OBJECTIVES & METHODS OF STRUGGLE OF EARLY NATIONALISTS

1. Objectives of the Early Nationalists (4 Points)

(i) Constitutional Reforms

The Early Nationalists aimed at achieving self-government through constitutional and

peaceful means within the framework of British rule. They believed that India should
gradually move towards democratic self-government. Their demands were moderate in
nature, showing faith in the British sense of justice.

(ii) Economic Reforms

They demanded reduction in land revenue and protection of peasants from the unjust
demands of zamindars. They opposed the heavy expenditure on the British army,
demanding that the saved money be spent on health and education. They also demanded
development of industries like iron, coal, paper and sugar in India.

(iii) Administrative Reforms

The Early Nationalists demanded Indianisation of services through simultaneous Civil

Service examinations in England and India. They wanted separation of the executive and
judiciary to protect Indians from arbitrary actions. They also demanded greater powers for
local bodies and reduction of official control over them.

(iv) Defence of Civil Rights

They strongly defended freedom of speech, expression and the press whenever the British
tried to curtail them. They demanded the abolition of the Preventive Detention Act and
restoration of individual liberties. They also demanded the right to assemble and form
associations.

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2. Methods of Struggle of the Early Nationalists (5 Points)

(i) Constitutional Agitation

The Early Nationalists followed constitutional agitation, believing in orderly political progress.
They relied on petitions, prayers and protests to achieve their objectives. They avoided
violence and confrontation, working within the law.

(ii) Use of the Press

They made extensive use of the press to criticise British policies. Newspapers and journals
were used to educate people and create political awareness. The press exposed the unjust
policies of the British Government in India.
(iii) Meetings and Resolutions

They held public meetings where speeches were delivered and resolutions were passed.
These meetings helped to spread political consciousness among the people. Resolutions
expressing popular demands were sent to the government.

(iv) Memorandums and Petitions

They sent memorandums and petitions to British officials and the British Parliament. These
documents were drafted with facts and arguments to highlight Indian grievances. Though
often rejected, they educated the Indian people politically.

(v) Propaganda in Britain

Indian leaders carried out political propaganda in Britain to influence British public opinion.
They explained the true condition of India to the British people and politicians. This helped in
creating sympathy for Indian demands.

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3. Contributions of Dadabhai Naoroji (3 Points)

(i) India’s Unofficial Ambassador

Dadabhai Naoroji acted as India’s unofficial ambassador in England, fighting for India’s
cause. In 1865, he founded the London India Society to voice Indian grievances. He became
the first Indian member of the British House of Commons.

(ii) Economic Critic of British Rule

Dadabhai Naoroji exposed the economic exploitation of India by the British. His famous work
‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India’ explained the Drain Theory. He showed how India’s
wealth was being drained to England.

(iii) Role in the Congress

He played an important role in the Indian National Congress and presided over it three
times. He demanded Self-Government or Swaraj on the lines of self-governing colonies.
Education, reform and national unity were stressed during his leadership.

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4. Contributions of Surendranath Banerjee (3 Points)

(i) Founder of Indian Association

Surendranath Banerjee founded the Indian Association in 1876 to create political awareness.
The aim was to educate the people and create strong public opinion. It worked for the
political unity of Indians.

(ii) Indian National Conference

He convened the Indian National Conference in 1883 at Kolkata. The Conference aimed at
creating an all-India political organisation. Its objectives were similar to those of the Indian
National Congress.

(iii) Role as Journalist and Leader

He edited the newspaper ‘Bengalee’, which mobilised public opinion. He opposed the Arms
Act, Vernacular Press Act and Licence Act. He used constitutional methods to fight British
injustice.

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5. Contributions of Gopal Krishna Gokhale (3 Points)

(i) Advocate of Constitutional Reforms

Gokhale believed in achieving reforms through constitutional and peaceful means. He

criticised British policies like heavy military expenditure and racial discrimination. He
supported reform of Legislative Councils and separation of judiciary from executive.

(ii) Servants of India Society

In 1905, he founded the Servants of India Society. Its aim was to train national leaders
dedicated to the service of India. Members worked for education and social reform.

(iii) Role in Public Life

He was a member of the Imperial Legislative Council. He demanded reduction in Salt Duty
and better economic policies. He played a key role in shaping moderate nationalism.

1. Partition of Bengal (4 Points)

1. Announcement of Partition (1905)

Lord Curzon announced the Partition of Bengal on July 20, 1905, claiming Bengal was too
large to be administered efficiently. The province had a population of about 80 million,
making administration difficult under one government. This decision later came to be viewed
as an attack on Indian nationalism.
2. Creation of Two Provinces
Bengal was divided into Bengal and Eastern Bengal and Assam for administrative
convenience. Bengal included western districts with Calcutta as capital, while Eastern
Bengal and Assam had Dacca as capital. The division changed the demographic and
political balance of the region.

3. Implementation of Partition
The Partition officially came into effect on October 16, 1905, despite strong opposition from
Indians. The day was observed as a day of mourning throughout Bengal. Massive protests
marked the beginning of the Anti-Partition Movement.

4. Effect on Population Composition

Eastern Bengal became a Muslim-majority province, while Bengal had a Hindu majority. In
both provinces, many Bengalis became minorities due to inclusion of non-Bengali areas.
This division weakened the unity of the Bengali population.

