Maiya et al.

Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Discover Applied Sciences

[Link]

REVIEW Open Access

Organic fluorescent compounds: A review

of synthetic strategies and emerging
applications
Sowmya Maiya1, Glanish Jude Martis1, Nitinkumar S. Shetty1 and Santosh L. Gaonkar1*

*Correspondence:
Santosh L. Gaonkar Abstract
[Link]@[Link] Organic fluorescent compounds have become integral tools across a wide range
1
Department of Chemistry, Manipal
Institute of Technology, Manipal of applications because of unique ability to absorb light at one wavelength and
Academy of Higher Education, emit it at a longer wavelength. It plays a crucial role due to their tunable emission
Manipal 576104, Karnataka, India wavelengths and high quantum yields. These compounds have applications in
diverse fields such as bioimaging, environmental monitoring, and sensing. In
biomedicine, fluorescent dyes enable high-resolution imaging of cellular structures,
protein interactions, and thereby revolutionizing diagnostic techniques and
therapeutic strategies. Environmental applications include the detection of heavy
metal ions and monitoring of water quality, where fluorescent sensors offer sensitivity
and selectivity for trace contaminants. In chemical analysis, fluorescent compounds
are utilized in sensors and assays for detecting a variety of analytes, from metals to
organic compounds. Additionally, the development of novel fluorescent materials
such as dye-sensitized solar cells and organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) has
expanded their role in electronics, offering innovations in displays, lighting, and solar
energy conversion. The continued advancement of fluorescent compounds promises
to increase the precision and versatility of analytical methods, foster innovations and
provide solutions to pressing environmental challenges. This review aims to provide
an overview of recent progress in the synthesis of organic fluorescent compounds
and their practical applications across various fields.
Article highlights
• To understand the fluorescent properties of compounds, it is essential to first
explore their fundamental background; hence, this review presents an overview
of fluorescent compounds and their diverse applications.
• The article discusses recent advancements in organic fluorophores, focusing on
improved performance, spectral tunability, and functional versatility.
• It summarizes the synthetic strategies, structural characteristics, and emerging
application trends of organic fluorescent compounds across various scientific
domains.
Keywords Fluorescence, Optoelectronics, Organic fluorescent materials, Bioimaging

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Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 2 of 35

Graphical abstract

1 Introduction
A potent method for determining biologically, industrially, and environmentally sig-
nificant analytes is fluorometric determination, which has a low detection limit, great
selectivity, high sensitivity, quick photoluminescence response, low cost, and bioimaging
application [1–3]. The development of new fluorescent compounds with a wide range of
chemical, biological, and optoelectronic uses has attracted an abundance of interest in
modern chemistry [4–6]. Biological events in living samples can be effectively via fluo-
rescence imaging, which has a high temporal and spatial resolution [7, 8]. Due to their
high tissue permeability, minimal autofluorescence, and appropriateness for multicolor
imaging, fluorescent probes that emitting far-red to near infrared (NIR) fluorescence
are very beneficial for in vivo imaging [9–12]. In recent years, the advancement of new
fluorescent compounds and the improvements in existing compounds have become a
research hotspot [13, 14].
George Gabriel Stokes originally used the term “fluorescence” in 1852 to describe the
blue color produced when quinine reacts with UV light [15]. The molecules having a
quantum yield of one exhibit the brightest fluorescence. However, very luminous com-
pounds are also those with a quantum yield of φ = 0.1 [16–18].
In recent years, natural fluorescent compounds have garnered significant interest
because of their biocompatibility, environmental friendliness, and potential applications
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 3 of 35

in biomedical imaging, sensors, and optoelectronic devices [6]. These materials often
offer reduced toxicity, making them attractive candidates for green chemistry [19, 20].
However, because of their excellent photophysical properties and encouraging out-
comes, some synthetic analogues, like pyrene, boron-dipyrromethene (BODIPY), and
fluorescein, are widely employed as fluorescent agents (Fig. 1) [21, 22].
The current review provides a coverage of the literature being surveyed from the past
five years which implies to the recent progress in the development of several organic flu-
orescent compounds. By understanding the latest literature, the review focusses mainly
on the synthetic strategies attributing to the generation of interesting fluorescent mole-
cules that have embarked a separate place in the materials chemistry research. Literature
review was carried out based on the latest advancements and applications of fluorescent
hybrids altogether.

Recently, Heterocyclic complexes, photochromic-infused nanoparticles, aggregation

induced emission (AIE) luminogens and fluorescent molecules have been utilized to
create effective security inks with the highest level of security and quick authentication
[24–26].

2 Photophysical mechanism governing fluorescence

Mechanisms of fluorescence involves intersystem crossing which occurs when an
excited molecule or atom relaxes to a lower energy state by producing a photon without
reversing its spin multiplicity. It is usually short-lived (a few nanoseconds) and does not
occur in this process. Emission of fluorescence is closely related to excitation and emis-
sion processes: a molecule absorbs a photon of a specific wavelength, which then excites
the molecule to a higher energy state. A crucial component of the majority of natural
products with intrinsic optical properties is the subsequent re-emission of photons with
longer wavelengths. Because of nonradioactive decay (internal conversion), molecules
efficiency or quantum yield is always less than one; since the energy of the photon it
emits is always less than the energy of the photon it absorbs [16–18].
When a photon of light is absorbed by a molecule, an electron is elevated to a higher
energy level, producing an excited electronic state leading to Photoexcitation. How-
ever, the excited molecule can lose energy without any emission of light through

Fig. 1 Structures of reported fluorescent compounds [23]

Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 4 of 35

non-radioactive decay. This takes place via three processes namely, vibrational relax-
ation, internal conversion and intersystem crossing. On the other hand, radioactive
decay refers to the descending of the excited molecule to the ground state with the emis-
sion of light through fluorescence and phosphorescence. The former is quicker than the
latter as the descension takes place from the singlet excited state to the ground state as
shown in Fig. 2 [27, 28].

