EDITED BY: E. J. UMANA LE MA leo E. A. B. EDCHAPTER ONE CELL CONCEPT A. A. Markson The Lape on cell concept first took place after 200 years of research. Hooke with the-use of a crude or rudimentary in examination of cork tissues, he observed pore-like structures that were invisible to the naked eyes. This was possible because the microscope could magnify the tissue thirty (30) times its original size. He called these ent cells. a developed by. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek which could magnify objects up to 300 times their-original size, more discoveries were made about cells. Leeuwenhoek observed single cells organisms like the Paramecium in pond water with his microscope. He also_ observed and lood_and sperm cells. Five years after the discovery by Hooke, some scientists who embarked on the study of plant stems and leaves confirmed that these large structures are basically made up of individual cells. Jn 1824, Rene Dutrochet wrote that ‘all organic tissues were lly globular cells of exceeding smallness which appear to be united by si Today, the term ‘tissues’ is known fo be a mas mass of Similar cells grouped together to perform a particular function. An example of such structure is xylem tissue. By the early 1800s, a large amount of data had been accumulated by biologists to buttress the claim that all organisms are made up of cells. From that period till the present date, scientists have developed sophisticated microscopes (image processors) which are capable of magnifying images tens of thousands of times what was obtained in Leeuwenhoek's time. With this, many species have been described and in- depth studies oncellsdone. . CELL THEORY ‘Though the works of the foremost researchers on the aspect cell discovery is 4 n 1 to the pa Lae enS and application in life sciences, the ing cel nto two scien namely Mathias J, n ann, both German Biologists. These two ies soutig epoca tal cM OOP We koko wae They, misconception on the origin of new cells. Another German _ “a ’sclerenchyma cells etc, All cells are made of structures and chemicalsthat aid their function. These structures are called organelles. Cell Iles include anitochondira, golgi apparatus, Sodoplasmie retcalamy famoodh and_rough), Tibosot cleus, vacu lastids, cytoplasm and cell wall. TYPES OF CELLS There are two types of cells namely; Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells.” Prokaryotic cells are cell types that lack membrane-bound nucleus. Their nucleus are not enclosed within a membrane hence their DNA strands are scattered within the lumen of the cell cytoplasm, hence, they do not have true nucleus. Eukaryotic cells/ The nuclear materials of eukaryotic cells are organized within a membrane boundary. Of the five kingdoms of living things namely, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia, Monera and Protista, only members of the kingdom — monera-are prokaryctes, PLANT CELL, ORGANELLES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS PLANTCELL is ae ic cell and characterized by the possession of a rigid cell i 1 ce of the polymer called cellulose. Plant cell wall is distinguished from animal cell by the presence of plastids, large central vacuole and a rigid cellulose cell wall structure.Sin Organelle Cell wail wall i igid layer that 01 som cells, It is located outside the cell membrane. Cell wall is a characteristic feature to cells of plants, bacteria, fungi, many algae and some archaea. Protozoans and animals do not have cell wall. Function 1. Itgives the cell a definite shape 2. Provides structural support 3. Provides protection against infection [Link] stress 4. It aids in transport of substances and information from the cell lumen to the exterior and vice versa. . Itisinvolved in osmotic regulation . It prevents water loss. . The physiological and biochemical activity of the cell wall helps in cell to cell communication. 8. It protects the cell from rupturing due to tugor pressure. 9. It moderates diffusion of gases in and out of the cell. 10. It also acts as mechanical barrier against insect enon attacks. yAW Description brane_can be defined asa iological membrane or an outer permeable membrane layer, which surrounds the cytoplasm and otherDescription Mitochondria are rod shaped structure found in both animal and plant cells tas -bound organelle, Tt has the outer membrane and the inner t Batya. a membrane,between the two membranes sr" | is the inner membrane. The-membranes. e_made up of phospholipids and Mitochondrion proteins oe pose Function " ihg_most. important Fanction_of Os mitochondria is to produce energy. The simpler molecules of nutrition are sent to the mitochondria to be processed and to produce charged molecules. These_charged_molecules. i ywith oxygen and produce ATP molecules.-This process is known_as oxidati ‘ion. 2. Mitochondria help the cells to maintain proper concentration of calcium ions within the compartments ofthe cell. 3. The mitochondria also help in “building certain_parts_of_blood_and ‘hormones. like-testosterone_and_ 4. The mitochondria in liver have enzymes that detoxify ammonia. 5. The mitochondria also play an important role in the process of apoptosis or programmed cell death, Abnormal death of cells due to the dysfunction of ‘mitochondria can affect the function of organ7. The-cytoplasm is a means of transport Fotgcnetic materials. 