entire area lay under
The Niagara Escarpment
a warm, shallow sea. Thick layers of mineral
Tobermory or organic materials, called sediment, were
deposited. In the millions of years that followed,
Georgian Bay
these sediments were compressed into layers of
sedimentary rock.
Lake
Huron
The part of the Escarpment that formed in
Canada is in the shape of a gigantic horseshoe
made up of gently tipped rock layers with a long,
Bruce gradual slope on one side, and a relatively steep
scarp or cliff on the other. The appearance of
Grey the Niagara Escarpment today is the result of
erosion, or wearing down, by glacial ice, running
Dufferin
Peel water, and wind over the past 250 million
years. This erosion has resulted in a number
of spectacular features, including flowerpots
(see Figure 1–5), underwater caves, eroded
Halton shorelines, scenic waterfalls, and steep cliffs.

Hamilton
 Figure 1–4 The Niagara Escarpment passes through a
Niagara number of municipalities. How might this create challenges
for those fighting to protect the Escarpment?

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Diversity on the Escarpment Interpret & Analyse
The Niagara Escarpment is one of the most diverse natural How convincing is the
areas in Ontario. It includes farms, wetlands, waterfalls, wildlife information? How is it
relevant to the inquiry?
habitats, and rock quarries. There are parks and recreational Does the information raise
areas, which include ski hills and hiking trails. The area also any other questions?
has historic sites, villages, towns, and cities. The oldest trees in
eastern North America are located in this area. Currently 109
species on the threatened or endangered list can be found on Evaluate & Draw Conclusions
Escarpment protected land. Does the author present
convincing arguments to
What is being done? support the inquiry? Will the
information help you answer
In 1985, the Niagara Escarpment Plan (NEP) was established. the inquiry question?
Only land uses or developments that protect the area’s
environment are permitted. However, the NEP continues to face
a number of significant challenges, including
Communicate
• Removal of sand, gravel, and stone (called aggregate):
How well did the author
Aggregate operations are allowed in certain areas, but there communicate information?
are strict rules and regulations. What other methods could
The aggregate industry wants be used to communicate
information about this topic?
to change the NEP to allow
new operations.
• Demand for housing: The  Figure 1–5 The rock
number of new lots that can formations on Flowerpot
be created is limited. Many Island, near Tobermory,
Ontario, were eroded over
people want to move to this time to look like flowerpots.
area and want more housing What other features might
developments built. make the Escarpment
attractive to tourists?
• Expansion of urban boundaries:
Development is allowed in
certain parts of the NEP area.
Industries and developers want
CONNECTschool
Go online to watch a
to expand these areas so more video about the Niagara
building can take place. Escarpment.

Explorations
1. What groups might have an interest in preserving the Niagara Escarpment? Provide specific reasons
for why this area is important.
2. With a partner, brainstorm a list of reasons for protecting the natural environment of the Niagara
Escarpment. What criteria would you use to decide which of these points is most important? Rank
your points in order of importance, with 1 being most important.

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 How do we determine Canada’s natural regions?

GeoFact Because Canada is such a large and diverse country, it is useful to

Some experts believe divide our nation into smaller pieces or regions. A region is an area
we should add the of land with common features. To understand how Canada is divided
Anthropocene era to the into regions, we first need to understand how Earth was formed.
Geologic Time Scale. This
era would begin when
human activities started
having a significant impact
Geologic Time
on Earth’s ecosystems. Scientists use the Geologic Time Scale to divide Earth’s 4.6 billion
– National Geographic
year history into different eras and periods. Each layer of rock
corresponds to a specific time period during Earth’s formation.
Physical processes then worked on the landscape that formed over
ecosystem: a self-
billions of years to form Canada’s regions. Each time period ended
regulating system, created
by the interaction between with a major extinction that paved the way for new life forms.
living organisms and their Figure 1–6 shows the significant events that occurred during each
environment era and time period.

Geologic Time Scale

Era Period Significant Events
Present
0.01 Cenozoic Quaternary • human beings emerge and develop
• ice age ends
2
• continents move to present positions
• Alps and Himalayas form
Tertiary • early forms of mammals dominate
50
• Rocky Mountains form
Mesozoic Cretaceous • formation of Western Cordillera begins
Millions of Years Ago

• first feathered birds and mammals appear

100

150 Jurassic • most oil and gas deposits form

• great variety of fish and reptiles

200
Triassic • shallow seas cover North America
• reptiles dominate and age of the dinosaurs begins

250

continued on next page

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 Geologic Time Scale
continued… Era Period Significant Events
250
Paleozoic Permian • most coal deposits form
• first reptiles appear; abundant fish

300
Carboniferous • many spiders, insects, ferns

350
Devonian • first amphibians appear

400

Silurian • first life on land appears

• armoured fish and large coral reefs dominate the seas
Millions of Years Ago

450 Ordovician • collision of North America and Europe results in formation

of Appalachian mountains
• first vertebrates appear in the seas

500 Cambrian • sedimentary rocks form

• many invertebrates develop

1000 Precambrian • sponges and jellyfish appear

2000

• Canadian Shield forms

3000 • aquatic plants appear

4000
• bacteria may have existed

5000

 Figure 1–6 The Geologic Time Scale includes significant geologic and
biologic events that took place in each era. What kinds of assumptions
would scientists have to make when using the Geologic Time Scale?

Patterns and Trends: How does the Geologic Time Scale help us
understand why fossils of sea creatures are found in high mountain
ranges?

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 As You Read Physical Processes Shaping the Landscape
As you read this section, Every day, volcanic and tectonic processes build up Earth’s surface,
use sticky notes to jot down
any thoughts or questions while weather and erosion attempt to wear it down. To understand
you have about the text. how these tectonic processes work, we first need to understand how
rock is formed.
tectonic: processes related
The Rock Cycle
to the structure of Earth’s
crust Figure 1–7 shows how the three basic rock types are formed. Earth’s
processes are continuously transforming one type of rock into
another.
Igneous rock forms when magma cools and hardens. Magma, or
molten rock, is hot liquid. When it first formed, Earth’s surface layer
was probably molten rock. As this molten rock material cooled, it
hardened to form an outer crust made up of igneous rock. Weathering,
or exposure to running water, glacial ice, wind, and wave action,
along with chemical reactions, caused the igneous rock of the crust to
break down into smaller particles. These particles, called sediments,
were then picked up, moved, and deposited by the forces of erosion
(gravity, wind, ice, and water).

The Rock Cycle

Igneous Rock
g
coolin

ng weathering
lti
magma me and erosion

heat and
pressure

sediments
melting

compaction
Metamorphic weathering and
Rock and erosion cementation

heat and
pressure
 Figure 1–7 Each type of rock
can change into one of the other two Sedimentary
types, depending on the Earth process Rock
that is at work. How do weathering and
erosion contribute to the rock cycle?

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 These sediments were usually deposited in horizontal layers.
Over time, the layers were compacted and cemented together to form
sedimentary rock layers. Sedimentary rocks contain fossilized remains
of ancient plant and animal life. It is in these layers that we also find
fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas, and coal.
Under the influence of intense heat and pressure, rocks may fossil fuels: fuel, such as
coal, oil, and natural gas,
experience changes in their mineral composition, texture, or structure,
formed deep beneath the
resulting in the formation of metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks surface of Earth by natural
make up a large part of Earth’s crust. processes
If the heat is intense enough, rocks can also melt and return
to molten form. Eventually this too will cool into igneous rock,
continuing the cycle.
Interrelationships: “One rock is the raw material for another.” How
does this quote apply to the rock cycle?

Building Earth Up—Plate Tectonics

Earth’s crust is divided into a number of rock slabs, called plates, that
float on Earth’s upper mantle, the layer of Earth between the crust
and the core. Seven major plates, and about a dozen smaller ones,
cover Earth’s surface. For over 4 billion years they have been moving
around on Earth’s surface in a process known as plate tectonics.
Interactions along plate boundaries result in earthquakes, volcanoes,
and mountain building. Figure 1–8 shows the location of plate  Figure 1–8 How do the
boundaries and volcanoes. patterns of plate boundaries
correspond with the patterns
of volcanic activities?
Plate Boundaries and Locations of Volcanoes

North American Plate

Eurasian Plate
Eurasian
Plate Juan de Fuca
Plate
Philippine Caribbean
Plate Plate
Arabian
Indian
Plate
Cocos Plate
African Plate
Plate
Pacific Plate
Australian
Nazca South Plate
Australian Plate American
Plate Plate

Scotia
Plate

Antarctic Plate Volcano

Spreading ridge: cracks in the ocean floor
Convergent plate: collision between plates

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 ArcGIS Activity: Heat from deep within Earth forms convection currents.
Earthquakes, volcanoes,
and plates
Convection currents are made up of slow movement of magma in
Use ArcGIS Online to conduct the mantle that carries heat from the interior of Earth to the surface.
a short activity about plate These convection currents cause the plates to move. When plates
tectonics. Share your results
move apart, magma from within the mantle rises to fill the open space
with a classmate. What did
you find? and then cools, forming new crust.
When plates collide, one of three things can happen. If continental
plates crash into each other, they can uplift to form complex mountain
chains like the Canadian Rockies. When one plate slides beneath
another, volcanic activity is the result. And when plates grind past
A Sense of Place
each other, earthquake activity is common.
Why there?
Why does Canada’s West Spatial Significance: TheCanadian Rocky Mountains were initially
Coast experience the most formed from 55 million to 80 million years ago. The rocks were
tectonic activity?
deposited as sediments even earlier. How does the process of plate
tectonics explain how these sediments ended up over 3000 metres
above sea level?

 Figure 1–9 Volcanoes and

earthquakes are examples
of physical processes that Tearing Earth Down—Glaciation
build up the landscape. What
While the processes of plate tectonics build up Earth’s surface, other
other physical processes can
change the surface of Earth? forces, such as wind, running water, ice, and gravity, work to tear it
down. Water wears away at rocks and minerals. This process is called
weathering.
When more snow falls in winter than melts in the summer, layers
of ice and snow can build up over time to form glaciers. Once the
layers of glacial ice become thick and heavy enough, gravity causes
the ice to flow outward from its base. The rock beneath the moving ice
breaks down (weathering) and the materials are carried away by the
ice and melted water (erosion).

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 Glaciers can completely change the landscape. During the last ice Glacial Ice in North
America
age, about 14 000 years ago, Canada was almost completely covered
in ice, as shown in Figure 1–10. As the glaciers moved, they eroded the
rock, grinding down and carving the landscape. Figure 1–11 shows the
effects of these continental glaciers on the landscape. The opposite is
Cordilleran
true for glaciers that form in a mountain (alpine glaciers), as shown ice
in Figure 1–12—erosion tends to sharpen the features rather than sheet Laurentide ice sheet
smoothing them.
As the glaciers moved, massive loads of rock debris and sediments
were picked up and combined with the ice. Once the ice began to melt
and retreat, these materials were left behind, creating a variety of
landforms.
Spatial Significance: In what ways did the glaciers affect the area in
which you live?
 Figure 1–10 Glaciers
covered Canada 14 000
years ago. How have glaciers
retreating glacier modified the landscape since
drumlin that time?
field end
moraine

 Figure 1–11 This diagram

karnes esker shows what happens when a
continental glacier retreats,
leaving behind large loads of
deposited materials. What
recessional types of economic activities
end moraine might be associated with
ground outwash areas now covered in glacial
moraine kettle plains deposits?

bedrock lakes

horn arête

cirques main glacier

medial moraine

 Figure 1–12 Glaciers in

alpine areas leave behind
distinctive formations. What
types of recreational activities
might take place in alpine
areas once the glaciers have
retreated?

truncated
spurs

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 A Sense of Place Landform Regions
What is where? A region is an area of land with common features. We can divide
Think of the community
where you live. Could you Canada into regions according to a single aspect of the physical
define it as a single-factor environment—landforms, climate, soils, or natural vegetation. These
region? How? are called single-factor regions. A landform region is a specific area
with similar natural features on Earth’s surface. Plate tectonics and
erosion have resulted in a variety of landforms in Canada.
In fact, there are seven distinct landform regions in Canada, as
Map & Globe Skills
shown in Figure 1–13. Each region has characteristics very different
The map of Canada’s
landform regions is called from those nearby. These landform regions, and the processes that
a thematic map because have shaped them, give Canada its tremendous physical diversity.
it represents one piece of
information or “theme.” Can Patterns and Trends: Geographers often refer to the Canadian Shield
you find other examples of as “the foundation of Canada.” How is the Canadian Shield similar to
thematic maps in this text?
the foundation of a building?

Landform Regions in Canada CONNECTschool

To take a closer look, explore
an interactive map of the
Hudson Bay and landform regions of Canada.
Arctic Lowlands
Innuitian Mountains

Western
Cordillera

Canadian Shield

Interior Hudson Bay and

Plains Arctic Lowlands

Appalachian
Highlands

Great Lakes–
St. Lawrence Lowlands

 Figure 1–13 What does the map tell you about the landform regions in Canada?

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 Western Cordillera Interior Plains Canadian Shield

These high, jagged mountains formed The plains were formed by layers This is the oldest of the landform
when layers of sedimentary rock were of sedimentary bedrock during the regions, dating back over 4 billion
raised during the collision of the North Paleozoic era, when the area was years and covering almost half of
American and Pacific plates during covered in warm, shallow seas. At Canada’s land area. Billions of years
the late Mesozoic and early Cenozoic the end of the last glacial period, the of erosion have worn down the range
era. The steep slopes of the Western bedrock was buried by deep deposits of high volcanic mountains. Today
Cordillera are ideal for skiing and of glacial sediments. These deposits the Canadian Shield is important as
snowboarding. developed into the rich, fertile soils a source of metallic minerals such as
perfect for the growing of grains such gold, silver, copper, and nickel.
as wheat, barley, and canola.

Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands Hudson Bay and Arctic Lowlands Appalachian Highlands

This is the smallest but most populated Located around the shores of Hudson These mountains formed nearly
region in Canada. In the Great Lakes Bay and the Arctic islands, this region 300 million years ago, when the
Lowlands, glacial erosion carved the is a low, flat wetland area. It was Eurasian plate collided with North
lakes into sedimentary rock that was covered in ice during the last ice America. Layers of sedimentary
laid down during the Paleozoic era. age, and then flooded when the ice rock were initially folded into high
The retreating glaciers deposited large retreated. Frozen for most of the year, mountains that were then rounded
volumes of sands, silts, and gravels as the area is a poorly drained plain by millions of years of erosion by
flat plains and rolling hills. In the St. covered in bogs. running water and glacial ice. Along
Lawrence Lowlands, the flat land on the Atlantic coast of Canada, these
either side of the river was formed as mountains drop right into the ocean,
sedimentary rock on the sea floor. A creating sheltered bays, inlets, and
valley was created, and when the land deep harbours ideal for ocean-going
dropped at the end of the ice age, the Innuitian Mountains ships.
area was flooded. Sediments provided
fertile soils ideal for agriculture.

Consisting mostly of folded

sedimentary rock layers raised up
during the mid-Mesozoic era, this
mountain range in Canada’s Far North
is covered in glacial ice and snow caps.
The slopes are barren because of the
cold, harsh climate of the region.

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➤➤ Check Forward
You will explore the impacts
Factors Affecting Climate Regions
of global climate change on Weather and climate are two different things. When we talk about the
Canada in Chapter 3.
weather, we are referring to day-to-day temperatures, precipitation,
cloud cover, and winds. Climate describes the average weather
conditions of a large area on a seasonal basis. Geographic location is
high pressure: the force
exerted on Earth’s surface
an important consideration in determining climate.
resulting from cold air Six factors influence the climate of a particular region. These can
sinking be summarized by the acronym LOWER near water:

low pressure: the force L = latitude

exerted on Earth’s surface O = ocean currents
resulting from warm air W = winds and air masses
rising E = elevation
R = relief
near water = n earness to a body of water
Factors Affecting Climate Regions
Latitude Ocean Currents
• The closer an area is to the equator, the • Ocean currents are like rivers that move the
warmer it is. ocean waters.
• The Sun’s energy is more concentrated at the • Currents take on the temperature
equator than at the poles. characteristics of the area where they start.
• The atmosphere filters out more of the Sun’s • Warm currents bring warm, moist air to coastal
rays as you move away from the equator. areas.
• There is less precipitation farther away from • Cold currents bring cooler, somewhat drier air.
the equator.