3 Synthesis of fluorescent compounds based on their applications

3.1 Organic fluorescent probes
Several organic, inorganic, and biological processes can be used to synthesize fluores-
cent compounds [29, 30]. The synthesis of fluorescent compounds involves incorpo-
rating chromophores, which are the parts of molecules responsible for their color, into
different chemical structures [31]. This process often requires sophisticated techniques
to ensure the stability and functionality of fluorescent properties [32].
To improve fluorescence properties those reactions frequently include conjugated
π-systems, stiff structures, and electron-donating or electron-withdrawing groups
[33, 34]. Various synthetic methods have been developed over the years [35]. Claisen-
Schmidt condensation reactions, Schiff base reactions, Suzuki coupling reactions, Aldol
and Knoevenagel condensation reactions, and cyclization reactions are some known
approaches [36–40]. Due to its straightforward reaction conditions and ease of setup,
the Claisen-Schmidt reaction is the most widely used. An aldehyde and a ketone react
together in the presence of a base or acid to yield chalcone [41]. In 2021, J. Jone Celestina
et al. [42]. used the ultrasonication method to synthesize anthracene-based fluorescence
probe 3 benzophenyl anthracenecarboxoldimine (BPAI) from 2-amino-5-nitrobenzo-
phenone 1 and 9-anthracene carboxaldehyde 2 to detect Co2+ in ethanol medium via a
charge transfer and chelation-enhanced fluorescence (CHEF) mechanism (Scheme 1).
For biological and environmental applications, BPAI is a highly selective optical and flu-
orescent chemosensor that can detect and quantify CO2+ in real water samples.
The detection limit of BPAI was determined to be 0.00091 µM. The absorbance of
BPAI + Co2+ exhibited two new peaks at 616 nm and 679 nm. Additionally, the fluores-
cence response of BPAI at 580 nm was suddenly enhanced, and the color of the BPAI
with Co2+ changed in comparison with BPAI yielding a fluorescence-enhanced product.
The binding of BPAI with Co2+ leads to excited state electron transfer and this process of
sensing a particular ion through an enhancement in fluorescence intensity and thereby

Fig. 2 Mechanism of fluorescence

Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 5 of 35

Scheme 1 Synthesis of BPAI fluorescent probe 3

Fig. 3 Sensing mechanism of BPAI probe 3 with Co2+

binding the metal ion with the ligand. The possible sensing mechanism of BPAI with
Co2+ is as shown in Fig. 3.
Modern versatile materials science and pharmaceutics both depend extensively on
quinoline and its derivatives [43]. Quinoline derivatives have also often served as fluo-
rescence probes and sensors [44]. Armen I. Martiryan et al. [45]. synthesized quinoline
derivatives 6, 8 and 10 and studied their photophysical and antioxidant properties. To
demonstrate the possible use of new quinoline derivatives as fluorescence probes, quan-
tum yield values are calculated, and the resulting data can be interpreted with the struc-
tural characteristics of the compounds. They used a photometric approach to measure
the rate of activity between OH radicals and quinoline derivatives. The synthesized com-
pounds were studied via the p-nitroso-N, N-dimethylaniline (PNDMA) assay, and the
results were compared with those of Vitamin C (Scheme 2). The synthesized compounds
show significant effect of structural features of molecule on fluorescence quantum yield
of 0.397, 0.007 and 0.451 (Table 1). Fluorescence of quinoline derivatives is blue shifted
due to the presence of various substituents.
Yun-Shang-Yang et al. [46] developed bis-chalcones for sensing the hydrazine ratio
in both the environment and organisms. They synthesized four fluorescent hydrazine
molecules, 13, 15, 18, and 20, with a bis-chalcone structure. On the basis of their opti-
cal characteristics, they determined that hydrazine has high sensitivity, a low detection
limit, and a good ability to interfere with other substances. Furthermore, tests of the
cytotoxicity and imaging of the molecule in Henrietta Lacks (HeLa) cells demonstrated
its potential for detecting hydrazine in cells, which opens applications in pharmaceutical
engineering and other domains (Scheme 3). The ability to detect hydrazine is unaffected
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 6 of 35

Scheme 2 Synthesis of novel quinoline derivatives 6, 8 and 10

Table 1 Quantum yield, absorption and fluorescence maxima and Stokes shifts of Quinoline
derivatives
Substance Quantum yield λabs (nm) λflu (nm) Stokes shift (cm−1)
(%)
Compound 6 0.397 360 428.93 4463.95
Compound 8 0.007 339 430.00 6242.71
Compound 10 0.451 350 436.96 5686.04

by pH values between 4 and 10, and the probe 30 has the highest sensitivity, and the
detection limit is as low as 0.336 × 10−7 M. (Table 2)
Marco Mellado et al. [47]. synthesized N, N-dimethylamino fluorescent chalcones
25a-k via the Claisen-Schmidt reaction. Since the synthesized molecule has the high-
est quantum yield, it holds promise for the creation of a fluorescent chemosensor. This
work focused on the imaging of living cells, specifically identifying the cellular struc-
ture when chalcones are employed as fluorescent molecular probes (Scheme 4). Better
emission characteristics in polar liquids was exhibited by compound 25f. The features of
compound 25f are therefore promising for the development of a fluorescent chemosen-
sor. Although, compound 25f has the largest fluorescence quantum yield, the biologi-
cal application of imaging on living cells was also investigated, and it was observed that
compound 25a had a fluorescence intensity on Michigan cancer foundation – 7 (MCF-
7) cells. (Table 3).
Rong Tang et al. [48]. synthesized a new fluorescent probe (7HIN-D) 30 via a Claisen-
Schmidt condensation reaction for the identification of intracellular biothiols. The flu-
orophore results in a Stokes shift of 113 nm, and it displays high sensitivity and good
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 7 of 35