8. It also transports the di cellularrespiration er 9. The cytoplasm acts as a buffer and Protects the genetic materials of the cell and also the cellular organelles from damage caused due to movement and Collision with other cells. [Link] cytoplasmic organelles are Specialized structures that have their own functions like cellular respiration, protein synthesis etc. [Link] cytoplasmic inclusions are non- soluble molecules; they are seen floating in the cytoplasm. They act as stored fats and sugars that are ready for cellular respiration. Description Nucleus is a large organelle in a cell. Nucleus is made up of the nuclear envelope, nucleolus and the chromosomes. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane structure, it | encloses the nucleus and segregates the chromatin from the cytoplasm. The chromatin contains genetic material which is organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules that form chromosomes. luces- riboso hat function i ‘expression of gene code into proteins. Function . The hucleus maintains the integrity of genes. ie 2. It control the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression — theare tubes with rough surface as the ribosomes are attached to its surface. Functions ~The main function of the endoplasmic reticulum - translation and folding of new proteins which takes place in the rough ER and the expression of lipids that happens in the smooth ER. 8. Deseri Vacuole: Vacuales are Jarge-membrane bound chamber. known cells storage center. A vacuole that is surrounded by a me! ¢ is called onoplast._ . | Functions Vacuole Its main function is storage. They also function in secretion and excretion. Description Aribosome is an internal component of a biological cell (known as organelles) that is responsible in assembling molecules of specific amino acid to form a certain protein molecule, which will be determined by the nucleotide sequence of an RNA molecule. Rib re_als led the Svorkhenches. where proteins are | mai hey are primarily composed of several ribonucleic acid ll Ribosomesand proteins that read messenger RNA and thus synthesize proteins. All cells including archeabacteria have ribosomes. 1. They assemble amino acids to form specific proteins. Proteins are essential to carry out cellular activities. 2. The genetic message from the mRNA is translated into proteins during DNA translation. 3. The sequences of protein assembly during protein synthesis are specified in the mRNA. [Link] mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and is transported to the cytoplasm for further process of protein synthesis. 5. In the cytoplasm, the two subunits of ribosomes. are bound around the polymers of mRNA; proteins are then synthesized with the help of transfer RNA. 6. The proteins that are synthesized by the ribosomes present in the cytoplasm are used in the cytoplasm itself. The proteins produced by the bound eparomes are transported outside the cell, . Plastids are cellular organelles found only in the plant cell. i ypes _- chloroplasts, chromoplasts_and Ieucoplasts.__ /Chloroplasts: are clongated — disc | shaped organelles which contains chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is present in | 12Chromoplast Leucoplast Three types of Plastids green plants which helps them make food by the process of photosynthesis, which uses energy from the sunlight is converted into chemical energy. Chromoplasts: are_plastids which are found in [Link] are yellow, orange and_ Jedincolor. Lecuoplasts: are colorless plastids. They found in roots, seeds and underground stems. xi Functions Chloroplast: The function of chloroplast of trap solar energy for the process of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is carried out in the chloroplast. The enzymes and -co-enzymes necessary for _| photosynthesis is found in the matrix of the chloroplast. ‘Chromoplasts: give color to flowers and fruits which help in pollination by attracting pollinating agents like insects and birds. \,Leucoplaste: act as storage for food in the form of carbohydrates, fats and Lysosomes — proteins. Lysosomes (lysosome: from the Greek: lysis; loosen and soma; body) are found in nearly all animal and plant cells. In plant cells vacuoles can’ carry out lysosomal functions. Lysosomes 13appear initially as spherical bodies about 50-70nm in diameter and are bounded by a single membrane. 1, Lysosomes contain about 50 enzymes that speed up the degradation of polysaccharides, lipids, DNA and RNA. Most, but not all, lysosomal enzymes are acid hydrolases and function at about pH 5.0. Table 2: Difference Between Animal Cell and Plant cell Animal cells are usually smaller in size. Cell wall is completely absent. Cellulose in any form is not present. Cytoplasm of animal cells is dense, more granular and it occupies most of the space in the cell. Vacuoles are absent usually. If present, they are small organelles, they are temporary and they serve as organelles for excretion or secretion. Plastids are absent. Centrosome is present. Golgi complex is prominent and highly complex, it is present near the nucleus of the cell. Plant cells are usually larger in size. Presence of cell wall is a characteristic feature of plant cell. Cell wall is made up of cellulose. Ina plant cell, cytoplasm is pushed to the periphery of the cell. The cytoplasm forms a thin lining against the cell wall. Vacuoles are prominent and large organelles in the plant cell. One or more vacuoles may be present. The central space in the cell may be occupied by a large single vacuole. Plastids are present. They may be of three types, chromoplasts, chloroplasts and leucoplasts. Centrosome is absent in plant cells. Instead of centrosome, there are two smal! clear areas called polar caps are present. Golgi apparatus is present in form of subunits called dictyosomes. 