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2. Causes of Partition of Bengal (3 Points)

1. To Weaken Nationalism
Bengal was the centre of Indian nationalism, so the British aimed to weaken this rising
political awareness. Partition was intended to split and weaken the organized opposition to
British rule. Lord Curzon’s policy aimed at breaking nationalist unity.

2. To Reduce Bengali Influence

The British wanted to reduce Bengalis to a minority by dividing Bengal. This would weaken
their political influence and leadership in nationalist activities. The move reduced Bengali
dominance in administration and politics.

3. Divide on Religious Grounds

The Partition aimed to create division between Hindus and Muslims. Eastern Bengal had a
Muslim majority while Western Bengal had a Hindu majority. This encouraged communal
division and weakened national unity.

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3. Partition — Perspective of the Nationalists (4 Points)

1. Deliberate Policy to Divide People

Nationalists saw the Partition as a deliberate attempt to divide Bengalis territorially and
religiously. They believed the British wanted to weaken the nationalist movement. Thus, it
was strongly condemned.

2. Administrative Reason Rejected

Nationalists rejected the claim that partition was done for administrative efficiency. They
believed better administration could have been achieved without dividing Bengal. Hence,
British motives were questioned.

3. Disregard for Public Opinion

The decision was taken without consulting Indians, hurting public sentiment. Bengalis felt
insulted and betrayed by the government’s action. This united people against British rule.

4. Threat to Bengali Unity

The move was seen as an attack on Bengali culture and unity. Nationalists believed it aimed
at destroying political solidarity. This strengthened resistance against British policies.

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4. Surat Split (1907) — 4 Points

1. Congress Session at Surat (1907)

The Congress session was held at Surat in 1907. Differences between Early Nationalists
and Assertive Nationalists became intense. The unity of the Congress was seriously
affected.

2. Differences over Methods

Assertive Nationalists supported Swadeshi and Boycott, while Early Nationalists preferred
constitutional methods. These differences caused conflict within the Congress. Agreement
could not be reached.

3. Dispute over Presidentship

Assertive Nationalists proposed Lala Lajpat Rai as President, while Early Nationalists
supported Rashbehari Ghosh. This disagreement created chaos in the session. The meeting
ended in disorder.

4. Expulsion of Assertive Leaders

The Assertive Nationalists were expelled from the Congress. Later in 1908, the split was
formalised. This weakened the national movement temporarily.

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5. Objectives of Assertive Nationalists (4 Points)

1. Attainment of Swaraj
Their main objective was attainment of Swaraj, meaning self-government for Indians. They
demanded political freedom, not minor reforms. Swaraj became the central goal of the
movement.

2. End Economic Exploitation

They aimed to end British economic exploitation of India. British policies were blamed for
India’s poverty. Economic independence became a key aim.

3. Mass Participation and Self-Reliance

They wanted the masses to actively participate in the freedom struggle. Self-confidence and
self-reliance were encouraged among Indians. National awakening was promoted.

4. Assertive Political Action

They believed petitions and prayers were ineffective. Strong political pressure and
resistance were necessary. Thus, assertive action replaced moderate methods.

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6. Methods of Struggle of Assertive Nationalists (4 Points)

1. Swadeshi
Swadeshi promoted the use of goods made in India. It encouraged Indians to support
indigenous industries. This reduced dependence on foreign goods.

2. Boycott
Boycott meant refusing to buy British goods and services. Bonfires of foreign goods were
organized publicly. This hurt British economic interests.

3. National Education
National schools and colleges were set up free from government control. Education aimed to
build patriotism among youth. Students were encouraged to join the movement.

4. Passive Resistance
People refused cooperation with British administration and institutions. Courage, sacrifice
and self-confidence were encouraged. This method aimed at achieving Swaraj through
non-cooperation.

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7. Contributions of Bal Gangadhar Tilak (4 Points)

1. Demand for Swaraj

Tilak was the first leader to openly demand Swaraj. He declared Swaraj as the birthright of
Indians. His call inspired national awakening.

2. Preached Nationalism
He popularised nationalism through Ganapati and Shivaji festivals. These festivals united
people politically. Patriotism spread among the masses.

3. Journalism
Through newspapers Kesari and Mahratta, he spread nationalist ideas. His writings
awakened political consciousness. People became more aware of British exploitation.

4. Home Rule League (1916)

Tilak started the Home Rule League in 1916 at Poona. It aimed at achieving
self-government. The movement gained nationwide support.

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8. Contributions of Bipin Chandra Pal (4 Points)

1. Journalist and Nationalist Writer

Pal worked for newspapers like Bengal Public Opinion, The Tribune, and New India. His
writings promoted nationalism strongly. He spread revolutionary ideas among Indians.

2. Promotion of National Education

He believed education should promote patriotism and freedom. National education
awakened youth politically. It became an instrument of social progress.

3. Social and Economic Reforms

He opposed caste discrimination and supported widow remarriage and women’s education.
He aimed at social upliftment of society. Economic justice was also emphasized.

4. Promotion of Swadeshi Industries

He supported indigenous industries through Swadeshi. Boycott of foreign goods was
encouraged to reduce unemployment. This strengthened Indian economic independence.

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9. Contributions of Lala Lajpat Rai (4 Points)

1. Educationist and Writer

He was a forceful writer who spread nationalist ideas through works like Young India. His
writings inspired Indians towards Swaraj. He strongly criticised British rule.

2. Social Reformer
Associated with Arya Samaj, he worked for education and social upliftment. He helped
establish institutions and hospitals. He worked for the welfare of the downtrodden.

3. Political Work Outside India

He travelled abroad to mobilise support for India’s freedom struggle. His writings and
speeches inspired Indians overseas. Nationalist ideas spread globally.

4. Leadership in National Movement

He played an active role in Congress politics and labour movements. He connected workers
with the nationalist struggle. His leadership strengthened mass participation.
1. Factors Leading to the Formation of the Muslim League (5 Points)

1. British Policy of Divide and Rule

The British encouraged communal differences to weaken the united nationalist movement.
They promoted separate political interests among communities. This policy created
conditions for a separate Muslim political organisation.

2. Fear of Muslim Political Minority

Many Muslim leaders feared that Muslims would become politically weak in a representative
system dominated by the majority community. They wanted safeguards for their political
rights. This fear led to the demand for a separate organisation.

3. Opposition to Congress Policies

Some Muslim leaders felt that the Congress mainly represented the interests of the majority
community. They believed Muslim interests required separate political representation. This
increased support for forming a separate political body.

4. Partition of Bengal Agitation

The strong protests against the Partition of Bengal alarmed sections of Muslim leadership.
They feared their political and administrative advantages might be lost if the partition was
cancelled. This situation encouraged separate political organisation.

5. Need for Political Protection and Representation

Muslim leaders felt the need to organise politically to protect their rights and interests. They
aimed to secure government support and political safeguards. This resulted in the formation
of a separate political organisation.

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2. Objectives of the Muslim League (5 Points)

1. Protection of Muslim Political Rights

One main objective was to protect and promote political rights of Muslims in India. The
organisation aimed to secure safeguards in administration and representation. This ensured
Muslims had a political voice.

2. Loyalty to the British Government

The organisation initially aimed to promote loyalty towards the British government. Leaders
believed cooperation would help secure political benefits. This policy influenced its early
activities.

3. Promotion of Unity Among Muslims

The League aimed to unite Muslims across India under one political platform. Unity was
considered necessary for protecting community interests. This strengthened collective
political action.

4. Safeguarding Muslim Interests in Administration

The organisation demanded proper representation of Muslims in government services and
councils. It aimed to ensure fair treatment in administration. Political safeguards were
therefore emphasised.

5. Preventing Hostility Between Communities

Another objective was to prevent political conflict between communities. Leaders aimed to
protect Muslim interests while maintaining political stability. This objective shaped its early
policies.

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3. Significance of the Lucknow Pact (4 Points)

1. Unity Between Congress and Muslim League

The pact brought both organisations together on a common political platform. It showed
cooperation between different political groups against colonial rule. This unity strengthened
the national movement.

2. Agreement on Constitutional Reforms

Both organisations jointly demanded constitutional reforms from the government. They
presented common political demands for self-government. This strengthened Indian
demands politically.

3. Acceptance of Separate Representation

An agreement was reached regarding political representation of Muslims. This compromise
aimed to maintain cooperation between communities. It helped achieve temporary political
unity.

4. Strengthening of National Movement

The pact increased political pressure on the British government. It demonstrated Indian
political unity and cooperation. This development gave new momentum to the national
movement.

1. Causes of the Non-Cooperation Movement (5 Points)

1. Rowlatt Act (March 1919)

The Rowlatt Act gave the Government extraordinary powers to arrest any person without
trial and imprison them without court proceedings. It allowed in-camera trials and restricted
civil liberties, causing widespread resentment among Indians. Mahatma Gandhi started a
nationwide protest against this unjust Act.
2. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919)
A large peaceful gathering at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, was fired upon by General Dyer,
killing and injuring hundreds of innocent people. The brutal massacre shocked the nation
and destroyed Indian faith in British justice. It convinced Indians that cooperation with the
British Government must end.

3. Khilafat Movement (August 1920)

Indian Muslims were angered by British treatment of Turkey after the First World War and
feared the loss of the authority of the Caliph. Leaders like the Ali Brothers launched the
Khilafat Movement demanding protection of the Caliph. Gandhi supported it and united
Hindus and Muslims against British rule.

4. Failure of Constitutional Methods

Repeated peaceful appeals and constitutional methods failed to bring justice to Indians. The
Government ignored Indian demands and continued oppressive policies. This forced leaders
to adopt Non-Cooperation as a new method of protest.

5. Popular Anger Against British Repression

Repressive actions, arrests and suppression of protests created anger among people across
the country. Economic hardships and political injustices increased dissatisfaction. Gandhi
called upon Indians to withdraw cooperation from the British Government.

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2. Causes of the Civil Disobedience Movement (5 Points)

1. Simon Commission (1927)

The Simon Commission was appointed without any Indian member to suggest constitutional
reforms. Indians regarded it as an insult and protested everywhere with the slogan “Simon
Go Back.” The boycott united different political parties against British rule.

2. Demand for Poorna Swaraj (1929)

The British Government did not accept the Nehru Report, leading Congress to demand
Complete Independence or Poorna Swaraj. At the Lahore Session in 1929, Poorna Swaraj
became the goal of Congress. January 26, 1930, was observed as Independence Day
across the country.

3. Failure of the British Government to Respond to Demands

The Government ignored Indian demands for responsible government and reforms.
Negotiations and constitutional discussions failed to produce results. This convinced leaders
that stronger action was necessary.

4. Economic Hardships and Tax Burden

Heavy taxation, including salt tax and land revenue demands, affected common people
badly. Economic distress increased dissatisfaction against British rule. Gandhi decided to
launch Civil Disobedience to oppose unjust laws.
5. Need for a Stronger Mass Movement
Non-Cooperation had ended without achieving Swaraj, so a stronger movement was
needed. Gandhi planned Civil Disobedience to break unjust laws directly. This movement
aimed at paralysing British administration through mass participation.

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3. Impact of the Non-Cooperation Movement (4 Points)

1. National Movement Became a Mass Movement

For the first time, peasants, workers, students, women and middle classes actively joined the
freedom struggle. The movement spread across towns and villages. It transformed the
struggle into a nationwide mass movement.

2. Instilled Confidence Among People

People lost fear of British authority and developed self-confidence. Indians realised they
could challenge colonial rule through united action. A strong sense of national unity and
self-respect developed.

3. Congress Became a Revolutionary Organisation

The Congress changed from a debating body into an organisation leading mass struggle. It
became the centre of national resistance against British rule. Congress thus emerged as the
real political force of India.

4. Fostered Hindu-Muslim Unity

The merging of Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements united Hindus and Muslims.
People from different communities fought together against British rule. This unity
strengthened the national movement.

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4. Impact of the Civil Disobedience Movement (4 Points)

1. Widened the Base of Freedom Struggle

The movement involved peasants, workers, women and students in large numbers. Civil
Disobedience spread to towns, villages and frontier regions. It deepened the social roots of
the national movement.

2. Popularised Non-Violence and New Methods of Protest

Breaking unjust laws, boycott and peaceful protests became effective tools of resistance.
New methods like processions, strikes and propaganda spread widely. People learnt to fight
injustice through non-violent means.

3. Government Realised Need for Constitutional Reforms

British authorities understood that reforms were necessary to control the situation. This led
to constitutional changes like provincial autonomy under later reforms. The movement forced
the Government to reconsider its policies.

4. Revived the Spirit of Nationalism and Political Participation

The movement encouraged people to continue the fight for independence. It strengthened
determination to achieve Swaraj. Political awareness and participation increased throughout
India.

1. Reasons That Led To The Passing Of the Quit India Resolution

(A) Failure of the Cripps Mission – 5 Points

1. The Cripps Mission (1942) proposed that India would be given Dominion Status after the
Second World War, not immediate independence.
The Congress rejected this proposal because it did not promise complete transfer of power
at once.
This made the offer unacceptable and strengthened the demand for the British to Quit India.

2. The Mission proposed the setting up of a Constituent Assembly, but its members were to
be partly elected and partly nominated.
This was opposed by Indian leaders as it did not represent true popular sovereignty.
Hence, the Congress refused to accept such a limited constitutional arrangement.

3. According to the proposals, defence of India was to remain under British control.
The Congress demanded that all important subjects, including defence, should be under an
Indian National Government.
The retention of defence powers by the British showed their lack of trust in Indians.

4. The Mission allowed provinces to not join the Indian Union and frame their own
Constitutions.
This was seen as a step towards the partition of the country, which the Congress strongly
opposed.
Thus, the proposals threatened the unity and integrity of India.

5. The Cripps Mission failed to give a clear assurance of independence in the near future.
As mentioned in the text, it did not satisfy the national aspirations of Indians.
Therefore, all parties rejected the proposals, leading to the demand for immediate British
withdrawal.

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(B) Japan Posed a Serious Threat to India – 5 Points

1. By 1942, the Japanese Army had conquered Burma (Myanmar) and was advancing
towards Assam.
This brought the war very close to Indian borders.
The situation created a serious threat to India’s security.

2. Mahatma Gandhi stated that the presence of the British in India was an invitation to
Japan.
He believed that British rule made India vulnerable to foreign attack.
Thus, British withdrawal was seen as necessary for India’s self-defence.

3. Indian leaders feared that Japan might invade India during the war.
They felt that Indians could not depend on the British for protection.
This strengthened the demand for complete independence.

4. Gandhi believed that India’s safety lay in orderly and timely British withdrawal.
He felt that only an independent India could resist foreign aggression effectively.
This idea directly led to the call for the Quit India Movement.

5. The war situation made it clear that British control had become a hindrance rather than
protection.
Indian leaders wanted to save India from both British exploitation and Japanese invasion.
Hence, the Congress passed the Quit India Resolution in 1942.

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2. Significance of the Quit India Movement – 5 Points

1. The Quit India Movement demonstrated the depth of national feeling among Indians.
It showed the capacity for struggle and sacrifice developed by the people.
This proved that Indians were fully prepared for independence.

2. It made it evident that the British would no longer be able to rule India against the wishes
of the people.
The movement exposed the weakness of British authority.
This marked a turning point in the freedom struggle.

3. The movement became a mass uprising involving people from all sections of society.
Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, students, workers, and peasants participated actively.
This gave the struggle a nationwide character.

4. The Quit India Movement strengthened the Congress Socialist Party and other
underground groups.
Leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan kept the movement alive despite repression.
This ensured continued resistance against British rule.

5. After the suppression of the Quit India Movement, the British realised that Indian political
activity could not be ignored.
The Constitutional question became urgent till the close of the War in 1945.
Thus, the movement made independence of India inevitable.