Scheme 3 Synthesis of bis-chalcones 13, 15, 18, 20

Table 2 Performance comparison of bis-chalcone probes

Compounds Target Detection limit (×10−7 M)
13 N2H4 0.687
15 N2H4 0.336
18 N2H4 3.2
20 N2H4 3.2

selectivity for biothiols. Fluorescence imaging of living cells demonstrated that endog-
enous biothiols could be detected via the 7HIN-D probe. (Scheme 5) (Fig. 4).
In the pH 3–11 range, 7HIN and 7HIN-D fluorescence exhibits good stability. The
wavelength is red shifted from 530 nm to 620 nm; this can be attributed to the excited
state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) coupled AIE phenomenon of fluorophore.
The electrical characteristics of push-pull systems depend on the strength of the
donor and acceptor, their closeness, the position of substitution, and the length of the
π-conjugate system [49]. Edgard Fabian Blanco Acuna et al. [50]. synthesized chalcone
derivatives 40a-c with a push-pull effect. The development of a twisted intramolecular
charge transfer (TICT) state is responsible for the photophysical characteristics, the
density functional theory (DFT) approach is utilized in this work to clarify the molecu-
lar geometries, and the chalcones that are produced are employed as nonlinear optics
(NLO) and chemosensors (Scheme 6). The three chalcones 68a-c have their absorption
maxima in the region of 450 to 500 nm, which is attributed to the π- π∗ transitions of the
entire π-conjugated system and the compounds shows bathochromic shifts (Table 4).
In recent years the development of a number of novel probes that can specifically iden-
tify protein aggregation in living cells and exhibit controlled sensitivity [51]. Neverthe-
less, the majority of existing probes are limited to examining particular phases of protein
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 8 of 35

Scheme 4 Condensation reaction for the generation of fluorescent chalcones

Table 3 Photophysical properties of synthetic compounds 25a-k in acetonitrile

Compounds λabs (nm) λem (nm) Quantum yield (%) Fluorescence life time (ns)
25a 407 533 0.041 0.813
25b 403 525 0.022 1.156
25c 398 521 0.020 1.038
25d 403 524 0.037 1.199
25e 441 550 0.00006 0.833
25f 398 518 0.314 0.934
25 g 402 522 0.066 1.182
25 h 450 559 0.002 0.085
25i 417 547 0.003 0.060
25j 410 537 0.031 0.681
25k 414 538 0.038 0.545
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 9 of 35

Scheme 5 Synthetic route for fluorescent probe 7HIN-D 30

Fig. 4 The design strategy of probe 7HIN-D 30 for fluorescent detection of biothiols

aggregation, and it remains difficult to see the entire process [52]. Therefore, Shouning
Yang et al. [53]. synthesized chalcone derivatives 42 via skeleton modification and a
fluorescent probe for investigating protein aggregation. The chalcone derivatives show
polarity-dependent emission wavelength variations and viscosity-dependent increases
in fluorescence intensity. This work provides a path for understanding the pathogenic
mechanism of protein conformational disorders and highlights the chemical and physi-
cal alterations caused by protein aggregation (Scheme 7).
Xiao-Tian Wu and coworkers [54] developed a series of chalcone skeletons from
1,1-dimethoxy-N, N-dimethylmethamine and o-hydroxyacetophenone that function as
“turn off ” pH fluorescence probes 45a-t for basic environments. The compound showed
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 10 of 35

Scheme 6 Synthesis of coumarin-triphenylamine chalcones 40a-c

Table 4 Photophysical properties of 40a-c in different solvents

Compounds Solvents λabs (nm) λem (nm) Quantum yield (%) Stokes shift (cm−1)
40a Hexane 470 537 0.246 2654.62
AcOBu 481 645 0.087 5286.14
THF 481 648 0.042 5357.92
EtOH 482 697 - 6399.69
40b Hexane 455 521 0.162 2784.16
AcOBu 466 603 0.133 4875.48
THF 451 607 0.120 4756.96
EtOH 466 647 0.012 5775.47
40c Hexane 458 526 0.278 2822.65
AcOBu 471 608 - 4784.05
THF 476 630 - 2140.48
EtOH 473 - - -

excellent yellow fluorescence in acidic conditions. For pH detection, this molecule offers
a straightforward “on-off ” fluorescence probe with outstanding sensitivity and selectiv-
ity (Fig. 5) (Scheme 8). From Table 5, all of the compound spectra with a wavelength
between 475 and 535 nm showed light yellow fluorescence, while the quantum yield
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 11 of 35

Scheme 7 Skeletal modification of chalcone 41

Fig. 5 Proposed sensing mechanism for 45 towards pH

reached 80%. In addition, to access its photostability, solution of the probe 45a in differ-
ent pH buffer were investigated and it is not susceptible to photobleaching.
Amine detection is highly important, because excessive exposure to volatile amines
and elevated levels of biogenic amines in the body can have negative health implications
[55]. Compared with other sensing methods, reaction-based small-molecule fluorescent
probes for amine detection offer a number of noteworthy benefits, such as a variety of
chemical structures, easy modification to modify their photophysical characteristics,
high selectivity and sensitivity, ease of use, cost effectiveness, quick response, good cell
penetration, high stability, and visualized detection [56]. A. Tantipanjaporn et al. [57].
reported novel fluorescent probe 49 by using ethynylbenzaldehyde as the reaction site.
Under aqueous conditions, the synthesized ethynyl benzaldehyde (EBAs) exhibited a
highly sensitive response to primary amines, with a quantum yield of up to 0.86. The
“turn-on” fluorescent probe is made with 49a and 49e, while wash-free live cell imaging
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 12 of 35

Scheme 8 Synthesis of series of chalcones 45a-t

Table 5 Absorption, fluorescence, quantum yield (QY) and fluorescence lifetime properties of
different compounds
Compound 45a 45b 45c 45e 45i 45k 45r 45 l 45q
λabs(nm) 357 354 363 395 368 360 363 359 377
λflu(nm) 525 501 528 532 525 488 498 478 476
Stokes shifts (cm−1) 168 147 165 168 157 128 135 119 99
QY (%) of solid 80.1 56.7 35.1 66.3 3.2 14.4 2.5 6.1 25.1
QY (%) of liquid 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.2 1.7 0.3 0.2
Fluorescence lifetime (ns) 3.03 5.17 2.86 5.04 0.69 0.74 0.52 0.67 2.29

is made possible by 49d and 49e (Scheme 9). The synthesized compounds have a high
Stokes shift up to 115 nm and tunable emission at 410–535 nm and absorption at 338–
430 nm. Because of its basic sensitivity, 49c showed a stronger fluorescence background
when compared to other compounds (EBAs) (Table 6).
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 13 of 35

Scheme 9 Synthesis of EBA fluorescent probes 49a-e

Table 6 Photophysical properties of EBA probes

Compounds λabs (nm) λem (nm) Stokes shift (cm−1) Quantum yield (%)
49a 430 535 4564 0.62
49b 420 500 3810 0.86
49c 400 515 5583 0.42
49d 338 420 5776 0.17
49e 367 445 4776 0.39

It is possible to enhance the electron-donating impact of π hyper conjugation by

adding a dimethyl group to the 1-position of the parent nucleus [58, 59]. In this way,
a large π-conjugated fluorophore can be obtained [60]. In order to overcome aggrega-
tion quenching and produce intense green fluorescence, Wang et al. [61] synthesized a
series of fluorescent compounds using 1,1-dimethylnaphthalene-2(1H)-one as the core.
These molecules low molecular weight enables them to quickly cross the cell membrane
and enter the nucleus, where they produce the associated light. Among these, 57 and 60
have demonstrated potential for usage as fluorescent probes and have encouraging opti-
cal and in vitro characteristics. (Scheme 10 and Scheme 11).
Among these compounds, 57 showed the strongest fluorescence intensity, the lon-
gest fluorescence lifetime, the greatest chemical stability, and a notable excitation-emis-
sion gap. So, out of all the compounds, 57 had the most potential to develop a green
fluorescent.

3.2 Organic metal sensing probes

Marwa N [62]. synthesized D-π-A chalcone analogue 63 (2E,4E)−5-(4-(dimethylyamino)
phenyl)−1-(thiazol-2-yl)penta-2,4-dien-1-one (DMAPTP) from 4-dimethyl amino cin-
namaldehyde 61 and 2-acetylthiazole 62. The developed chalcone is used as chemosen-
sor with high sensitivity and selectivity to detect metal ions such as Na+, K+, Fe3+, and
Ba2+ and the biological chemosensitivity of DMAPTP for Fe3+ ions was illustrated via
fluorescence imaging tests in living cells. It is also used as a corrosion inhibitor for car-
bon steel (Scheme 12).
Comparing the Fe3+ ion to the other metal ions, Fe3+ has the strongest quenching
impact. In complexometric titration, DMAPTP can serve as a metallochromic predictor
and a turn-on-off-on chemosensor.
Neliswa Mama et al. [63]. synthesized two coumarin derivatives containing triazole
moieties 66a, and 66b and investigated them as chemosensors for the detection of metal
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 14 of 35

Scheme 10 Synthesis of cyano-fluorescent compounds 56–58

Scheme 11 Synthesis of cyano-fluorescent compound 60

Scheme 12 Synthetic route for DMAPTP generation 63

ions. These substances showed a high complexation preference for Fe3+ ions, which
led to the quenching of fluorescence. It was found that 1.4 µM was the detection limit,
despite competing metal cations, the favoured triazole-coumarin compound exhibited
higher selectivity towards Fe3+. A 1:1 ratio between the chemosensor and the metal
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 15 of 35

Scheme 13 Synthesis of coumarin derivatives containing triazole moieties 66

Fig. 6 Proposed sensing mechanism of compound 66

Scheme 14 Generation of Fe-complex Schiff’s base ligand 71

cation was demonstrated to be the binding stoichiometry between this triazole-couma-

rin and Fe3+(Scheme 13) (Fig. 6).
Hanar Q. Hassan et al. [64] synthesized a new iron complex of Schiff base ligand 71
for sensitive and selective sensors for pharmaceutical applications. The complex fluores-
cence behavior was investigated, and it was found that the chelation-enhanced fluores-
cence (CHEF) effect caused a notable fluorescence enhancement following binding to
Al3+ ions. The complex utility for pharmaceutical quality control was confirmed when it
was used to quantify Al3+ in antacid tablets and showed exceptional selectivity and sen-
sitivity for Al3+ over other metal ions (Scheme 14).
The compound exhibited a linear range of 25–90 µM, a detection limit of 1.5 µM, and
a quantum yield of 4.43% indicating high selectivity and sensitivity.
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 16 of 35

Scheme 15 Synthesis of dansyl-derived chemosensor 74 and 76

Table 7 Photophysical values of compounds 74 and 76 in various solvents

Compounds Solvents λabs (nm) λem (nm) Stokes shift (cm−1) Quantum yield
(%)
74 DMSO 345 545 10,637 17.7
EtOH 340 525 10,364 21.2
CH3CN 345 535 10,294 18.8
THF 343 511 9804 41.1
CHCl3 350 510 8964 48.3
76 DMSO 340 529 10,508 4.6
EtOH 335 508 10,166 2.9
CH3CN 340 464 8299 2.5
THF 330 500 10,303 3.5
CHCl3 333 487 9496 3.6

Owing to their ease of use, fluorescent chemosensors have grown significantly and are
applicable over the past few years in various areas [65]. Recently, Ignore Lourenco et al.
[66] developed dansyl-derived chemosensors 74 and 76 for disulfide cleavage-triggered
detection, metal sensing, and thermometric applications. The presence of free thiol
groups enhances the complexation ability, which is beneficial for sensing Cu2+ and Hg2+
ions. Finally, incorporating these compounds into polymer-doped films as molecular
thermometers shows promising results (Scheme 15). Compound 76 has disulfide bridges
that promote self-quenching behavior, with a detection limit of 2 µM and a quantum
yield which is close to 50% (Table 7).
According to a recent study, chalcones are commonly used in the development of
chemical probes due to their favourable structure, especially for the detection of metal
cations and anions [67, 68]. In 2024, Priyanka et al. [69]. reported a novel “turn off ” fluo-
rescent probe bis thiophene chalcone (BTC) 79, for the selective detection of ferric ions
via a condensation reaction with a detection limit of 11.703 µM (Scheme 16).
The interaction of Fe3+ with the probe showed prominent fluorescence quenching
compared to interactions with other competing metal ions. The presence of ethylene-
diaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) reduced the BTC-Fe3+ complex fluorescence, indicating
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 17 of 35

Scheme 16 Synthesis of bis-thiophene chalcone 79

Fig. 7 The possible binding mechanism of 79 with Fe3+ metal

Scheme 17 Synthesis of D-π-A chalcones 82a-h

that probe BTC for Fe3+ may be reversible, enabling the reuse of the probe molecule for
sensing applications. The binding constant of probe BTC with Fe3+ ions was determined
to be Ka = 1.428 × 103 M−1. The BTC detection limit was 11.703 µM. This sensor exhib-
ited good tolerance for other metal ions and formed a 1:1 complex with Fe3+. The pos-
sible binding mechanism of BTC with Fe3+ metal is shown in Fig. 7.
Since biological processes and enzymatic reactions depend on metal ions includ-
ing iron, copper, zinc, and manganese in both living and nonliving systems; metal ion
sensing and detection is crucial [70, 71]. It is simple to identify metal ions using a fluo-
rescence probe made from coloured molecules such as chalcones [72, 73]. In 2023, L.
Chandrakar et al. [74]. developed D-π-A chalcones 82a-h for selective Fe3+ metal sens-
ing in aqueous media. The practical applicability of the probe was revealed by the colo-
rimetric response of the probe towards ions. The synthesized chalcones shows redshift
with varying solvent polarity. Among them, chalone 82 g shows excellent sensing capac-
ity for Fe3+ metal ion (Scheme 17). With a notable quenching of intensity at 572 nm,
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 18 of 35

chalcone 82 g demonstrated superior selectivity in detecting the Fe3+ ion, with detection
and quantification limits of 10.8948 µM and 36.3160 µM respectively.

3.3 Fluorescent compounds for biological applications

Daniel Insuasty and coworkers [75] synthesized a new chalcone and investigated its
biological and photophysical uses. Using the Claisen-Schmidt reaction, they developed
three unsymmetrical 7-(diethylamino) quinolone chalcones, 88 and 89a-b, with push-
pull molecular configurations of the D-π − A-D- and D-π − A-π-D-type. They investi-
gated their photophysical characteristics and found that Intramolecular Charge Transfer
(ICT) and Twisted Intramolecular Charge Transfer (TICT) induced high solvatofluoro-
chromism and notable Stokes shifts. The synthesized chalcones are used as cancer bio-
markers and imaging agents in living cells (Scheme 18).
All of these compounds exhibited a quenching behavior compound 89b exhibited
the highest activity against LNCaP cells, with an LC50 value of 10.89 µM. Furthermore,
the compounds were evaluated for their potential as imaging agents in living prostate
cells. The results demonstrated their favourable cell permeability and strong emission at
488 nm.
Mohie E.M. Zayed et al. [76]. synthesized novel biologically active heterocyclic chal-
cones and studied their photophysical properties. With an extended π-bond system,
he developed a new alkylate heterocyclic chalcone 94 (E)−1-(2-(allyloxy)phenyl)−3-
(9-ethyl-9H-carbazol-3-yl)prop-2-en-1-one (AECO). The physicochemical charac-
teristics, including the molar absorption coefficient, transition dipole moment, Stokes
shift, oscillator strength, and fluorescence quantum yield, were analysed. The Criti-
cal Micelle Concentration (CMC) of the surfactants could be determined via analysis
of the AECO chromophore. Furthermore, the evaluation of the in-vitro antibacterial of
AECO activity against bacterial strains revealed that it is a more effective antibacterial
agent against gram-negative E. coli and S. flexneri (Scheme 19). The fluorescence quan-
tum yield increased with increased the polarity of the solvents. On the other hand, the

Scheme 18 Synthesis of chalcones 88 and 89a-b with push-pull effects

Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 19 of 35

Scheme 19 Synthesis of alkylated heterocyclic chalcone 94

Table 8 Spectral data and fluorescence quantum yield of AECO in different solvents
Solvent λab (nm) λem (nm) Quantum yield Stokes shift (cm−1)
(%)
DMSO 414 504 0.23 4313
DMF 412 500 0.13 4271
EtOH 416 510 0.082 4431
MeOH 419 514 0.098 4411
CHCl3 410 494 0.065 4147
CH2Cl2 409 488 0.064 3958
Acetonitrile 408 493 0.22 4206
Dioxan 400 479 0.063 4124
THF 401 476 0.058 3929
n-Hexane 396 468 0.031 3885

fluorescence quantum yield showed poorer values in strong polar solvents such as etha-
nol and methanol as comparing to the other less polar solvent. This is due to the positive
solvatokinetic effects. (Table 8)
Surya Pratap and Sekar Nagaiyan [77] synthesized coumarin derivatives 97 and stud-
ied their photophysical and biological applications. He noted that the deep red to near-
infrared region is where the coumarin core absorbs and emits. As a result, coumarin
dyes are utilized in NLO materials and laser dyes. This research indicates that deep red
and near-infrared light are used in biological studies because they reduce photodam-
age to biological materials, provide deeper photon penetration in tissues, and limit back-
ground autofluorescence from biomolecules found in living organisms (Scheme 20).
Nidhi Singh et al. [78]. synthesized novel chalcone 100, and they studied the mecha-
nistic interaction of chalcone with serum protein via chemoinformatic approaches. The
inherent fluorescence of the protein was successfully extinguished by the synthetic chal-
cone. The complex formation of chalcone with serum protein is the primary cause of
the quenching of fluorescence. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics modelling
revealed that stable chalcone can bind to the protein microenvironment. The draggabil-
ity of chalcone for usage in therapeutic applications is enhanced by pharmacological and
pharmacodynamic findings. The intrinsic fluorescence of serum was quenched upon the
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 20 of 35

Scheme 20 Synthesis of coumarin-benzopyrilium dye 97

Scheme 21 Synthesis of chalcone 100via Claisen-Schmidt condensation

addition of chalcone by the combined dynamic and static quenching mechanism with
the emission wavelength of 340 nm. (Scheme 21)
In addition to their excellent medicinal properties, it has been observed that chalcones
with an appropriate electron push-pull configuration of functional groups show strong
fluorescence [79, 80]. Sirilak Wangngae et al. [81]. synthesized a series of chalcones
103a-f with electron push-pull effects through Claisen-Schmidt condensation reaction
and studied their photophysical and biological applications. The compound exhibits
strong emission at approximately 512–567 nm, and it emits green fluorescence, which
is clearly brighter in cancer cells. The antimicrobial properties of chalcones were tested,
and chalcones exhibited antibacterial activity against E. coli and S. aureus. Hence, the
series of chalcones are used for the development of antibiotics and cancer cell-staining
agents. (Scheme 22)
The chalcone series is appropriate for biological applications due to its excellent
photo-stability, stability throughout a broad pH range, and mega-stokes shift between 93
and 139 nm.
A. Shubhasri et al. [82] synthesized fluorescent aryl acetamide sensors 105 and 108
for computational and biological investigations. In ethanol-water mixtures, fluores-
cence studies confirmed their enhanced and selective sensitivity to Sr2+. In this study,
the synthesized sensors were shown to be both effective Sr2+ ion sensors and promising
candidates for anticancer applications. Strontium and other heavy metal removal from
industrial effluents can be monitored and optimized with the use of Sr2+ testing (Scheme
23).
The consistent emission peak wavelengths at 436 nm for compound 106 and 432 nm
for compound 107 across a range of Sr2+ concentrations suggest that the chemosensor
Sr2+ complex is stable and that the binding mode does not alter substantially with shift-
ing ion concentrations.
Recently, X. Yan et al. [83] developed a series of thiazolo[3,2-b] [1, 2, 4]triazol deriva-
tives 115, 116, 117, and 118 and investigated their photophysical properties and bioac-
tivity. The synthesized compounds are having potential use in bioimaging is indicated by
its minimal cytotoxicity and ability to image in HeLa cells. This method may be suitable
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 21 of 35

Scheme 22 Condensation reactions for the construction of chalcones 103a-f

Scheme 23 Synthesis of aryl acetamide compounds 108

for the processing of sensitive materials and may be able to identify Fe3+ in real water
samples (Scheme 24).
The representative compound 116k had good selectivity, specific anti-interference
ability and low limit of detection 8.2 M for Fe 3+.

3.4 Organic compounds with OLED applications

Karuppasami et al. [84]. developed novel chalcones containing pyrene rings (E)−1-(2-
methoxyphenyl)−3-(pyren-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one) 121, ((E)−1-(4-bromophenyl)−3-
(pyren-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one 123, and ((E)−1-(4-nitrophenyl)−3-(pyren-1-yl)
prop-2-en-1-one 125, and they experimentally and theoretically investigated these chal-
cones. The highest absorption peak of the synthesized chalcones was between 414 and
421 nm, while the emission was in the cyan range. Blueshifted emission is present in all
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 22 of 35

Scheme 24 Synthesis of triazole derivatives 115–118

three synthesized chalcones. Because of their fluorescence, these chalcones are utilized
in bioimaging and in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) (Scheme 25). 121 and 123
demonstrated a higher fluorescence quantum yield than PC-NO2 with respective values
of 0.35 and 0.55. The push-pull effect of the pyrene donor to the keto acceptor, assisted
by an additional acceptor moiety which is responsible for the maximal emission of chal-
cone derivatives at 488 nm for 121, 489 nm for 123, and 491 nm for 125 (Table 9).
Recently, chalcones as synthons through ring closure reactions have also been used to
develop a wide range of new heterocyclic compounds [85] Afrisham et al. [4]. synthe-
sized chalcone derivatives and studied their photophysical properties. All of the deriva-
tives for the blue-green range in the 450–570 nm spectral range showed dual emission.
In the 300–400 nm range, the molecules exhibit absorption maximum bands that cor-
respond to 𝜋–π* electronic transitions. In both the liquid and solid phases, compounds
129 and 132 have broad and high photoemission efficiencies, making them appropriate
optical materials for application in OLEDs and sensors (Scheme 26). Only the cyanopyr-
idine derivatives with quantum efficiencies at 0.01 mM concentration had higher emis-
sion intensities. (Tables 10 and 11).
Humera Baig et al. [86]. synthesized piperidyl and pyrrolidinyl chalcones 138, and
140 and studied their photophysical, electrochemical and DFT studies. The compounds
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 23 of 35

Scheme 25 Synthesis of pyrene-derived chalcones 121, 123, 125

Table 9 Photophysical properties of the molecules in solution state

Compounds λabs (nm) λem (nm) Stokes shift (nm) Quantum yield (%) Fluorescence life time (ns)
121 415 488 74 0.35 3.31
123 417 489 72 0.55 1.82
125 421 491 70 0.02 2.30

Scheme 26 Synthesis of cyanopyridine derivatives 129 and 132

Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 24 of 35

Table 10 Spectroscopic data of the molecules in solid state

Compounds λex (nm) λem (nm) External quantum efficiency (%) Internal quantum efficiency (%)
128 370 490 - -
129 370 420 3.928 4.203
131 370 480 - -
132 370 440 4.255 4.472

Table 11 Spectroscopic data of the molecules in solution state

Compounds λex (nm) λem (nm) External quantum efficiency (%) Internal quantum efficiency (%)
128 410 490, 530 - -
129 360 475, 527 2.260 21.167
131 390 490, 530 - -
132 320 488, 533 3.494 23.079

Table 12 Optical values for the compounds 138 and 140

Compounds λabs (nm) λem (nm) Quantum yield (%)
138(n = 3) 405 516 0.39
138(n = 4) 423 513 0.34
140(n = 3) 420 552 0.29
140(n = 4) 440 548 0.39

Scheme 27 Synthesis of piperidyl and pyrrolidinyl chalcones 140

have an absorption band between 360 and 480 nm and emission peaks between 513 and
552 nm. The substantial Stokes shifts for all the compounds suggest that intramolecu-
lar charge transfer (ICT) is in the excited state. The molar absorption, and fluorescence
quantum yields are between 1.7 and 4.26 × 104 M−1cm−1 and 0.29 and 0.39, respectively
(Table 12). DFT calculations of the compounds were performed, and the results were
strongly correlated with the experimental data. Owing to these potentials, the developed
chalcones can be used as OLEDs and fluorescent probes for bioimaging (Scheme 27).
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 25 of 35