14Sey DIVERSITY AND FUNCTIONS OF CELLS IN PLANT KINGDOM Accell is defined as the basic unit of structure and function in living organisms. The generalized cell shows that structures such as mitochondria, chromosomes, ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum are common to all cells. Despite these common features, cells vary in shape, size, content and function. Hence, the structural characteristics and content of a particular cell is a pointer to the functions such cell performs in the body of the organism within which it is found. Here diversity is discussed in the context of the morphological and constitutional differences of various cells which in turn confer on them the capability of different functions. This phenomenon of cell diversity is imminent between different species of an organism, and within a single species with respect to tissue and organ constitution of cell. For example, between two organisms like hydra and man. Though they share basic cellular structures, their cells vary in many respects. And within an organisma tissue for example, a plant tissue like the xylem has four different types of cells each performing and specializing in specific function which they are each fashioned for. Hence, diversity in cells ia a phenomenon signed to enhance the physiological specialization of cells to the overall harmony of the system. This phenomenon of diversity is seen both in the plant and in the animal kingdom. TYPES OF CELLS FOUND IN PLANTS J: PARENCHYMA CELLS : They are roughly spherical to elongate in shape and are iso-diametrical. They are_living-cells with their_wall_madeup_of pectins, cellulose and -bemicelluloses. They are distributed in the cortex and pit of roots and stems, medullary rays in wood and packing tissues in xylem and phloem. Functions 1. They form packing tissues between more specialized tissues as in the central pith of stems and roots. 2. They provide support especially for young herbaceous plants through their osmotic pressure 15ne 5. 4. Due to their active metabolic state, they form sites of many vital activities of the plant body, They are packed as to allow for intercellular air spaces to enable gaseous exchange between the external and internal environment, For example, as in spongy mesophylls of the leaf. They serve as an effective storage sites as in potato tuber where the parenchyma cortex stores starch. The walls of parenchyma cells are important pathways for water and mineral transport within the plant. Parenchyma cells are found in parts of the plants other than those mentioned earlier, in more specialized forms. Some parenchyma cells are also modified into epidermis covering the entire plant body. © Mesophyll cells in between the lower and upper epidermis cells of leaves. « Endodermis in the innermost layer of the cortex around the vascular bundles. ¢ Pericycle in the roots between central vascular tissues and endodermis. © Companion cells found adjacent to the sieve tubes and are vital in the functioning of the tubes.CHLOROPLASTS. Fig. 1.2: Parenchyma cells: Cross section through palisade parenchyma (A) showing chloroplasts; Transverse section of parenchyma cells from pith of Zea mays stem (B). Source (Pandey, 1996) COLLENCHYMA CELLS They are like the parenchyma cells and consist of living cells but are different in shape. They-are elongated and polygonal with tapering ends. The collenchyma cells are distributed in the outer regions of the cortex, for example, angles of stems and midrib of dicotyledonous leaves. It is found just below the epidermis in the outer region of the cortex and gradually merges into parenchyma towards the inside. The wall of [Link] is composed of pectin, cellulose and hemicelluloses. _ 17 eeFunctions z . ~Collenchyma cells are modified for support and mechanical strength. It is th first of the strengthening tissues to develop in the primary plant body and sinc it is living, it grows and stretches without imposing any limitations on th growth of other tissues around it. tametiar B Fig. 1.3: Types of collenchyma cells A, angular; B, lamellar; C, Lacunar Source (Bandre and Pande, 2006) SCLERENCHYMA CELLS es 6 ea Ge SY Selereis or ston cols and fibres, Both vary in size and shape. The fibres are elongated and polygonal with tapering interlocking ends while the sclereids or stone cells are roughly spherical or irregular in shape. They-are-bath dead cells and composed mainl) Lignin. They also contain cellulose, pectin and hemicelluloses. Lignin is 2 hard substance with great tensile strength. These properties of sclerenchyma cells protect plants breaking when stretched and from buckling on compression. The sclerenchyma cells are primarily made up of cellulose but with developmental progress, lignin are deposited in and on the primary cellulose cell wall, hence, the living content of the cells are lost with the result 18that the mature sclerenchyma cells are dead. Simple pits appear on the walls of the clerenchyma (sclereids and fibres). These are areas where lignin are not deposited and owing to the presence of groups of plasmodesmata and hence form connections through these minute pores to neighboring cells. Fibres are distributed in outer regigns of the cortex, pericycle of stems, xylem and phloem tissues. sclereids are distributed in the cortex, pith, phloem, shells and stones of fruits and seed coats. They both function to confer strength to the tissues where they are Tocated. Due to the sheet-wise arrangement of the fibres and their ends interlocking with one another, they generate a combined strength. Depending on the numbers and position of the sclereids, they confer firmness or rigidity on those structures which they are found. Ignified secondary wall — Uhckness variable Sane No interceltutar air Spaces present Fig. 1.4 : Transverse section of generalized structure of sclerenchyma cells. N/B: No intercellular air spaces. They are tightly packed. Source (Taylor et al., 2002). Fig.1.5 : Sclerenchyma. Longitudinal section of fibres (N/B: cells are elongated and variable in length); transverse section of fibre (B); a single fibre as seen in longitudinal section (C). Source (Pandey, 1996) 19Fig. 1.6: Transverse section of sclerenchyma cells (sclereids). N/B: Cells ar jso-diametric. Source (Stern, 2000) CELLS OF XYLEM TISSUES Xylem is a conducting tissue in plants cellsnamely: : “"'. Tracheids «Vessels elements « Parenchyma « Fibres andiis made up of four different types of The last two cellsare as discussed earlier. Tracheids They are single cells that are elongated and lignified. They have tapering and walls that overlap with adjacent tracheids in the same manner as sclerenchyma fibres. Hence, they have mechanical strength and give support to the pplant. They are dead wi empty lumen when [Link] are the primitive water conducting cells found-ip the xylem of the more ancestral vascul jants. ‘Water passes through the empty lumens without being, aiid Peles, content, and passes from one tracheid to another through pits via the pit membrane or through unlignified portions of the cell wall, Tracheids may have annular, spiral, scalariform and reticulate thickening just like the vessels. a aFig. 1.7: Elements of xylem: Tracheids, (A); Vessels, (B); Fibre, (C); Parenchyma, (D-E). Source (Bandre and Pande, 2006) Vessels ese are characteristic conducting units of angio xylem. Each cell is short and tubular. Many of these cells fuse end to end to form a very long sel is equivalent to a tracheid tubular structure, the vessel. Each cell of the ves: (in size and functional capability) and is termed vessel element. However, vessel elements are shorter and ‘wider than the tracheids. They are dead lignified cells and are distributed in the vascular system of plants. They function in translocation of water_and_mi lements. They also give support. Vessels are variously thickened to give added strength and prevent walls from caving in. there four types of wall thickenings of the vessel elements. They are; . Annular . Spiral . Reticulate . Scalariform . Pitted 21La han elements, Annular (a); parenchyma cell (b); Pitted (pi: Sealariform (se). Source (Bandre and Pande, 2006) 1.8: Pattern of thickenings on tracheary elements. Longitudinal section of xylem Keticulate (x); Spiral (8); Vig. the bare of thickenings, M1 les commonly seen. Th usually grackes ete Lagat ation Scalantorm thickening similar to reticulate but with fewer interconnections between reticulate thickening by progresyy® 22CELLS OF PHLOEM TISSUE 1 re structural characteristics with the xylem by being tubular. C Structura’ ct swith the x ing tubular. They are also modified for translocation. But unlike the xylem, the cells of the phloem are iiving —_ for sclereids and fibres) with cytoplasm. They last three cells are as discussed SIEVE TUBES AND COMPANION CELLS Sieve tubes are long tube-like structures that are formed by the ene-to-end fusion of cells called sieve tube elements or sieve elements. jin function of sieve tubes is translocation of solutions of organic like sucrose throughout the plant. The Wall of sieve tube elements is made up of cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin substances like parenchyma cells. The two adjoining end walls of neighboring sieve tube elements fuse to form a plate-like structure called the sieve plate. The plates are perforated. The pores allow for free flow of solution from one sieve element to the next. The companion cells are specialized parenchyma cells with a dense cytoplasm andare metabolically active. They function in association with the sieve. vith si i Jate (A); sieve . sieve tube with simple sieve P) Fig, 1.9: Phloem elements: sieve oaerieal section of phloem : i B); longitu jinal s¢ - fabs bea compound ae ee cells (C); sieve cell me —— ane in i hloem fibre (F)s sclereid (G); P in tral parenchyma (H)- and comp: tion (E); P 23 ———S—‘—‘i‘itéC~*™References Bendre, A. S. and Pande, P. C. (2002). Introductory Botany. Meerut, Rastogi publications. Pp. 1290. Bendre, A. M. and Pande, P. C. (2006). Introductory Botany. Meerut, Rastogi Publications. Pp. 1294. Freeman, S. (2008). Biological Sciences (3" edition), Vol. 1. U.S.A., Pearson Education, Pp. 480. Pandey, B. P. (1996). A textbook of Botany. Angiosperms: Taxonomy, anatomy, Economic Botany & embryolo; gy. New Delhi, S. Chand & Company. Pp. 821. Stem, K. R. (2000). Introductory Plant Biology (Edition 8"), Education. New York. Pp. 589. Taylor, D. J., Green, N. P:O., Stout, G. W. ed.), United Kingdom, Cambrid; Verma, P. S, and Agarwal, V. K. (2012). Cell Biology, Genetics, Molecular Biology, Evolution and Ecology, New Delhi, S. Chand & Company, Pp. 294, [Link] [Link]/cells/plants/[Link]. Plant cell vacuoles . Retrieved on the 26/04/2015. “biology. [Link]/animal-and-plant-cells/organelles. html. Cell organelles, Retrieved on the 26/04/2015. [Link] Cell nucleus Retrieved on the 26/04/2015. MacGraw Hill higher (2002). Biological science (R. Soper ge University Press. Pp. 984, http: 24CHAPTER TWO PLANT TAXONOMY J. K. Ebigwai 21 INTRODUCTION Living things are generally believed to have evolved from simple one-celled organisms (unicellular) to two or more celled organisms (multi-cellular). This evolutionary pattern or trend is illustrated using a tree called the, : phylogenetic tree of life. _life[ Empire Prokaryota ~~ Kingdom Monera ~ Empire Eukaryota |, Kingdom Protista | Kingdom Fungi | Kingdom Plantae ~~ Kingdom Animalia Fig 2.1: Phylogenic Tree of Life for Living Organisms. .As could be seen, there are five recognized kingdoms of living thing. They are Monera, Protista, Mycota, Plantae and Animalia. +The kingdom Monera consists mainly of the prokaryotic (absence of membrane covering the nucleus) organisms.‘The blue green algae are found in this kingdom. They are thought to have evolved some 3.5 billion years ago. They are autotrophic. -The kingdom Protista, consist mainly of planktonic organisms and they are eukaryotic (presence of membrane covering the nucleus). ‘Planktonic organisms are organisms that are found in aquatic habitats. Planktonic organisms can either be phytoplankton (free floating plants) or zooplanktons (free floating animals). Examples include Euglena, Paramecium, and Ficus etc, They are thought to have evolved about 1.7 billion years ago. 25‘The kingdom Mycota is eukaryotic and they are commonly called Fungi. They are heterotrophic (they do not produce their own food). These organisms are generally found at damp-moist places. There are four classes of Mycota. They are thought to have evolved 900 million years ago. «The kingdom Plantae is eukaryotic and they are mainly autotrophic. The kingdom is divided into four major groups - Thallophyta, Bryophyta, pteridophyta, spermatophyta. They are thought to have evolved 1000 million years ago. 2.2 Taxonomy ‘Plant taxonomy is the science that deals with the classification and naming (nomenclature) of plant species. The science of classification started with creation when God “classified” some part of the world as heavens and the other part as earth. Similarly the science of naming (nomenclature) started when God asked Adam to nameall the things he had created. 2.2.1 Taxonomic Hierarchy ‘Plants are generally classified in ranks or hierarchies. These ranks called taxonomic hierarchies have seven main ranks. These main ranks are Kingdom, Division, Class, order, family, genus and species. 2.2.2 Classification Classification is simply defined as arrangement into groups, classification on the other hand is the categorization of groups into hierarchical levels. Groups as used her refer to the various taxonomic ranks, also called taxonomic hierarchies or levels. There are seven main taxonomic ranks in botanical classification. These are kingdom, division (phylum in zoology- animal), class, order, family, genus and species. However there are smaller sub groupings characterized by the use of prefixes such as “sub”, “super” as could be seen in Table 2.1. Biological 26Table 2.1: Taxonomic Rank and Standard endings for the Names of Taxa Botanical code Fungi | Angiosperm/| Bacterialogical] Zoological gymnosperm anf -Mycota | -phyta ee -mycotina| -phytina -mycetes -mycetidag -accac -oideae 27Each of this groups or hierarchy is technically called taxon (taxa-plural).The endings of the various taxa for all the codes are highly informative. For example, all Family names for the Botanical code end in’ —aceae’ while for the Zoological code, the ending is ‘~idea’In the same vein, a name such as Ascomycota will refer to a division of F ‘ungi while Magnoliophyta will refer to adivision either in algae or angiosperm/gymnosperm. Classification Systems a) Early Classification or Mechanical system : There have been early attempts for classification as done by Aristotle who grouped plants into trees , shrubs and herbs based on their habit. ‘Charaka who was considered as the father of Ayurveda on the other hand listed 340 kinds of plants in his book ‘Charak Samhita based on their uses. b) Artificial Classification: The second attempt at plant classification Popular called the artificial system did so based on the morphological characters. This classification was based on the number and situation of staméns, styles, and stigmas rather than evolutionary relationships:\Theophratus and Carl Linnaeus are the two most renowned biologist who practiced the artificial system of classification i ‘Theophrastus was the earliest taxonomy who classified plants based on morphological characters using habit and thereby placed them into herbs, shrubs and trees. ii Carlous Linnaeus: (1707-1778) considered as the Father of Modem Taxonomy classified plants exclusively on the basis of the nature and number of stamens and carpels. He called it as the Sexual system of classification or numeric system of classification*He classified plants into 24 classes, in which 23 were of flowering plants ( Phancrogamia) and the 24th class had flowerless plant( Cryptogamia). He proposed classes monandria (1 stamen), Diandria (2 28 astamens), tri and polyandria (3 or more stamens). The 24 classes named by him were: Monandria, Diandria, Triandria, tetrandria, Pentandria, Hexandria, Heptandria, Octandria, Ennendria, Decandria, Dodecandria, Icosandria, Polyandria, Didynamia, Tetradynamia, Monadelphia, Diadelphia, Polyadelphia, Syngenesia, Gynandria, Monoccia, Dioecia, Polygamia, Cryptogamia. Limitations of Artificial System of Classification The artificial system of classification had a number of drawbacks, namely * Since the system was based on limited characters, hence, the diverse groups ofplants were placed into limited number of groups. « There were no natural relationship amongst the plant species * Leads to heterogenous assemblage of unrelated plant species * Nonatural or phylogenetic relationships were considered c Natural System of Classification: This system is based on natural affinities of plants. It is also known as the horizontal sytem of classification or 2'D' system. Various taxonomic characters are used to group the organisms. It is based mainly on the morphological relationships realizing all the information at the time of collection of plants. Some biologist who practiced the natural systems are i Antoine Laurent de Jussieu. (1748-1836). Anatural system of classification was proposed by [Link] Jussieu in 1789 in his Genera Plantarum Secundus Ordines Naturales Disposita. He recognized one hundred order of plants which are now called families. He divided the plants into three main groups, i.e. Acotyledons, monocotyledons and dicotlydons. He mainly emphasized on the number of cotlyedons, and their presence or absence, number of petals and their presence or absence and the position of stamens. This system firmly established the philosophy of the natural system among the botanical community. All the hundred orders (now called families) were arranged into 15 classes. il \AUGUSTIN PYRAMUS de CANDOLLE (1778-1841). One more natural system of classification was proposed by A. P de Candolle in 1813 in his book Theorie Elementaire de la Botanique. He divided plants into two major groups i.c. cellulares (non-vascular plants), and vasculares (vascular plants). In his another work, Prondromus, he described all the 29- species of the vascular plant known to the world then. In this work, he described 58,000 species of dicotyledons belonging to 161 families. The system of A.P. de Candolle was easy and simple, and surpassed all other system. But its major drawback was the inclusion of vascular cryptogams among the monocots. iii, GEORGE BENTHAM (1800-1884) and (JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER (1817-1911). 'The most accepted system of classification was proposed by Bentham and Hooker in their Genera plantarum published during July 1862 and April 1883. Bentham, a self-trained British Botanist, and Hooker, director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (England), described all known genera seed in three volumes of their Genera Plantarum, published in Latin. Bentham and Hooker's system of classification is still used and followed in several herbaria of the world. In most of the Indian herbaria too, the plants are arranged according to this system of classification. It is supposed to be the best system for the students, to identify plants in the laboratories. This is so because Bentham and Hook prepared the best description of the plants from their own observations and not by copying from the available literature. Large genera are divided into sections and sub- sections, and the description of genera is complete and accurate. In all, they described 97,205 species belonging to 7,569 genera of 200 families of flowering plants in three volumes of Genera Plantarum. The Bentham and Hooker system of classification is clearly derived from the system of de Jussieu and de Candolle. Bentham and Hooker divided all phanerogams or seed plants into dicotyledons, Gymnosperms and monocotyledons. Ranales were placed in the beginning and grasses at the end in this classification. Merits of the system of Bentham and Hooker. Itis the first great natural system of classification. 2. It is very easy to follow for all practical purposes and that is why Kew herbarium and several other herbaria of the world, including India are arranged according to this system. 3. This system was never planned by Bentham and Hooker on the basis of phylogeny, although the theory of organic evolution was already announced by Darwin and Wallace in 1859. So this system should not critized on the basis of phylogeny. ett) Qa~ (1). (ii). Ranales have been given a primitive position in this system. Recent taxonomic findings also indicate that Ranales are the most primitive living angiosperms. - In this system the Monocots are derived from the dicots. Several recent taxonomic findings support this view. Demerits of the system of Bentham and Hooker. The position of gymnosperms in between dicots and monocots in this system is its foremost demerits. This arrangement is made without considering the affinitics among these groups. Several important floral characters have been neglected in this system. In this system some of the closely related families have been separated and placed under different orders (cohorts). In the same way a number of unrelated families, have been grouped nearer. Few examples are under mentioned: All the families of series Curvembrac are related to Caryophyllaceae of series Thalamiflorac of Polypetalac. Podostemaceac of the series Multiovulatae aquaticae of Monochlamydeae deserve a placing under Rosales of series Calyciflorac of Polypetalac. (iii). Nepenthaceae (of series Multiovulatae-terrestris of Monochlamydeae) is v). 4. related more to family Saracenniaceae (of orders Parietales of Thalamiflorae). Laurineae of series Daphnales is related closely with Magnoliaceae of Ranales. Advanced families such as Orchidaceae, have been considered primitive in this system by placing them in the beginning. The entire arrangement of monocots is unnatural and un phylogenetic in this system. Phylogenetic System | Ahis is a type of classification system that groups taxa using all available taxonomic characters in addition to their evolutionary lineages. Some notable biologists who practiced this system are aii) (ii) (iii) Adolf Engler (1844-1930) and Karf Prantl (1849-1893). Engler and Prantl's system of classification has also been described a; ‘traditional phylogenic system’ by Jones and Luchsinger (1987). Howey, Fc, Radford (1986) and most of other taxonomists described it as a phylogenetic system. They classified all the plants from algae to angiosperms. ; The most noteworthy features of the Engler and Prantl's system of classification are that: Placing monocots before dicots, Placing orchids to be more evolved than grasses. Placing apetalous and catkin-bearing dicots primitive to the dicots bearing petals and simple unisexual flowers. Engler and Prantl's system divided the plants kingdom into 14 divisions. Merits of the System of Engler and Prantl. This is a convenient and well known filing system of several herbaria of the world. Polypetalae and monochlamydae of Bentham and Hooker were me-ged by Engler and prantl into one single subclass Archichlamydae. This system treated families such as Orchidaceae and compositae, as advanced families. In this system several closely related families e.g. (Liliaceae, Juncaceae, Iridaceae, and Amaryllidaceae) are treated close to one another. Abundant illustrations are provided along with the description of the families. The system is provided with exhaustive keys of families and orders. The description of each family also contain a summary of Embryology, morphology, Anatomy, and geographical distribution. Demerits of the System of Engler and Prantl. Monocots have been placed before dicots in this system. Naked flowers of Amentiferae have been treated as primitive in this system. Helobiae, consisting of primitive forms, have been placed between two advanced orders Glumiflorae and Pandanales. Araceae are derived from Liliaceae but Engler and Prantl placed Araceae before Liliaceae, 323. This system fails to recognize the si; of this, ' (1965) gnificance of reduction, and because simple’ were equated with ‘primitive’ according to Cronquist Charles Edwin Bessey (1845-1915), A system of classification that tries to reflect evolution is called phylogenetic system. Bessey closely followed Bentham: and Hooker's system of classification. His system was based on certain guiding principles of primitive and advance characters called dicta. He considered angiosperms monophyletic and derived froma cycadeoid ancestor having bisexual strobili. * According to Bessey (1915), Ranales were the Primitive angiosperms. One branch of Ranales developed into monocots, and the other into dicots. This system is often called Ranalian concept of evolution. Merits of the system of Bessey. Bentham and Hooker placed gymnosperms between dicotyledons and monocotyledons. Such is not the case in Bessey's system of classification. Monochlamydeae has been completely abolished by Bessey. Families of monochlamydeae have been distributed near their allies in dicotyledons (oppositifoliae). Ranales are the starting point among Dicotyledons. In Bessey's system, the families with an inferior ovary follow the families Possessing superior ovary. Demerits of the system of Bessey. - Monocots have been assigned a position prior to dicots, which is not proper. - Hypogyny, perigyny, and epigyny have been emphasized too much in this system, Ranales are the starting point among Dicotyledons. In Bessey’s system, the families with an inferior ovary follow the families Possessing superior ovary. 33Demerits of the system of Bessey. ; ; : Monocots have been assigned a position prior to dicots, which is not proper. : : Hypogyny, perigyny, and epigyny have been emphasized too much in this system. Comparism of Englerian and Besseyan Concepts. Englerian school believed the primitive flowers to be apetalous and unisexual, while Besseyan believed them to be polypetalous and bisexual. Englerian school believed the wind pollinated primitive while it was the insect pollinated according to Besseyan school. According to Englerian concept, dicot began with Amentiferae, while accordjng to Besseyan concept they began with Ranales. . Englerian school believed that monocots were derived from a gymnospermous stock while according to Besseyan school they derived from some primitive dicots. . The main philosophy of Englerian is that simple flowers are primitive while Besseyans school believed that flowers with complex structures are more so. John Hutchinson (1884-1972). ‘An intentional phylogenetic system was produced by John Hutchinson. His system is close to that of Bessey, Hutchingson based his system of classification on the twenty-four principles mentioned below in a condensed form. . Evolution is both downwards and upwards. Evolution does not necessarily affects all organ at the same time. Generally, the evolution has been consistence. Broadly, shrubs and trees are more primitive than herbs in any one genus or family. In comparison with climbers, shrubs and trees are older in any one genus or family. Perennials are older than annuals and biennials. 