Winds and Air Masses Elevation

• Wind occurs when air moves across Earth’s • The higher the elevation, the cooler it gets.
surface from areas of high pressure to areas • The air gets thinner the higher you go and its
of low pressure. ability to hold moisture is diminished, resulting
Factors
• Air masses are large volumes of air that take on in precipitation.
the temperature and moisture conditions of the Affecting • As air rises, it expands due to a reduction
area where they are formed. Climate in atmospheric pressure. As air expands, it
• The movements of winds and air masses are cools. As it cools, it is unable to hold as much
one reason for the variation in seasons in moisture. Precipitation occurs when the air
different parts of Canada. releases some of its moisture.

Relief Nearness to a Body of Water

• Relief refers to changes in terrain or elevation, • Because water heats and cools more slowly
which may lead to precipitation. than land, large bodies of water tend to have
• As warm, moist air moves up the mountainside, a moderating effect on temperatures. This is
it cools and condenses to form clouds. called a maritime climate.
• When the water droplets become too heavy to • The further a location is from a large body
be held by the clouds, they fall as precipitation. of water, the more extreme the range of
temperatures during the year. This is called a
continental climate.

 Figure 1–14 Climate affects human activities, and human activities also influence climate change.
Do you think human activities should be considered as a new climate factor?

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Climate Regions
Canada has many climate regions, each with distinct temperature and
precipitation characteristics. The six climate factors interact to affect
each region’s climate.

Canada’s Climate Regions  Figure 1–15 How does the climate in each region influence
how Canadians live, work, and spend their leisure time?

Cordilleran

Arctic
Taiga

Boreal

Prairie
Pacific Atlantic
Maritime Maritime

Southeastern

Arctic Taiga Cordilleran Pacific Maritime

• The latitude results in • The latitude results in • The elevation leads • Nearness to the Pacific
long, cold winters and long, cold winters and to snowy and cold Ocean, ocean currents,
short, cool summers. short summers. temperatures in the and winds off the ocean
• The winds and air • Winds bring bitterly interior. have a moderating effect
masses, specifically cold weather from the • The winds and air on the climate, meaning
the cold, dry Polar Arctic Circle to this masses result in almost summers are cool and
Continental air region during the fall and desert-like conditions in winters are mild.
mass, lead to cold winter. certain areas. • This is the wettest region
temperatures. in Canada.

Boreal Prairie Southeastern Atlantic Maritime

• The latitude results in • Distance from a body • The winds and air masses • Nearness to the Atlantic
very cold winters and of water, and the bring precipitation, Ocean leads to moderate
short, cool summers. influences of winds and leading to humid temperatures and a cool
• This area is away from air masses result in dry summers and damp or and humid climate.
the moderating effects of conditions and extremes cold winters. • Ocean currents, where
the ocean. in temperature. • Latitude and nearness the cold Labrador current
• This is the driest region to the Great Lakes meets the warm Gulf
in Canada. contribute to the Stream, result in foggy
relatively warm, moist conditions.
climate.

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 Soils
Soils are a combination of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids,
bedrock: the solid rock
base beneath the soil and organisms, as shown in Figure 1–16. Soils have a number of
functions. They support plant life, and they store, supply, and purify
water. Soils also provide a habitat for organisms.

Components of Soils
 Figure 1–16 A number of
components combine together to form
a true soil. How did glaciation affect mineral matter
the types of soils in different regions? Comes from bedrock
or deposits. Provides key
soil nutrients including
potassium, phosphorous,
nitrogen, and calcium. Sand,
silt, and clay particles are
the three smallest and
most common.

living organisms organic matter

Fungi and bacteria decompose Bacteria decomposes dead
organic materials and recycle plants and animals, releasing
nutrients. Creatures such as nutrients that form humus.
worms, centipedes, burrowing Humus gives soil its dark colour.
insects, and small animals mix Darker soil is more fertile.
organic and mineral matter
together.
Soil

air water
Air pockets are trapped within Water dissolves certain minerals
loosely compacted organic in the soil, allowing them to be
materials or are created by taken up by the roots of plants.
burrowing creatures. Oxygen Too much water can wash these
helps break down nutrients away. Too little water
organic materials. and plants cannot grow.

A Sense of Place
Why care?
What are the dangers of
contaminated soil or soil
erosion for our food supply?

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 Different regions of Canada have different types of soil, as shown
in Figure 1–17. Some of the best soils in Canada for agriculture are
found in the southern prairies and the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence
Lowlands. Soils in more northern regions and across most of the
Canadian Shield are usually rocky and thin.

Types of Soils in Canada

tundra soils

complex
soils
of mountain
areas

dry-climate soils wet-climate soils

 Figure 1–17 How do you think the type of soil in a region

influenced settlement and development patterns in that area?

Tundra Soils Wet-climate Soils Dry-climate Soils Complex Soils of

Mountain Areas
• Rocky and thin soils limit • Great Lakes–St. • The dry climate prevents
plant growth. Lawrence Lowlands soil nutrients from being • Soils in this region vary
have deep soil ideal for washed away. depending on elevation,
• Only the upper layers agriculture. relief, and climate
of the soil (active • Thick grassland patterns.
layer) thaw during the • Soils are thin and poor vegetation is ideal for
summer. The permafrost across most of the agriculture. • Farming occurs in the
(permanently frozen Canadian Shield due to rich soils of the valleys.
deep soils) below results its rocky foundation/ Soils are thinner and
in poor drainage and terrain. shallow in forested areas.
waterlogged soils in
summer.

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 deciduous: trees or shrubs Natural Vegetation
that drop their leaves every
year The natural vegetation of a specific area is the plant life that is native
to the area that has not been changed by humans. The natural
coniferous: needle- vegetation of a particular region depends on the temperature,
leaved, cone-bearing trees precipitation, and soils. Canada can be divided into regions in terms
adapted to cooler, drier
environments
of the natural vegetation in the area, as shown in Figure 1–18.

Vegetation in Regions of Canada

 Figure 1–18 How have humans changed
the natural vegetation in your area? Give three
specific examples.

Cordilleran
vegetation
tundra

ArcGIS Activity: Exploring

Canada’s Natural
Vegetation
Use ArcGIS Online to conduct boreal and taiga forest
a short activity about
Canada’s natural vegetation.
What patterns do you see?
How does your map compare grassland
to the one in Figure 1–18? vegetation
West Coast
forest

mixed forest

deciduous forest

Boreal and Taiga Forest Grassland Vegetation Deciduous Forest Mixed Forest

The largest vegetation This type of vegetation is The smallest of the Between the boreal and
region in Canada is located in the southern vegetation regions, the deciduous forests lies the
dominated by coniferous regions of the Prairie deciduous forest is mixed forest. The mixed
trees, such as white provinces, where it is too found in southwestern forest is a transition zone
and black spruce, pine, dry for most large trees Ontario. Most of the forest between the two, so both
and balsam fir. Where to survive. When these was cleared by the early coniferous and deciduous
conditions are warmer in grasses die and break European settlers for species are found in this
the south, the boreal forest down, they form thick agriculture. Typical tree region.
is thick and the trees large. black layers of humus. species include maple, ash,
Farther north the trees The result is some of the beech, and oak.
are smaller and the forest best soils for growing grain
cover thinner. crops in the world.

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 Cordilleran Vegetation Tundra West Coast Forest

A range of soils, The cold, dry climate The heavy rainfall and
temperatures, means that only those warm temperatures along
precipitation, and plant species that grow the western slopes of the
elevations means a range close to the ground can coastal mountains provide  Figure 1–19 Rare and
of vegetation in this region, survive, such as mosses, ideal growing conditions endangered species, such as
such as dense forests on lichens, wildflowers, and for forests of red cedar, the black-tailed prairie dog
the lower slopes, alpine small shrubs. Sitka spruce, western (shown here) are protected
meadows, and tundra hemlock, and Douglas fir. in Grasslands National Park.
vegetation near the Which is more important:
mountain peaks. preserving grassland
vegetation or using the land
for agriculture?
Interrelationships: How are climate, soil, and
natural vegetation related?
As a result of human interference, many
parts of Canada are no longer covered in natural
vegetation. Land was cleared for farms or
houses, and in some cases new plant species were
introduced. Examples of undisturbed natural
vegetation are found only in the most remote
areas and in parks and conservation areas.
At the end of the nineteenth century, the
grasslands of the Canadian prairies underwent
tremendous changes. Formerly the home of
huge herds of bison, large areas of grassland
were converted to pasture land for cattle or replaced with crops. ArcGIS Activity: Canada’s
Many Aboriginal peoples were also displaced to clear the plains for Natural Regions
settlement. The grassland areas that have remained undisturbed Use ArcGIS Online to create
and explore interactive maps
are those unsuited for farming due to lack of drainage, poor soil, or about Canada’s landform,
steepness of slopes. To preserve one of the few remaining areas of climate, and soil regions. How
mixed-grass and short-grass prairie, Parks Canada established the are the maps similar to and
different from each other?
Grasslands National Park in southern Saskatchewan in 1981.

Reflect and Respond

1. “The interactions of the plates have shaped Canada’s landform regions in many ways.” Support this
statement with specific examples.
2. How would a change in climate conditions affect the soils and natural vegetation in an area?

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 Why is physical diversity important?

Before You Read Most Canadians live in places where natural systems have been
Skim this section and completely changed by human activities. Sometimes these changes
identify the headings and are planned, such as when land is cleared to grow crops or to expand
key terms highlighted in the our cities. But changes are often unplanned or unintended; instead,
text. Without reading the
text, see how many of the they are largely influenced by our daily activities. We are beginning to
concepts and terms you are realize that preserving physical diversity in Canada is important for
already familiar with. both humans and nature in a number of different ways.

Economic Importance
From the beginning of human history, we have relied on the natural
environment as a source of food, fresh water, shelter, and energy.
Physical diversity has been an important factor in the development of
Canada’s economy in a number of ways.

Natural Resources
• Renewable and non-renewable resources are used to manufacture
consumer goods.
• Natural resources represented 19% of Canada’s gross domestic
product (GDP) in 2014.
• Minerals and metals accounted for nearly 50% of Canada’s
exports and over $131-billion that was spent on buildings and
equipment to improve businesses.

Employment
• Workers are needed to harvest and process raw materials such as
crops and natural resources.
• Jobs are created to manufacture and sell the products made from
these resources.
• Close to 1.8 million jobs were linked to natural resources in 2014,
either directly or indirectly, which represents 10% of all jobs in
Canada.

Tourism and Recreation

• Tourism and recreation include activities such as cottaging,
camping, skiing, hunting, and recreational fishing.
• About 618 000 jobs were created and nearly $84-billion were
generated in revenues from tourism and recreation in 2013.
Interrelationships: How do you benefit, either directly or indirectly,
from the natural environment?

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Social and Cultural Importance
In 2001, the United Nations started assessing the effect of human
activity on the environment. It identified a number of non-material
benefits from the natural environment, including
• spiritual and religious • educational
• recreational and ecotourism • sense of place
• inspirational • cultural heritage
Many cultures, including Aboriginal cultures, have their roots in GeoFact
their interactions with Earth’s natural systems. Understanding our Nearly 60% of Canada’s
connections with our natural environment is important because the wildlife species face possible
actions we take today will influence the Canada of tomorrow. extinction. – Canadian
Wildlife Federation

Environmental Importance
Healthy ecosystems protect and purify our water and air, and they
form soils. Ecosystems absorb and break down pollutants, and they
regulate the climate. Earth’s natural systems also maintain genetic
diversity, support our complex food web, and protect natural habitats.
Yet, human activities are affecting the health of our ecosystems in
a number of important ways:
• Our activities are causing the extinction of a variety of species.
• We are wasting and polluting water and overworking soils.
• Our reliance on fossil fuels is polluting our land, air, and water.
• We are using resources faster than they can re-grow or be created.
We should be aware that the resources available to us are limited,
and that we need to use them more responsibly.

The Importance of Sustainability

Sustainability means meeting the needs of the present generation
without affecting the ability of future generations to meet their own
 Figure 1–20 Keeping
needs. In a sustainable world, society’s demands on the physical track of our consumption of
environment are in balance with the ability of the natural systems resources and our creation
to meet that demand. In the end, sustainability requires a balancing of waste is an important first
step toward sustainability.
act between meeting our needs and wants, and maintaining healthy What actions can you take to
ecosystems. live more sustainably?

Reflect and Respond

1. Identify three examples showing how the natural environment is important to the economy of your
local area.
2. What is the most important thing you, as an individual, can do to respect and protect the
environment? Explain how your action will make a difference.

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 How well does Canada respect and protect its natural
environment?

Before You Read A 2014 survey found that 40% of Canadians believe that the federal
Identify three questions government is not balancing environmental and economic concerns.
you have about how However, when respondents were asked what the government’s
well Canada respects priority should be, they ranked the economy as most important, with
and protects its natural
environment. the environment a distant third.

How We See Our Environment

The survey results highlight a major disconnect in the way we see our
natural environment. Too often we think and act like we are apart
from nature, rather than a part of nature.
This statement reveals an important truth: many of us are more
concerned about our own quality of life than we are about the health
of our planet. We behave as though there is a “human world” and
a “natural world.” This view sees the natural environment as only
valuable if it is useful to humans. The result of this way of thinking
is an increase in the number of degraded ecosystems and greatly
diminished biodiversity.

Voices An Aboriginal Perspective

“We didn’t inherit the Earth To understand the kind of relationship people might have with the
from our parents. We
are borrowing it from our
environment, it is useful to look at the relationship that some of
children.” Canada’s traditional Aboriginal populations have with nature.
–Chief Seattle, 1786–1866 Canada’s Aboriginal peoples have a deep understanding of their
natural environment. Their knowledge has been gained through direct
contact with the environment, and represents a “oneness” between
A Sense of Place people and the natural environment. Earth’s natural systems provide
Why care? them with what they need, so Aboriginal peoples believe they have a
What is the significance of
the above quote? responsibility to act as Earth’s caretakers, using only what they need
while planning for the needs of several generations to follow.
This philosophy recognizes and understands the complex and
interdependent relationships between human beings and nature.
First Nations’ environmental philosophies have a number of
common elements. For example, the Walpole Island First Nation in
southwestern Ontario focuses on
• a close link between people and nature
• respect for all parts of the environment
• recognition that people depend on the physical environment
• an understanding that the land and water are sacred

44 MHR • UNIT 1 INTER ACTIONS WITH THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

 • a duty to future generations
• respectful and responsible use of resources
• preservation, conservation, and enhancement of the natural
environment
• a belief in the link between environmental quality and quality of
life
The Walpole Island First Nation example provides an important
perspective on how people can interact with their environment. The
First Nation has earned international recognition, including World
Heritage status, for its environmental programs and the high level of
diversity it has been able to maintain.
By trying to understand traditional Aboriginal perspectives about
the interactions between human and natural systems, Canadians can
gain a greater understanding and respect for the Earth system, our
connection to it, and the need to preserve it for generations to come.
Geographic Perspective: Which three values of the Walpole Island  Figure 1–21 What lessons
can non-Aboriginal Canadians
First Nation do you believe are most important? Support your answer learn from Canada’s Aboriginal
with specific reasons. peoples about improving their
relationship with their natural
environment?

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Thinking Geographically: Geographic Perspective

Oil and Gas in the Arctic

Experts believe that the Arctic holds the largest remaining oil and
gas reserves in the world. If these resources are extracted, there
will be potential social, political, and environmental impacts.

Social Impacts
Local populations in the Arctic will be affected by extraction of
oil and gas reserves. Aboriginal peoples have lived in the area
for centuries, and many rely on traditional hunting and fishing
lifestyles. Development in the Arctic has the potential to affect
these activities.

Political Impacts
Many countries, including Canada, Russia, the United States,
and Greenland, all have an interest in the development of oil
 Figure 1–22 Oil and and natural gas extraction in the Arctic. The region is also an
natural gas reserves are important maritime route. As a result, security is an important
located throughout the Arctic.
How might the location issue to be considered when planning development in the Arctic.
of these reserves lead to
potential conflict? What Environmental Impacts
challenges might there be to
drilling for oil and natural gas Extracting oil and gas reserves from the Arctic may have a
in the Arctic? number of environmental impacts, including
• difficulty cleaning up oil spills in icy water and remote locations
• inability of habitats to recover quickly from disruptions or
pollution due to the harsh climate
• disturbance of fish, marine mammal, and animal populations
that are sources of food and have economic value for
Aboriginal peoples
In 1989, the Exxon Valdez oil tanker spilled hundreds of
thousands of barrels of crude oil in Alaska, resulting in a
devastating environmental disaster. In 2010, the BP oil disaster
resulted in millions of barrels of oil spilling into the Gulf of
Mexico. These events underline the importance of protecting the
natural environment when considering extracting resources.

Explorations
1. How will the location of oil and gas deposits in the Arctic affect how the deposits are extracted?
2. Who would have an interest in oil and gas exploration in the Arctic? How might they be affected by
exploration and extraction processes? How would this influence their view of development?

46 MHR • UNIT 1 INTER ACTIONS WITH THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

Physical Diversity at Risk
A significant part of Earth’s natural ecosystems are in Canada:
25% of wetland ecosystems, 15% of forests, and 16% of Arctic
ecosystems. The plants, animals, and micro-organisms in these
ecosystems are essential to the natural processes that keep Earth’s
systems in balance.

Species at Risk
Even though we know of the importance of these ecosystems, Canada’s
wildlife is under a threat unlike that of any other time in history.
In 2015, the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife
in Canada (COSEWIC) identified 640 species at risk in Canada.
COSEWIC uses five categories to report on the status of a species,
based on the degree of threat to its survival:

Extinct Extirpated Endangered Threatened Special Concern

The species no The species no A species is The species is The species
longer exists longer exists facing imminent likely to become may become
anywhere in the in the wild in extirpation or endangered threatened or
world. A total Canada, extinction if if nothing is endangered by
of 905 species but still survives nothing is done. done to limit a combination
of plants and in another part Canada has the factors of biological
animals have of the world. It 223 endangered threatening characteristics
become extinct may be possible species of plants its existence. and
in the last 500 to re-introduce and animals, Canada has environmental
years. For it in Canada. for example, 127 endangered threats. Canada
example, the Canada has the whooping species of plants has 119 species of
Labrador duck 23 extirpated crane and the and animals, special concern,
was found on the species of plants mudpuppy such as Lake for example, the
coasts of Québec and animals, mussel. Simcoe whitefish boreal felt lichen
and Labrador such as the and Haller’s and the western
but became Atlantic walrus apple moss. painted turtle.
extinct by the and the black-
late 1870s. footed ferret.

FP O

 Extinct: Labrador  Extirpated:  Endangered:  Threatened:  Special concern:

duck black-footed ferret mudpuppy mussel Haller’s apple moss western painted turtle

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 Loss of Natural Spaces
Canada’s natural spaces are being put under stress by a number of
human activities, including urban development, pollution, mining,
logging, and agriculture.
Perhaps the most serious threat to habitats is the direct loss due to
changes in environments. Here are some examples:
• In Atlantic Canada, 65% of coastal wetlands have been drained or
filled, mainly for construction or agriculture.
• Only 35% of the boreal forest remains undisturbed.
• In southern Canada, 90% of the native Carolinian forest has been
 Figure 1–23 The cleared for urban development or agriculture.
woodland caribou is a • In the southern prairies, 99% of native long-grass vegetation has
migratory (travelling)
species found in Canada’s been replaced by wheat fields and grazing lands.
boreal forests. How might
breaking up the habitat of the
Almost as serious as habitat loss is the breaking up of habitats
woodland caribou affect the into smaller, disconnected patches. In some instances, small patches
survival of this species? become overcrowded with species competing for space, often leading
to population collapse. A reduced amount of space for species that
roam, such as the grizzly bear, can make it difficult for them to find
food or even mates for reproduction.
Unfortunately, this list of stressors affecting Canada’s natural
Voices spaces is far from complete. Other significant stressors include air,
“No matter if you are fish or water, and soil pollution; introduction of invasive species; and overuse
lichen, bug or slug, bird or of protected spaces. For most species, recovery is only possible if the
human—everyone needs a critical habitat is identified and protected, maintained, or restored.
good home. But for many,
a good home is hard to What can be done to protect Canada’s natural species and spaces?
find—or hard to keep—in
Interrelationships: Howcould the extinction of species affect
the face of urban sprawl,
development, and industrial Canadians, both today and in the future?
resource-extraction
pressures. Habitat loss and
degradation are the primary
causes of decline for 84% of
Efforts to Protect Canada’s Physical Diversity
species at risk in Canada.” Canada could be a leader in environmental protection. Our large land
–The David Suzuki mass, along with a relatively small population and a rich abundance
Foundation and diversity of natural spaces, means that Canada’s natural heritage
is still reasonably healthy compared to what has happened in other
A Sense of Place parts of the world. Still, there are signs that the health of our nation’s
Why care?
ecosystems is weakening. Measures must be put in place to identify
Why is it important for and protect our natural spaces now, before it is too late.
Canada to be a world leader
in environmental protection? The Species at Risk Act
The Species at Risk Act (SARA), passed into law in 2002, is one
of the most important ways Canada is protecting endangered and
threatened species and spaces. SARA has three main goals:
1. to prevent endangered or threatened species from becoming
extinct or extirpated

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 2. to help in the recovery of endangered, threatened, or extirpated
species
3. to manage species of special concern, to help prevent them from
becoming endangered or threatened
SARA requires all levels of government in Canada to work
together with representatives of industry, Aboriginal groups, and local CONNECTschool
communities to protect wildlife species. Go online to explore the
distribution of protected
Interrelationships: Given the damage we are currently doing to the areas in Canada using
planet, should humans be put on the SARA list? Explain your answer. interactive maps.