Scheme 28 Synthesis of carbazole derivatives 144a-d

Table 13 Optical values for the compounds 144a-d

Compounds λmax (nm) λem (nm) Stokes shift (cm−1) Quantum yield
(%)
144a 424 556 5599 58.35
144b 433 476 2089 33.45
144c 441 605 6147 45.56
144d 443 543 4157 34.28

The design of AIE (aggregation-induced emission) active materials depends exten-

sively on organic π-conjugating fluorophores [87]. Utilizing the linking topology of
building blocks allows for the tuning of such materials photophysical and electrochemi-
cal characteristics [88, 89]. Anuj Sharma et al. [90]. developed a series of carbazole-based
derivatives 144a-d for OLED applications. Due to restricted rotation in the solid state
and enhanced distortion in the molecular structure, all of the dyes containing N-phenyl-
carbazole displayed AIE features in THF-H2O mixtures (Scheme 28).
The N-butylcarbazole donor containing dyes 144b and 144d showed red-shifted
absorption as well as emission when compared to the dyes containing N-phenylcarba-
zole (144a and 144c) (Table 13). Because intramolecular charge transfer occurs in the
excited state, all the compounds fluorescence exhibited positive solvatochromism. A
green OLED device with a maximum brightness (Lmax) of 6180 cd m−2, high external
quantum efficiency of 4.2%, and current efficiency of 13.1 cd A−1 was also created using a
dye that contained N-butyl carbazole donor as dopant emitter (3% in N, N-Dicarbazolyl-
4,4-biphenyl (CBP) host).
Currently, isocoumarin has attracted the attention of many researchers [91]. Like cou-
marin, it also has photophysical properties [92]. Isocoumarin is frequently altered as a
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 26 of 35

Scheme 29 Synthesis of isocoumarin derivatives 148

Table 14 Photophysical parameters of 147 and 148

Compounds λmax (nm) λem (nm) Quantum yield (%)
147 365 506 No emission
148 345 478 16

fluorophore to produce luminescent materials for fluorescence sensing, cell imaging,

and other applications, such as OLEDs [93, 94]. Additionally, materials produced from
isocoumarin frequently have favourable optical qualities [95]. A novel D-π-A isocouma-
rin 148, was synthesized by M. Sun et al. [96]which have tunable fluorescence charac-
teristics attributed to PET quenching, used in OLED and encryption. Periodically, 148
fluorescence changes from green to dark red due to observable acidochromism. Thus, it
can be applied to encryption technologies. Additionally, it is employed in the production
of cyan-green OLED displays (Scheme 29). The photo-induced electron transfer (PET)
process in 147 is overcome by the enhanced fluorescence in 148. It has a luminous effi-
ciency of 2.06 (lm/W) with 0.8% of photoelectric efficiency and the photophysical param-
eters of isocoumarin derivatives is shown in Table 14.
Recently, the developments in organic electronics, including OLEDs, field-effect tran-
sistors, and photovoltaics, have raised demand and interest in appropriate π-functional
materials [97]. One of the most explored fluorophoric systems among them is pyrene,
which has good thermal and emission properties and substantial π-electron delocaliza-
tion [84]. In 2022, Sneha Kagatikar et al. [98]. synthesized pyrene -based chalcones 151a
and 151b as functional materials for optoelectronic applications. Both chalcones have
D-π-A architectures with pyrene as the electron donor (151a) and fluorophenyl as the
acceptor (151b). The chalcones show wide bandgap n-type semiconducting behavior;
therefore, they are exploited in OLEDs. In addition, 151b has a specific capacitance of
220 F g−1 hence, it is used in the fabrication of symmetric supercapacitors (Scheme 30).
The optical parameters deduced for both the push-pull systems are presented in Table
15.

3.5 Organic compounds as pH sensors

Recently, Emmanuele Parisi et al. [99]. synthesized 3 novel compounds, 153, 155, 156,
on the basis of unprecedented anthra[2,3-d] imidazole units. New classes of derivatives
utilized in pH sensors operate in extremely alkaline environments due to their unique
optical characteristics at high pH values (Scheme 31).
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 27 of 35

Scheme 30 Synthesis of pyrene-based chalcones 151a-b

Table 15 Optical values for 151a and 151b

Compounds λabs (nm) λem (nm) Stokes shift (cm−1) Quantum yield
(%)
151a 370.4 560.5 18,437 4.98
151b 368 594 18,437 5.71

Scheme 31 Synthesis of anthraimidazoles 156

All the molecules have a fluorescence quantum yield of about 0.40 and are potent blue
emitters in ethanol solution. A sharp shift in the fluorescence spectra within the limited
pH range of 11–13 was noted in the alkaline pH range, with the emission color changing
from blue to green. This feature makes the new class of derivatives here reported very
promising as pH sensors working in strongly alkaline conditions. Because of this char-
acteristic, the newly developed class of compounds is extremely promising for use as pH
sensors in extremely alkaline environments.
pH value is essential for controlling many physiological and biochemical reactions
[100]. Numerous complex internal and external stimuli may have an impact on the pH
variation [10]. Compared with typical methods, electrochemical sensors have more
advantages, such as noninvasiveness, real-time performance, and simple operation
[101]. A new fluorescent sensor (TH-1) was developed by Hai-Chao Wang et al. [102] to
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 28 of 35

Fig. 8 Novel fluorescent sensor TH-1

Fig. 9 The detection process of probe TH-1

Scheme 32 Synthesis of BICL fluorescent probe 159

identify pH-induced Organo-phosphorous pesticides (OPs) in living systems. Addition-

ally, the probe was employed to detect pH changes in living cells and C. elegans due to its
low sensitivity and toxicity. The probe TH-1 was able to detect pH values that generated
dimethoate phoxium, which inhibits AChE activity. Thus, probe TH-1 could be a useful
and promising chemical compound for biological research pertaining to OPs. (Fig. 8)
The fluorescent quantum yields of probe TH-1 are 0.01, 0.04 and 0.10 when pHs of the
solution are 3, 7.5 and 10, respectively. The probe has excitation wavelength at 465 nm
and a maximum emission wavelength at 544 nm. The detection process of probe TH-1 is
shown in Fig. 9.
In the study of the ecological environment, small-molecule fluorescent probes have
garnered a growing amount of interest and demonstrated promising application poten-
tial [103]. A small-molecule fluorescence probe (BICL) was created in 2021 by Ying
Zhang et al. [104] to detect acidic pH and citric acid in aqueous solutions, surroundings,
and small live organisms (zebrafish) in an effective and quick method (Scheme 32).
The probe has excitation wavelength at 495 nm and a maximum emission wavelength
at 550 nm under neutral conditions. The fluorescence intensity ratio of probe solution
displays a good linear relationship between pH 3.1 and 4.5. With a detection limit of
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 29 of 35

Scheme 33 Synthesis of imidazocridine dyes 164a-e

Table 16 The spectral data of heterocyclic dyes 164a-e

Compounds 164a 164b 164c 164d 164e
λabs(nm) 370 370 375 375 375
λem(nm) 370 370 370 370 370
λflu(nm) 426 428 425 426 422
Quantum yield (%) 0.22 0.25 0.31 0.29 0.38

2.967 l M, the probe exhibits a strong linear relationship in the 15.0–23.0 l M range of
CA concentration. Since BICL allows relative standard deviation (RSD) to range from
0.0011 to 0.0092 and has a strong recovery rate between 114.6 and 101.0%, it has a lot
of potential for use in determining CA in real samples. Importantly, the probe has good
blood compatibility and fluorescence imaging effect, BICL becomes the first fluorescent
probe used to detect the H+ change by colorimetric and ratiometric methods.

3.6 Organic compounds as dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs)

In recent decades, photovoltaic technology has facilitated the direct conversion of har-
vested light into electrical energy via the use of semiconductor materials [105, 106]. In
the commercial sector, dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) are known for their simple
and economical production methods, as well as their ability to regulate light levels and
exhibit semitransparency [107–109]. Mehdi Pordel et al. [110]. synthesized the efficient
fluorescent imidazoacridine dyes 164a-e, and it is used in dye-sensitized solar cells.
Cyclic voltammetry was used to investigate the electrochemical features. The IPCE
spectra and I-V curves were analysed in order to assess the photovoltaic performance.
With a maximum efficiency of 3.28%, the synthesized dyes demonstrate their poten-
tial to improve the efficiency of solar devices. Specifically, dye 164e may be a useful
organic photosensitizer for DSSCs (Scheme 33). The maximum absorbance wavelengths
observed for the series of amides 121a-e fall within the range of 350 to 375 nm which are
primarily attributed to π-π* transitions and the compound 121e shows remarkable opti-
cal characteristics (Table 16). Due to the presence of the methoxy group, known for its
strong electron-donating properties, significantly enhances the electronic interactions
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 30 of 35

Scheme 34 Synthesis of squaraine dyes 170a-c

within the aromatic ring. This interaction contributes fluorescence intensity, making it
stand out compared to other compounds in the series.
In recent years, dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) have made significant advances in
integrated photovoltaics, indoor energy harvesting, etc [111]. Among them squaraine
dyes serve as sensitizers because of their high molar absorptivity, fluorescence quan-
tum yield and chemical tunability [112, 113]. Recently, J. Alkabli et al. [114]. synthesized
novel squaraine dyes 170 for improved efficiency in DSSCs. Among them, 170b shows
excellent photovoltaic performance, 170c and 170a show notable decreases in their
HOMO energy levels compared with those of 170b because of the presence of electron
withdrawing groups in 170c and 170a. Therefore, 170b emerges as the most effective
candidate for DSSCs, with an efficiency of 7.14% (Scheme 34).
The emission maximum for the unsubstituted 170b dye was observed at 656 nm,
whereas the emission maxima for 170c and 170a were red-shifted to 663 nm and
670 nm, respectively.

4 Future perspectives
The future perspective of organic fluorescent compounds holds immense potential due
to their unique optical properties, structural tunability with a wide range of applications.
Recent advances are expected to play a pivotal role in the development of next-genera-
tion technologies. In optoelectronics, they are crucial for improving the efficiency and
flexibility of OLEDs, organic lasers and transistors. In the field of bioimaging and diag-
nostics, organic fluorophores are being designed for enhanced sensitivity, deep tissue
penetration and multiplexed imaging through near-infrared fluorescence. Moreover, in
the energy sector, organic fluorescent materials are used in energy harvesting especially
in dye-sensitized solar cells offering cost-effective and sustainable solutions. Future
research outlook is to focus on improving stability, emission efficiency, and environmen-
tal compatibility along with exploring novel structures.
Maiya et al. Discover Applied Sciences (2025) 7:1322 Page 31 of 35

5 Conclusion
Fluorescent compounds continue to be invaluable tools across a broad spectrum of sci-
entific and technological fields because of their unique photophysical properties. Meth-
ods for synthesizing fluorescent compounds are still being explored because of their
immense uses, and applications in various fields. This review describes the high syn-
thetic potential of various fluorescent compounds, with a focus on those published in
the last five years. Advances in synthetic strategies have led to the development of com-
pounds with enhanced brightness, stability, and tunable emission, expanding their util-
ity in areas such as optoelectronics, biomedical imaging, and environmental monitoring.
The integration of these compounds into hybrid systems further enhances their func-
tionality and specificity. Despite remarkable progress, challenges remain in improving
biocompatibility, reducing photobleaching and achieving targeted delivery in complex
biological systems. Ongoing interdisciplinary efforts in chemistry, material science and
biology are expected to drive further innovations, enabling next-generation applications
of fluorescent compounds.
Author contributions
**Sowmya Maiya: ** Writing – original draft, software; **Glanish Jude Martis: ** Writing- original draft; **Nitinkumar S.
Shetty: ** Writing – review and editing; **Santosh L. Gaonkar: ** Writing – review and editing, supervision.
Funding
Open access funding provided by Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal. No funding was received to assist
with the preparation of this manuscript.
Data availability
No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations
Ethical approval
Not applicable.
Consent to publish
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Research involving human participants and/or animals
Not applicable.

Received: 24 June 2025 / Accepted: 30 September 2025

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