34bad 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17, 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. Aquatic flowering plants are derived from terrestrial ancestors. Dicots are primitives compared to monocots. Spiral arrangement of floral or Vegetative leaves are primitive to cyclic arrangement. Usually, single leaves are more Primitive than compound leaves. Bisexual flowers are less advanced than unisexual, and dioecious plants are more recent than monoecious. Inflorescence flowers are more advanced than solitary ones. Types of aestivation are evolved from contorted to imbricate to valvate. Polymerous flowers (many Parted) precedes oligomerous (few parted) ones. Apetalous flowers are derived from flowers with petals. Polypetaly is more primitive than gamopetaly. In comparison to zygomorphy, actinomorphy is more primitive. Hypogyny is more primitive than perigyny. The most advanced is epigynous. Apocarpy is more primitive than syncarpy. Polycarpilary condition precedes the condition of a few. capels. Endospemic seeds with a small embryo are primitive to non-endospermic ones with a large embryo. Flowers with many stamens are primitive to flowers with few stamens Plants with separate anthers are primitive compared to those with fused anthers or filament. Aggregate fruits are more highly evolved than single fruits. Merits of the system of Hutchinson x Families in this system are of small size and comprise only of very closely related taxa. This system is in conformity with the modem views of phylogeny of angiosperms as it considered the Ranales and magnoliales as the starting point among the dicots. Monocots are discussed after dicots in this system. 35Dem f the system of Hutchinson. . ; 1 fon aa point of view of plants identification the system is not of much utility. i ivide i j i \d Herbaceae) in 2. Dicots have been divide into two major groups (Lignosae and this system. This kind of classification is outdated as the habit used tobe the main basis of classification in the past era of Aristotle. Secondly, it also separates the family that has close affinity. Comparison of the systems of Classification. The Table 2.2 provides points of comparison between three main system of classification proposed by Bentham and Hooker, Engler and Prantl and Hutchison. Table 2.2 Bentham and Hooker Hutchinson Engler and Prantl It is a transitional It is a phylogenetic phylogenetic system | system It is a natural system of classification It is based on the Candolle's system of classification. It is based on Bessey's system of classification Tt is based on Eichler's system of classification. Considerable knowledge of phylogeny is the basis| of this classification. Fixity of species is the main idea behind this system. Darwinian theory of descent is the main idea behind this system. Dicots are developed | Dicots are divided into polypetalae, gamopetalae, I Dicots are divided into into Lagmosae and Archichlamydae Herbaecae in this monochlamydac. and Metachlamydae system, Gymnospems a Comparison of the systems of Classification, The Table 2.2 provides points of comparison between three main system of classification proposed by Bentham and Hooker, Engler and Prantl and Hutchison. 36placed in between dicots and monocots. Monocots are treated placed before dicots, Monocots are treated after dicots. before dicots. placed before dicots. Monocots are treated after dicots. are regarded as primitive, and treated in the beginning. Orchidaceae and some} Orchidaceae are Orchidaceae are other advanced families | treated as advanced. | treated as advanced. ales polypetalae, with fused petals in gamopetalae, and without petals in monochlamydeae. Families with free |Polypetalae| Emphasis is on petals are placed in | monochlamydae are] resemblances in placed together| place of differences, under a single group} and so the Archiclamydeae.| Gamopetalae and Families with fused] monopetalae are petals are placed] distributed un d_ e-= tr| according to their Metachlamydeae. | relationship to polypetalae. Monocotyledonous families are arranged in 7 series, a All flowering plants are placed in 200 families. Gramineae is the last family of monocots. Monocotyledons | Monocotyledons are arranged are arranged in 11 orders. in 27 orders. 280 families of | Number of flowering plants angiospermic have been families are 411. recognized. Orchidaceae is the last family of monocots, Gramineae is the last family of monocots, 37i tajan (1980). i : i eae is published in 1980 in Botanical review. According to him the angiosperms are monophyletic and developed from some very group of ancient gymnosperms. He is an adherent of the Besseyan philosophy of taxonomy. Some of the criteria used by Takhtajan in determining the relative degree ofadvancement of flowering plants are under mentioned. (1). Woody plants are primitive compared to herbaceous plants. (ii). Deciduous woody plant evolved from evergreen plants. (iii). Parallel venation is the most advanced. (iv) Most primitive leaf arrangement is alternate. (vi). Stomata with subsidiary cells are primitive while those lucking subsidiary cells are advanced. (vii). Unilateral nodes are derived from trilateral nodes. (viii). Xylem fibres are evolved from tracheids, fibriform fibre, through fibre tracheids. (ix). Flowers with an indefinite or a variable number of their floral parts are primitive. (x). Cymose inflorescence are primitive while racemose is derived. (xi). Pollen grains with their exine lacking any external sculpturing while those having various types of sculptures are advanced. (xii). Apocarpous gynoceiom is characteristics of primitive taxa. (xiii). unlegumic ovules developed from bilegumic ovules. (xiv). Basic types of. ovules are anatropous type, all others are derived ones. (xv). sore ied aon eee type of female gametophyte are bi-nucleate, (Xvi) Primitive condition is porogamy, (vin Spent and chlalazogamy. xvil). Most primitive and basic type of fruits is a many seed a 3 developed from a multicarpellary apocarpous me ao which and the derived conditions are aa hen oe i iliops: di Magnoliopsida into 7 a, 0 ee a ere liiopsida into 3 subclass, 8 superorders and | eaten 471 orders and i itn