Interdependence and Global

Governance

Introducing the Topic

Introduction to Interdependence and Global Governance

In global politics, interdependence typically refers to the collective dependency of
various groups, organizations, geographical regions, or countries on resources to
support their ways of life. This reliance is frequently economic, like trade, but it also
extends to security, environmental sustainability, and so on. Globalization has
heightened this interconnectedness and altered the power dynamics among
different global political actors.

Our increasing interconnectedness, where events in one part of the world have
effects on people in societies far away, ensures that not only are we more
interconnected, but we are also more likely to see how something in one part of the
world is having a direct impact on our lives.

Interdependence is central to global politics as it shapes the interactions and

relationships between states, international organizations and other actors in the
international system and will be the focus of this topic.

NOTE: as one of the four key concepts in the course, the expectation is that in
addition to understanding the various aspects of interdependence, it should also
be used as a lens for examining issues in all three of the thematic units.

Prescribed Topic Prescribed Content

Interdependence in global politics Participation of intergovernmental

organizations (IGOs) and non-state
actors in global governance
Cooperation and competition
between political actors
Collective security, strategic
alliances, economic cooperation
Global interactions and networks

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 Recent Resources
As new articles, videos, podcasts, infographics, and websites related to this topic become available, they will be
added below. The most recent resources will appear at the top of the list. Please note that, due to the nature of
the digital news environment, some of these resources may require a subscription.

Topic/Link: The world is in a new age of variable geometry, says Mark Carney
Prescribed Content Link(s): Interdependence - Cooperation and competition between political
actors
Source: The Economist
Free/Subscription: Subscription required

Teacher only box

Teachers may like to use the following slide deck to support you in the presentation of the information on this
topic:

Activiating

What point does Rodrik seem to be trying to make in his statement below regarding interdependence?

In most other areas, when you think about them, whether it’s international finance, whether it’s economic
development, whether it’s business and financial stability, whether it’s international trade—the problem, it
seems to me, is not that we don’t have sufficient global governance, that we don’t have sufficient global
cooperation, that we’re not getting together enough. It’s just that our domestic governance is failing us.

~ Dani Rodrik in Winners Take All: The Elite Charade of Changing the World by Anand Giridharadas

As we noted in our introduction, one of the reasons for global interdependence has been globalization.
Globalization is the process of increasing interconnectedness among societies such that events in one part of
the world increasingly have effects on people in societies far away. In a globalized world, our political, economic,
cultural and social activities are not only more interconnected, but they are also more likely to have an impact on
us. Because of this, we feel less isolated from those in other parts of the world. Globalization is not a new
phenomenon; in fact, many argue that it is simply a new name for a centuries-old notion.

Watch these two videos as an introduction to the notion of interdependence. What political issues can you
identify while watching them?
 Where does your phone come from?

The Globetrotting Journey of a Sneaker

Lesson Content

Instructions: Read the lesson content and answer the guiding questions that follow the readings. To
access the lesson content topics or sections below, click the “+” sign to expand the box and the “-” sign to
close them.
Introduction to Globalization and Interdependence

Watch this video and answer the guiding questions that follow.

What Is Globalization? Understand Our Interconnected World

Guiding Questions

1. In what ways is globalization not new?

2. In what ways is globalization new?
3. What are the upsides of globalization?
4. What are the downsides of globalization?
5. While globalization can't be stopped, what role can governments play in altering globalization's
impact on their countries?

Teacher only box

Possible Answers:

Guiding Questions

1. In what ways is globalization not new? Globalization is not a new phenomenon, as the
movement of people, ideas, goods, and other elements across borders has been occurring
for thousands of years. Historical examples like the Silk Road demonstrate the ancient roots
of global exchanges, where fabrics, spices, art, weapons, technology, ideas, and diseases
were spread across vast distances.
2. In what ways is globalization new? The contemporary form of globalization is distinguished
by its unprecedented scale and range. The world today is interconnected in a way that
allows for the rapid and broad dissemination of ideas, products, and news. Developments
like the Internet and global supply chains facilitate the swift spread of diseases (Ebola,
 COVID-19), financial contagions (the 2008 crisis), and products (like smartphones). This is
quite different than the slower pace of historical globalization.

3. What are the upsides of globalization?

- Increased access to diverse goods and services, often at reduced prices.

- Improved global communication, allowing billions to connect and access information.

- Strengthened ties between trading partners, potentially promoting peace, security, and
economic growth.

- Enhanced technological innovation and efficiency in production and distribution.

4. What are the downsides of globalization?

- Job losses due to automation and the shifting of operations to countries with cheaper
labour.

- Widening economic disparity, as individuals and corporations able to capitalize on

globalization often see disproportionate gains.

- Potential threats to local identities, cultures, social and political norms.

- Environmental impacts and the spread of negative elements like diseases and cyber
threats.

5. While globalization can't be stopped, what role can governments play in altering
globalization's impact on their countries?

- Deciding the level of openness towards trade, investment, immigration, the Internet, etc.

- Engaging in collective international responses, utilizing international institutions and

arrangements to manage globalization's effects.

- Implementing policies to protect and support sectors and populations negatively affected
by globalization.

- Balancing the benefits of globalization with the need to preserve local culture, social
norms, and political structures.

Describing Interdependence

Our world today is defined by the remarkable expansion of global interconnectedness, characterized by
increased cross-border movements of many items. This includes the flow of labour, tourists, ideas, digital
communication, energy resources, media, data, both legal and illegal drugs, terrorists, migrants and
refugees, weaponry, viruses (including computer and biological ones), greenhouse gases contributing to
climate change, manufactured items, food and different currencies. