r

4 The respiratory system

All living organisms need energy to carry out life processes in order to survive. They obtain this
energy from food when the food is respired. Humans respire aerobically and their respiratory system is
responsible for taking in the oxygen they need to sustain this respiration and to constantly get rid of
the carbon dioxide they produce.

Breathing and gaseous exchange

Breathing refers to the movements that cause air to be moved into and out of the lungs. Breathing
must not be confused with respiration, which is the process by which energy is released from food by
all living cells (see page 43).

Caseous exchange is the process by which oxygen diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses
out of the blood through a gaseous exchange surface (see below).
Humans respire aerobically, meaning that they release energy from food using oxygen. Aerobic respiration
produces carbon dioxide as a waste product. Breathing and gaseous exchange are essential because:
• They ensure that humans have a continual supply of oxygen to meet the demands of aerobic respiration.
• They ensure that the carbon dioxide produced in aerobic respiration is continually removed so that it
does not build up and poison cells. .

Gaseous exchange surfaces

r In many animals, including humans, the surface through which gases are exchanged, known as the
gaseous exchange surface, forms part of the respiratory system. These surfaces have several adaptations
which make the exchange of gases through them as efficient as possible:
• They have a large surface area so that large quantities of gases can be exchanged.
• They are very thin so that gases can diffuse through them rapidly.
• They have a rich blood supply to quickly transport gases between the surface and the body cells.
• They are moist so that g~~_s can dissolve before they diffuse through the surface.
,.
Structure of the human respiratory system
In humans, the gaseous exchange surface is found in the lungs which make up part ofthe respiratory
system. Humans have two lungs composed ofthousands of air passages called bronchioles and millions
of swollen air sacs called alveoli. Each lung is surrounded by two pleural membranes which have pleural
fluid between them/A single bronchus leads into each lung from the trachea. The larynx forms the top
part of the trachea and the nasal
cavities and the mouth lead into
the pharynx or throat, which nasal cavity - hollow space; lined with
cilia (microscopic flairs) and mucus
leads into the larynx;
Each lung receives blood from
the heart via a pulmonary artery
and blood is carried back to the
heart via a pulmonary vein. The
two lungs are surrounded by
the ribs which form the chest
cavity or thorax. The ribs have
intercostal muscles between and
a dome-shaped sheet of muscle,
the diaphragm, stretches across
the floor of the thorax. Figure 4.1 Structure of upper part of the human respiratory system

4 The respiratory system I

,
---. I
- -
 external inercostal ~--- __ ~~~~~- larynx
muscles ~~~~~~ trachea - hollo'•••::.:~
between the ribs with rings of ca 2,5=
in its walls. Lineo .\7
internal inercostal cilia and mucus
muscles
left lung
bronchioles - hollow
left bronchus -
tubes branching hollow tube ~.
throughout the lung. rings of ca .. age
Lined with moisture in its walls. -ec •••_
cilia and mCLS
pleural cavity - airtight
cavity filled
with pleural fiuid

pleural membranes -
one surrounds the
outside of the lung,
one lines the rib cage '-----~~---- diaphragm -
and diaphragm a mus _ a'" s-::-=::

cut end of a rib

Figure 4.2 Structure of the human thorax

capillary from the -----\ fj-~~ capillary to the

pulmonary artery - pulmonary vein -
carries deoxygenated carries oxygenated
blood blood
bronchiole

alveoli - thin-walled.
Provide a large surface network of capillaries -
area for gaseous surrounds the alveoli
exchange

.Figure 4.3 Surface view o~a cluster of alveoli showing the blood supply

Table 4.1 Summary of the functions of the main parts of the respiratory system

I Warm the inhaled air. Mucus traps dust and pathogens in the inhaled air and
. moistens the air. Cilia move the mucus to the throat to be swallowed.
~-----j
i Prevents food from entering the trachea when swallowing.
r-~ ~V__
ocalcordsproducethesoundsofspee~
I Carry air into and out of the lungs. Rings of cartilage in their walls keep I

I.!..hemopen. _ _ -.
r Carry air to and from the alveoli.
-----
'1Exc~an~e oxygen and carbon dioxide between inhaled air and blood in the
. capillaries. _ _ _ .

4 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social Biology

 , Structure Functions
- - ~ ~ ~ - ~~ - - - - - --- - --
Pleural membranes Form an airtight cavity between the lungs and the rib-cage, and diaphragm so
and pleural fluid that any changes in volume of the chest cavity causes the volume inside the
lungs to change. Pleural fluid also acts as a lubricant during breathing .
.
'

Intercostal muscles Contract and relax to change the volume inside the-chest cavity and lungs,
and diaphragm which causes air to move into and out of the lungs.

The<mechanism of breathing and gaseous exchange

Breathing is brought about two sets of muscles, the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm.
-..
J

Table 4.2 The mechanism of breathing

1
Jt'

External intercostal muscles Contract Relax

Internal intercostal muscles Relax Contract
Move u Move downwards and inwards
1
Contract Relax
Moves downwards or flattens Domes upwards
Volume inside thorax and lun Increases Decreases
Pressure inside thorax and lun Decreases Increases
Air is drawn into the lungs due Air is pushed out of the lungs
to the decrease in ressure due to the increase in su re
~
As the air is drawn in during inhalation it is warmed in the nasal passages, and cleaned and moistened
by mucus lining the nasal passages and trachea. The air passes through the bronchi and bronchioles
and enters the alveoli where gaseous exchange occurs between the air and the blood in the capillaries.
The walls of the alveoli form the gaseous exchange surface. Each alveolus:
• Has a pocket shape. A human has two lungs, each containing over 350 million alveoli, giving a very
large total surface area of about 90 rn",
• Has a very thin wall that is only one cell thick.
• Is surrounded by a network of capillaries giving it a rich blood supply.
• Is lined with moisture.

4 The respiratory system

 exhaled air - inhaled air -
°
16% 2,4.0% CO2 21% 02' 0.04% CO2

deoxygenated blood -
oxygenated blood -
low oxygen content,
high oxygen content,
high carbon dioxide
low carbon dioxide
content. Plasma and
content. Red blood cells
red blood cells transport
transport oxygen to body cells
carbon dioxide from
body cells
layer of moisture
lining the alveolus

red blood cell

~f-- wall of the capillary -

one cell thick

-#--- wall of the alveolus -

one cell thick

Figure 4.4 Caseous exchange in an alveolus

1
Factors affecting the breathing rate
The normal breathing rate for a healthy adult at rest ranges from 12 to 16 breaths per minute. The
medulla of the brain (see page 69) controls the breathing rate by detecting the Ie el OT carbon dioxide
in the blood and sending impulses to the intercostal muscles and diaphragm.
• Any factor that increases the rate of respiration in body cells will cause the le\el of carbon dioxide
in the blood to increase. If carbon dioxide levels increase, breathing rate increases to remove the
excess carbon dioxide. Factors that increase breathing rate include:
• Carrying out exercise.
• Taking drugs that are stimulants, e.g. caffeine, amphetamines, cocaine.
• Smoking cigarettes.
• Suffering from anxiety or fear.
• Being exposed to certain environmental factors, e.g. being in a confined space or in polluted air.
• Being at high altitude.
• Being overweight.
• Any factor that decreases the rate of respiration in body cells will cause the Ie el of carbon dioxide
in the blood to decrease.·lf carbon dioxide levels decrease, breathing rate decreases. Factors that
decrease breathing rate include:
• When resting or asleep.
• Taking drugs that are depressants, e.g. sedatives, sleeping pills, alcohol.
• Being exposed to certainenvironmental factors, e.g. being in fresh, unpolluted air.

Vital capacity
Vital capacity is the maximum volume of air that cen be exhaled from the lungs after Inhaling as
deeply as possible.

Measuring vital capacity can be used to indicate lung function and if a person is suffering from lung
disease. Vital capacity depends on age, gender, body size and fitness. It can be increased by regular

4 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social Biology

exercise and is decreased by smoking, obesity or respiratory disease. Other volumes and capacities
associated with the lungs are shown in Figure 4.5.

6 ------------------

vital capacity
5
tidal volume -
volume of air
4 inhaled and exhaled
total lung
E in a single capacity -
~ normal breath volume of air
E3
:::J
in the lungs
after maximum
~ inhalation
2

residual volume-

remaining in the
lungs after
forceful exhalation

NB 1 dm3 = 1 litre

Figure 4.5 Lung capacities and volumes

Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation (rescue breathing)

- - - -
Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation is a technique used to supply oxygen to a person who has stopped
breathing. The rescuer forces his or her exhaled air, which contains about 16% oxygen, into the
victim's lungs every few seconds, allowing for passive exhalation between. To perform mouth-to-
mouth resuscitation:
• Lie the victim on his or her back.
• Gently tilt the victim's head backwards to open the airways by lifting the chin.
• Open the victim's mouth and remove any debris.
• Pinch the victim's nostrils to close them and
breathe in.
• Seal your lips over the victim's open mouth and
breathe out into the mouth for 1 second.
• If the victim's chest rises, breathe intu ihe ~
mouth a second time. --~
• Continue rescue breathing by giving one breath,
every 5 seconds until normal breathing resumes
or medical help arrives.

The effects of smoking

cigarettes
When smoking cigarettes made from tobacco,
smoke containing over 4000 thousand different
.chernicals including nicotine, tar and carbon
monoxide is inhaled into the respiratory system.
Cigarette smoking poses serious health risks
including the following. Figure 4.6

4 The respiratory system

Nicotine addiction
Nicotine is an addictive substance that causes smokers to continue to smoke and mal e it extremely
difficult for them to stop. Addicted smokers need [Link] nicotine during each dav ofeel normal'.

Reduced oxygen carrying capacity of the blood

Carbon monoxide combines more readily with haemoglobin than oxygen doe. which reduces the
amount of oxygen carried to body cells. This reduces respiration and the smo er' abilitv to exercise.
In a pregnant woman it deprives the foetus of oxygen, reducing its growth and de elopment.

Lung damage
Cigarette smoke damages lungs:
• It causes mucus production to increase and it paralyses the cilia, which stop them irom beating
so the mucus is not removed. The person then develops a persistent cough to r\ and remove
the mucus.
• It irritates and inflames the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles. This, together vi h the increased
mucus production and paralysis of the cilia, causes the airways to become obstructed. making
breathing difficult, and leads to chronic bronchitis.
• It causes the walls of the alveoli to become less elastic and the walls between the alveoli to break
down, which decreases their surface area. This reduces gaseous exchange, ma e exhaling difficult
and causes air to remain trapped in the lungs, a condition known as emphysema The bronchioles
often collapse when exhaling, obstructing the airways, making exhaling even harder.

Chronic bronchitis

inflammation and

Emphysema

alveolar
membranes
break down

Figure 4.7 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPO)

Cancer of the mouth, throat, oesophagus or lungs

Some components of tar and many other chemicals in cigarette smoke are carcinogenic. These cause
mutations in cells in different regions of the respiratory system. This leads to the development of
cancerous tumours which replace normal, healthy tissue in these regions.
Note that chronic bronchitis and emphysema are two types of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
orCOPD.

4 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social Biology

 Respiration
Respiration is the process by which energy is released from food by all living cells.

Respiration is catalysed by enzymes and occurs slowly in a large number [Link]:

• Most of the energy released at each stage is used to build energy carrying molecules called
adenosine triphosphate or AlP. An AlP molecule is formed by combining some of the energy
released with an adenosine diphosphate or ADP molecule and a phosphate group present in the cell.
The energy can then be re-released where ever it is needed in the cell by the reverse reaction:
ADP + phosphate + energy ATP

AlP is known as the 'energy currency' of cells. Cells earn AlP as a result of energy-producing
reactions, and spend it on reactions requiring energy. Energy released by ATP is used by cells:

- To manufacture complex, biologically important molecules, e.g. proteins, DNA.

1 - For cell growth and repair.
• For cell division.
_In active transport to move molecules and ions in and out of the cells through their membranes.
- For special functions in specialised cells, e.g. contraction of muscle cells, transmission of
1 impulses in nerve cells.
• Some of the energy is released as heat and this helps to maintain the body temperature at 37°C.

There are two types of respiration:

• aerobic respiration
• anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration is the process by which energy is released from food by living cells using oxygen.

Aerobic respiration occurs in most cells. It uses oxygen and takes place in the mitochondria. It always
produces carbon dioxide, water and about 38 AlP molecules per molecule of glucose.

enzymes in
glucose + oxygen -----.:..------.. carbon dioxide + water + energy
m itochond ria

Anaerobic .respiration
Anaerobic respiration is the process by which energy is released from food by living cells without the
use of oxygen.

Anaerobic respiration occurs in some cells. It takes place without oxygen in the cytoplasm of the cells.
The products of anaerobic respiration vary and it produces considerably less energy per molecule of
glucose than aerobic respiration. Yeast cells, certain bacteria and muscle cells are capable of carrying
out anaerobic respiration.

4 The respiratory system

.<- -
Industrial and domestic uses of anaerobic respiration
Making bread and alcoholic beverages

Yeast cells carry out anaerobic respiration known as fermentation. It produces ethanol carbon dioxide
and 2 AlP molecules per molecule of glucose.

enzymes in
glucose ------'----~ ethanol + carbon dioxide + ener
cytoplasm

When making bread, the yeast ferments sugars present in dough. The carbon dioxide p oduced forms
bubbles in the dough which cause it to rise. When baked, heat from the oven cau e: e bubbles to
expand, kills the yeast and evaporates the ethanol.
When .making alcoholic beverages such asbeer, wine, rum and other spirits, the yeas ':emlents sugars
present in grains, fruits or molasses. Fermentation stops when the ethanol concen ra '0:1 reaches
about 14-16% because it kills yeast cells, so the ethanol content of beer and wine L - a below
about 16%. Spi rits are made by distillation of the fermentation m ixtu reo

Making yoghurt
Certain bacteria, e.g. Lactobacillus, ferment the lactose in milk forming lactic acid. The lactic acid
makes the milk proteins curdle, which forms thick yoghurt and gives the yoghurt' - sour taste.

Producing biogas
Certain bacteria are used to break down organic matter, e.g. manure and garden vaste. anaerobically
in an anaerobic digester. This produces biogas which is a mixture of approxirnatelv 60°0 methane (CH4),
40% carbon dioxide and traces of other gases, e.g. hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Biogas can be used as a fuel
for cooking, heating and to generate electricity. '

Oxygen debt
Muscle cells can carry out anaerobic respiration during strenuous exercise. During trenuous exercise,
if oxygen cannot be delivered to the muscle cells quickly enough for the demand of aerobic
respiration, the cells begin to respire anaerobically. This produces lactic acid and 2 ATP molecules per
molecule of glucose.
enzymes in
glucose ------~ lactic acid + energy
cytoplasm

Lactic acid builds up in [Link] cells and begins to harm them, causing fatigue and eventually
collapse as they stop contracting. The muscle cells are said to have built up an 0 gen debt. This debt
must be repaid directly after exercise by resting and breathing deeply so that the lactic acid can be
removed by respiring it aerobically.

Revision questions
What is meant by the term 'breathing' and why is breathing important to humans?

State the function of EACH of the following structures found in the

respiratory system:
a the nasal cavities b the bronchi c the bronchioles

Identify the gaseous exchange surface in a human and explain FOUR ways in which
the surface is adapted to perform its function efficiently.

4 Concise Revision Course: Human and Social Biology

 4 Explain the mechanism by which air is drawn into the lungs.

5 Give FOUR factors that can increase the breathing rate and TWO factors that can
decrease it.

a What is meant by the term 'vital capacity'?

b Why is it important to measure a person's vital capacity?

7 Your friend, Kendra, suddenly collapses and stops breathing. Outline the steps you
would take to perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation on Kendra.

.• 8 a Name the THREEmain components of cigarette smoke .

I b Outline how smoking cigarettes damages the lungs.

9 Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic respiration and write ONE word equation
to summarise EACH process.

What is ATP and what is its role in body cells?

Che carried out strenuous exercise for an extended period of time and eventually
collapsed and found he had to rest before resuming any exercise. Explain why he
collapsed and why he had to rest before he could exercise again.

4 The respiratory system