Forward Bloc & Indian National Army (INA)

1. Objectives of the Forward Bloc (4 Points)

(Direct answers as per your instruction — no explanation)

1. Liberation of India with the support of workers, peasants, youth and other organisations.

2. Establishment of a Socialist State after attaining independence.

3. Reorganisation of agriculture and industry on socialist lines.

4. Abolition of the Zamindari system and introduction of a new monetary and credit system.

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2. Objectives of the Indian National Army (INA) – 5 Points

(Direct answers only, strictly from the book)

1. To organise armed revolution and fight the British army with modern arms.

2. To organise an armed revolt from Indians living abroad, especially in East Asia.

3. To organise a Provisional Government of Free India to mobilise all forces effectively.

4. Total mobilisation of Indian man-power and money for a total war.

5. The motto of the INA was “Unity, Faith and Sacrifice.”

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3. Contributions of Subhas Chandra Bose – 5 Points

(Each point explained in exactly 3 sentences, only book content, with keywords)

1. Formation of the Forward Bloc (1939)

Subhas Chandra Bose resigned from the Presidentship of the Congress in April 1939 due to
differences with Mahatma Gandhi.
He founded the Forward Bloc on May 3, 1939 to unite the left-wing forces within the
Congress.
The aim was to intensify the struggle for liberation of India.

2. Leadership of the INA (1943)

Subhas Chandra Bose arrived at Singapore in July 1943 and took charge of the Indian
National Army.
He was greeted as Netaji, the great leader of the Indian Independence League.
Under his leadership, the INA became an organised and disciplined force for India’s
freedom.

3. Provisional Government of Free India (1943)

Subhas Chandra Bose set up the Provisional Government of Free India on October 21,
1943, at Singapore.
The government declared war on Britain and the USA and was recognised by several
countries.
It aimed to expel the British and establish a permanent national government of Azad Hind.

4. Military Campaigns and War Efforts

The INA launched military operations in February 1944 and advanced up to Kohima and
Imphal.
The Tricolour was hoisted on Indian soil at Moirang.
Though the campaign failed due to adverse conditions, it showed armed resistance to British
rule.

5. Inspiration and National Awakening

Subhas Chandra Bose gave the powerful call “Give me blood and I shall give you freedom.”
The INA’s sacrifices inspired patriotism and political consciousness among Indians.
The British realised that they could no longer rely on Indian forces to continue their rule.

INDEPENDENCE & PARTITION OF INDIA

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1. Clauses of the Cabinet Mission Plan (5 Points)

1. Federal Union

The Cabinet Mission proposed a federal union consisting of the British Provinces and the
Princely States.
The Union Government was to control only Foreign Affairs, Defence and Communications.
All other subjects were to remain with the Provinces, ensuring provincial autonomy.

2. Provincial Autonomy

The Provinces were to enjoy full autonomy in all subjects except those assigned to the
Union.
Each Province would have its own executive and legislature.
This clause aimed at reducing excessive centralisation of power.

3. Grouping of Provinces

The British Provinces were to be divided into three groups—A, B and C.

Each group could decide which provincial subjects would be taken in common.
A Province was free to opt out of a group after the first general elections.

4. Constituent Assembly

A Constituent Assembly of 389 members was to frame the Constitution of India.

Members were to be elected from the British Provinces and the Princely States.
The Constituent Assembly was declared a sovereign body.

5. Interim Government

An Interim Government was to be formed at the Centre.

It would consist of representatives of all major communities.
The purpose was to manage administration until the new Constitution was framed.

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2. Clauses of the Lord Mountbatten Plan (5 Points)

1. Partition of India

India was to be divided into two independent Dominions—India and Pakistan.

Partition was accepted as the only practical solution to the communal deadlock.
The decision was announced on June 3, 1947.
2. Boundary Commission

A Boundary Commission was to be set up to demarcate boundaries.

It would decide the boundaries of Punjab and Bengal.
The decision of the Commission was to be final and binding.

3. Princely States

The Princely States were given freedom to join either Dominion or remain independent.
All treaties with the British Crown were to lapse.
The rulers had to decide keeping in mind geographical contiguity and people’s wishes.

4. Transfer of Power

The transfer of power was to take place before August 15, 1947.
The British Parliament was to pass the necessary legislation.
This ensured a speedy and peaceful withdrawal of British rule.

5. Constituent Assemblies

The existing Constituent Assembly would function for India.

A separate Constituent Assembly was to be created for Pakistan.
Each Dominion would frame its own Constitution.

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3. Acceptance of the Mountbatten Plan (3 Points)

1. Communal Deadlock

The communal riots had engulfed the entire country.

Partition was considered the only way to end communal violence.
The leaders felt delay would lead to civil war.

2. Attitude of the Muslim League

The Muslim League had joined the Interim Government but did not cooperate.
It created administrative deadlock and obstructed smooth governance.
This convinced the Congress that joint administration was impossible.

3. Immediate Independence

Further continuation of British rule would cause greater calamity.

Partition was accepted as the price for immediate independence.
Delay in transfer of power could plunge India into chaos and disorder.
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4. Clauses of the Indian Independence Act, 1947 (5 Points)

1. Creation of Two Dominions

The Act provided for the creation of India and Pakistan.

Pakistan was to come into existence on August 15, 1947.
Both Dominions were to enjoy full sovereignty.

2. Governor-General

Each Dominion was to have a Governor-General.

He was to be appointed by the British King on the advice of the Dominion Cabinet.
The Governor-General would function until the framing of the Constitution.

3. Constituent Assemblies

The Constituent Assemblies were to act as Central Legislatures.

They were empowered to frame Constitutions and pass laws.
They functioned as sovereign legislative bodies.

4. End of British Parliament’s Authority

The authority of the British Parliament over India came to an end.

The title ‘Emperor of India’ was abolished.
India was to be governed under the Government of India Act, 1935, till a new Constitution
was framed.

5. Princely States

All treaties between the British Government and Princely States were terminated.
The States were free to join either Dominion or remain independent.
British suzerainty over the Princely States ceased completely.

CHAPTER: THE FIRST WORLD WAR

1. Causes of the First World War (4 Points)

1. Nationalism and Imperialism

Nationalism created a strong sense of national pride and hatred for other nations, leading to
aggressive nationalism in Europe.
Imperialism meant the policy of acquiring colonies for raw materials, cheap labour and
markets.
This resulted in rivalry, fear, mutual hatred and international tension among European
powers.

2. Armament Race

European nations began a race for armaments, stockpiling huge armies and weapons.
Each country increased its armaments in the name of self-defence and national security.
This created an atmosphere of suspicion, fear and war psychology in Europe.

3. Division of Europe into Two Hostile Camps

Europe was divided into two armed camps to safeguard national interests.
The Triple Alliance included Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, while the Triple Entente
included France, England and Russia.
This division made war inevitable as any local conflict could involve all major powers.

4. Sarajevo Crisis (Immediate Cause)

Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated at Sarajevo on June 28,

1914.
Austria blamed Serbia and issued an ultimatum which Serbia partly rejected.
Austria declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914, leading to the outbreak of the First World
War.

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2. Terms of the Treaty of Versailles (5 Points)

1. War Guilt Clause

The Treaty declared Germany guilty of aggression and responsible for the war.
Germany was forced to accept full blame for causing the First World War.
This clause humiliated Germany and justified harsh punishment.

2. Reparations

Germany was required to pay heavy war damages to the Allied Powers.
The amount fixed was 33 billion dollars as compensation.
This severely weakened Germany’s economy.

3. Military Restrictions

Germany’s army was reduced to 1,00,000 soldiers and the navy was restricted.
The Air Force and submarines were banned.
Germany was forbidden to manufacture heavy weapons.

4. Territorial Losses
Germany lost Alsace-Lorraine to France and other territories to neighbouring countries.
The Rhineland was demilitarised and occupied by Allied troops.
German colonies were taken away and placed under Allied control.

5. League of Nations

Germany was initially not allowed to join the League of Nations.

The League was formed to maintain peace and prevent future wars.
Germany’s exclusion increased her resentment against the Treaty.

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3. Formation of the League of Nations (5 Points)

1. Idea of the League

The idea of forming the League of Nations was included in Wilson’s Fourteen Points.
Its aim was to ensure international peace and security.
The League was formed as a world organisation of independent states.

2. Establishment

The League of Nations was established in 1920.

It was formed after the First World War as part of the peace settlements.
Its headquarters was set up to supervise international cooperation.

3. Prevention of War

All member states were prohibited from entering into secret treaties and alliances.
Disputes between nations were to be settled peacefully through the League.
War was to be prevented through collective security.

4. Disarmament

Member states were discouraged from maintaining huge armies and armaments.
Reduction of armaments was considered essential for world peace.
This was aimed at preventing another armament race.

5. Collective Action

Member states were expected to take joint action against aggressor nations.
Economic and military sanctions could be imposed on violators of peace.
This principle aimed to maintain world peace and order.
CHAPTER: THE RISE OF DICTATORSHIPS

1. Causes for the Rise of Fascism in Italy (4 Points)

1. Discontentment after the Treaty of Versailles

Italy fought on the side of the Allies in the First World War but failed to gain territories
promised to her.
The Treaty of Versailles disappointed Italy as she did not get Dalmatian Coast and colonies.
This created national humiliation and resentment, which helped the rise of Fascism.

2. Economic Crisis

Italy suffered heavy loss of men, money and property during the First World War.
After the war, soldiers returned home and large-scale unemployment developed.
There was shortage of food grains, inflation and poverty, creating economic instability.

3. Political Instability

In 1919, proportional representation was introduced but no party gained a clear majority.
Frequent changes of government led to political confusion and weak administration.
People lost faith in democracy and supported a strong authoritarian government.

4. Fear of Socialism or Communism

Socialists and Communists organised strikes and riots, inspired by the Russian Revolution.
They seized lands and factories, creating fear among industrialists and landowners.
These groups supported Fascism to check the growing influence of Communism.

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2. Causes for the Rise of Nazism in Germany (4 Points)

1. Humiliating Treaty of Versailles

Germany was held guilty of war and forced to pay heavy war reparations.
She lost territories, colonies and her military strength was drastically reduced.
This caused national humiliation, which was exploited by Hitler.

2. Economic Crisis

Germany suffered from agricultural and industrial decline after the war.
Foreign investment stopped, industries closed and unemployment increased rapidly.
Farmers suffered badly and economic misery spread among the people.

3. Growing Fear of Communism

Communism spread rapidly in Germany after the war.
The Nazis warned people that Germany would become a Communist State controlled by
Russia.
Nazism gained support as it promised to check Communism.

4. Absence of Strong Opposition

No strong political party could effectively oppose the Nazi Party.

The Nazis did not face effective resistance and gained popularity rapidly.
This helped Hitler to establish a dictatorship.

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3. Comparative Study of Fascist and Nazi Ideologies (5 Points)

1. Faith in Totalitarian Rule

Both Fascism and Nazism believed in absolute authority of the State.

They rejected democracy and supported dictatorship under one leader.
Individual freedom was subordinated to the interests of the State.

2. One-Party Rule and One Leader

Both ideologies supported one-party rule.