Protecting Our Natural Spaces—Classes of Protected Areas

In the last 20 years, the total area Protected Areas in Canada  Figure 1–24 What
of protected lands and waters in pattern do you see in the
map? How do you explain
Canada has nearly doubled. Today,
this pattern?
1 036 645 km2 or 10.4% of Canada’s
land and freshwater areas are under
protection, along with 51 485 km2 or
0.9% of Canada’s marine territory, as
shown in Figure 1–24. By conserving
these habitats, Environment Canada is
helping ensure that wildlife species do
not become at risk.

The Role of Canada’s

National Parks
For over 100 years, Canada’s national national wildlife areas

parks have protected unique and migratory bird sanctuaries

representative landscapes, habitats, and
ecosystems from all regions. The Canada National Parks Act focuses Guiding Inquiry:
on “ecological integrity.” This means keeping ecosystems healthy Formulate Questions
and whole so that all elements of the ecosystem, including rocks, What else would you like
to know about Canada’s
water, native species, biological communities, and the structures and
National Parks Systems?
processes that support them, are complete and likely to continue. Write an inquiry question to
explore this topic.

Reflect and Respond

1. Consider the definitions of sustainability and ecological integrity. How are these concepts similar
and how are they different? Give specific examples to explain your answer.
2. Which scenario addresses the best way to protect species at risk: protecting individual species or
preserving ecosystems and habitats? Explain your answer with supporting details.
3. A town council proposes closing a popular beach in the community to protect wildlife and
vegetation of special concern. What could the council do to ensure that all voices are heard and
given equal consideration before a final decision is made?

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Chapter 1 Review

7. Geographic Perspective: Consider the

Putting It All Together following statement: “Economy and
environment are the same thing. That is
In this chapter, you … the rule of nature” (Mollie Beattie). Do
you agree or disagree with this statement?
explained how physical processes formed
Provide reasons to support your ideas.
Canada’s landscape
explained how Canada can be divided 8. Geographic Perspective: Should the federal
into natural regions government be allowed to establish a
analysed the interrelationships between protected area wherever it wants? Defend
Canada’s physical characteristics and your answer.
human activities
9. Create a poster explaining to Canadians the
analysed ideas and beliefs about the importance of physical diversity. Write a
value of Canada’s natural environment slogan for the poster.

10. Patterns and Trends: How might changes in

Knowledge and Understanding/Thinking climate affect tourism in Canada?
1. Explain how the process of erosion is an
11. What obligations, if any, do you have
example of an interaction between Earth’s
to protect the environment for future
systems.
generations? Discuss your views with a
2. Interrelationships: How is your lifestyle partner.
dependent on Earth’s natural systems? 12. In what ways would modifying your
consumption habits help protect wild
3. Interrelationships: How does protecting species and natural spaces?
natural spaces also protect species?
4. List three reasons why physical diversity is Communication/Application
important in Canada. Which do you think 13. A letter to the editor of your local
is the most important reason? Explain why. newspaper states “If communities need
the Niagara Escarpment for building
5. Geographic Perspective: Examine materials or space to develop, the provincial
Figure 1–8 on page 31. How does the government has no right to interfere.” Do
theory of plate tectonics explain why you agree or disagree? Write a response
British Columbia receives more earthquake providing specific evidence to support your
activity than Newfoundland and position.
Labrador?
14. Describe the climate in your region. List
three factors that affect the climate of your
Thinking/Communication area.
6. Interrelationships: Conduct research to 15. Identify five threats to biodiversity
determine which species of plants and discussed in this chapter. In what ways is
animals are at risk in the area where biodiversity important?
you live. How have human activities
contributed to their at-risk label?

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16. Interrelationships: Mahatma Percent of At-risk Species in Canada
Gandhi once said “The future lichens 1%
depends on what we do in the
mosses 3%
present.” Discuss how this
quote relates to the concept of mammals 9%
environmental protection.
17. How have humans affected the
birds 14%
natural vegetation in the area
in which you live? Give three
examples. vascular plants 34%

reptiles 8%
18. Geographic Perspective: Are
there any protected areas in
your local community? If so,
amphibians 4%
give examples, and explain
why they were designated for fishes 16%
protection. If not, then explain molluscs 4%
why that might be.
arthropods 7%
19. Patterns and Trends: Examine
the data in the circle graph
in Figure 1–25. What reasons
can you think of to explain the  Figure 1–25 Why do you think more species of plants are at-risk
pattern that emerges? than species of animals?

20. If you could live in any one of

Canada’s landform regions, which one
would you choose? Give specific details
to support your choice. Present your
answer in a well-written paragraph.

Looking Ahead to the Unit 1 Inquiry Task

At the end of Unit 1, you will investigate the Unit Question: “How are the lives of Canadians influenced by
their physical environment?” You will use technology to communicate your findings. Review the chapter
and identify any information that helps you think about this Unit Question. What topics covered in this
chapter might relate to the Unit Question? How do they relate to the question? What other questions can
you think of that relate to the Unit Question?

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