They believed that the nation should be ruled by one strong leader.
Opposition parties were suppressed and political dissent was crushed.

3. Aggressive Nationalism

Fascism and Nazism glorified aggressive nationalism.

They promoted national pride, expansion and military strength.
War was regarded as a means to achieve national interests.

4. Hatred of Democracy

Both ideologies despised democratic political systems.

They believed democracy caused weakness and division in the nation.
Dictatorship was considered the best form of government.

5. Anti-Communism

Both Fascism and Nazism strongly opposed Communism.

They feared class struggle and workers’ movements.
This anti-Communist stand gained them support from industrialists and elites
CHAPTER: THE SECOND WORLD WAR

1. Causes of the Second World War (5 Points)

1. Dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles humiliated Germany by imposing territorial losses, military

restrictions and heavy war indemnities.
Germany was divided into two parts to give Poland access to the sea, and her colonies were
taken away.
This created bitterness, revenge and conflict, making another war inevitable.

2. Rise of Fascism and Nazism

Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany promoted extreme nationalism and militarism.
In Italy, Mussolini opposed the Treaty of Versailles and attacked Abyssinia, while the League
failed to act.
In Germany, Hitler rejected the Treaty, rearmed Germany and pursued territorial expansion.

3. Policy of Appeasement

Britain and France followed the policy of appeasing aggressive powers to maintain peace.
They allowed Germany to rearm and re-militarise the Rhineland and annex Austria and
Czechoslovakia.
This policy encouraged dictators and helped them prepare for war.

4. Japanese Invasion of China

Japan followed a policy of expansion and conquest after the First World War.
In 1931, Japan occupied Manchuria and later started an undeclared war against China.
The League of Nations failed to stop Japan, making war unavoidable.

5. Failure of the League of Nations

The League of Nations failed because major powers like the USA did not join it.
It failed to prevent aggression by Japan in Manchuria and Italy in Ethiopia.
Its weak coercive machinery destroyed faith in collective security.

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2. Attack on Pearl Harbour (5 Points)

1. American Policy of Neutrality

America initially followed a policy of strict neutrality in the Second World War.
However, it supplied arms to Britain and China as their defence was vital.
This angered Japan and increased tensions.
2. Importance of Pearl Harbour

Pearl Harbour was the US Pacific Fleet base located in Hawaii.

Japan believed that destroying this base would weaken American naval power.
It planned a surprise attack to secure dominance in the Pacific.

3. Japanese Surprise Attack

On December 7, 1941, Japan launched a sudden air attack on Pearl Harbour.

Several American battleships were sunk and 3700 people were killed.
The attack caused severe damage to the US navy.

4. Japanese Mistakes

Japan failed to destroy repair facilities at Pearl Harbour.

It also failed to destroy US aircraft carriers like Lexington and Enterprise.
As a result, the US fleet recovered quickly.

5. Entry of the USA into the War

On December 8, 1941, the USA entered the Second World War.

America declared war against Japan following the attack.
This changed the course of the war in favour of the Allies.

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3. Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (5 Points)

1. American Offensive in the Pacific

The Americans launched an offensive to liberate islands in the South-West Pacific.

Japan remained strongly established in China and Manchuria.
A land invasion of Japan appeared costly and difficult.

2. Development of the Atomic Bomb

Scientists in the United States developed the atomic bomb as a powerful weapon.
The first test was conducted in July 1945 near Alamogordo, New Mexico.
It was the most destructive weapon ever created.

3. Bombing of Hiroshima

On August 6, 1945, the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima.

Half of the city was destroyed and thousands of people were killed.
Japan still refused to surrender despite massive destruction.
4. Bombing of Nagasaki

On August 9, 1945, another atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki.

The city suffered enormous loss of life and property.
The bombing broke Japan’s capacity to continue the war.

5. End of the War

On September 2, 1945, Japan surrendered unconditionally.

This brought the Second World War to an end after six years.
The war caused unprecedented destruction and loss of human life.

1. Objectives Of United Nations

1. To maintain international peace and security, to take collective measures for the
prevention and removal of threats to peace, to suppress acts of aggression or other
breaches of peace.

2. To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal
rights and self-determination of people.

3. To achieve international cooperation in solving international economic, social, cultural, or

humanitarian problems and. encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental
freedoms.

4. To be a centre for harmonising the actions of nations in the attainment of these common
ends

2. Composition of General Assembly (5 Points)

1. The General Assembly consists of all member States of the United Nations.
Each State can send five representatives.
However, each State has only one vote.

2. All Members of the United Nations are members of the General Assembly.
Every State has equal representation.
Big or small countries have equal voting rights.

3. The regular session of the General Assembly begins every year on the third Tuesday in
September.
The session usually continues till mid-December.
Special sessions can also be held when required.
4. The General Assembly elects a President and 21 Vice-Presidents for each session.
It also elects Chairpersons of its Main Committees.
The Presidency rotates every year among different regions.

5. Important decisions are taken by a two-thirds majority.

Other matters are decided by a simple majority.
Each member present and voting has one vote.

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3. Functions of General Assembly (5 Points)

1. It considers and makes recommendations on the principles of cooperation.

These relate to international peace and security.
It plays a deliberative role.

2. It discusses questions relating to international peace and security.

It can make recommendations to members.
Disputes under Security Council discussion are excluded.

3. It promotes international cooperation in political, social and economic fields.

It initiates studies and makes recommendations.
These help in global development.

4. It considers and approves the budget of the United Nations.

It apportions expenses among member States.
Financial control is an important function.

5. It elects non-permanent members of the Security Council.

It also elects members of ECOSOC and Trusteeship Council.
Judges of the International Court of Justice are also elected.

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4. Composition of Security Council (5 Points)

1. The Security Council consists of 15 members.

It has 5 permanent members.
They are China, France, Russia, UK and USA.

2. There are 10 non-permanent members.

They are elected by the General Assembly.
Their term is two years.

3. Non-permanent members are elected by a two-thirds majority.

Immediate re-election is not allowed.
Regional representation is followed.

4. The Presidency of the Security Council rotates monthly.

It follows the English alphabetical order.
All members get a chance.

5. Each member has one vote.

Decisions on procedural matters require 9 votes.
Substantive matters require concurring votes of permanent members.

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5. Functions of Security Council (5 Points)

1. It maintains international peace and security.

This is its primary responsibility.
It acts according to UN Charter principles.

2. It investigates disputes that may lead to international friction.

It recommends methods of peaceful settlement.
Preventive action is encouraged.

3. It determines the existence of threat to peace or aggression.

It recommends what action should be taken.
This may include sanctions.

4. It may impose economic sanctions.

These do not involve the use of force.
The aim is to stop aggression.
5. It can take military action against an aggressor.
This is done when peaceful methods fail.
Collective security is ensured.

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6. Composition of International Court of Justice (5 Points)

1. The Court consists of 15 judges.

They are elected for a term of nine years.
Judges may be re-elected.

2. Judges are elected by the General Assembly and Security Council.

Voting is done independently.
Absolute majority is required.

3. No two judges can be from the same nationality.

This ensures fair representation.
Major legal systems are represented.

4. Judges do not represent their governments.

They act as independent magistrates.
Impartiality is maintained.

5. The Court has its seat at The Hague (Netherlands).

It started functioning in 1946.
It replaced the Permanent Court of International Justice.

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7. Functions of International Court of Justice (5 Points)

1. It settles legal disputes between States.

Disputes are submitted voluntarily.
Decisions are binding.
2. It gives Advisory Opinions on legal questions.
These are given to UN organs.
Only authorised bodies can request them.

3. It interprets international treaties and conventions.

It applies international law.
Judicial decisions are important sources.

4. It contributes to codification of international law.

Customs and conventions are examined.
Legal development is promoted.

5. It recommends procedures for peaceful settlement of disputes.

Terms of settlement may also be suggested.
Compliance is expected from member States.

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8. Functions of UNICEF (5 Points)

1. UNICEF works for child survival and development.

It focuses on health, nutrition and education.
Children’s welfare is the priority.

2. It provides primary health care and nutrition.

Clean drinking water and sanitation are promoted.
Community-based services are supported.

3. It supports immunisation programmes.

Preventable diseases are controlled.
Child mortality is reduced.

4. It assists in maternal and child health services.

Emergency help is provided during disasters.
Mothers and children are protected.

5. It works for child rights and well-being.

It cooperates with governments and NGOs.
UNICEF received the Nobel Peace Prize (1965).

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9. Functions of WHO (5 Points)

1. WHO helps countries improve their health systems.

Infrastructure and manpower are strengthened.
Community health services are promoted.

2. It works for disease control and eradication.

Polio and smallpox programmes are important.
Global health is improved.

3. It promotes medical research.

Research on vaccines and medicines is supported.
Scientific cooperation is encouraged.

4. It supplies essential drugs and equipment.

Emergency health assistance is provided.
Developing countries are supported.

5. It organises health awareness programmes.

Conferences and seminars are conducted.
World Health Day is celebrated on 7 April.

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10. Functions of UNESCO (5 Points)

1. UNESCO promotes education for all.

Adult education and women education are emphasised.
Disabled children receive support.

2. It encourages science education and research.

Training centres are established.
Scientific cooperation is promoted.

3. It works for cultural heritage preservation.

Monuments and historic sites are protected.
Cultural diversity is maintained.

4. It promotes freedom of press and media.

Developing countries receive assistance.
Communication networks are developed.

5. It encourages international understanding.

Exchange of ideas through education is promoted.
UNESCO headquarters are in Paris.

CHAPTER: NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT

1. Meaning of Non-Aligned Movement (3 Points)

(Each point explained in 3 sentences, as required)

(i) Not aligned to any power bloc

Non-alignment means a country does not align itself with any of the power blocs led by the
USA or the former Soviet Union.
It avoids military alliances like NATO, SEATO or Warsaw Pact.
The aim is to maintain independent judgment and freedom of action in international affairs.

(ii) Independent foreign policy

Non-alignment enables a country to follow an independent foreign policy based on national

interest.
It retains the freedom to take decisions without pressure from big powers.
Thus, non-alignment stands for action, not passivity in world politics.

(iii) Promotion of world peace

Non-alignment seeks to promote international peace, harmony and cooperation.

It actively participates in world affairs to reduce tensions and conflicts.
It upholds the rights of all people for freedom and justice.

2. The Five Principles of Panchsheel

1. Mutual non-interference in each other’s internal affairs
2. Mutual non-aggression
3. Equality for mutual benefit
4. Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty
5. Peaceful co-existence

3. Architects of the Non-Aligned Movement

•Jawaharlal Nehru - India
•Joseph Broz Tito - Yugoslavia
•Gamal Abdel Nasser - Egypt
•Chou En Lai - China
•Sukarno - Indonesia
•Kwame Nkrumah - Ghana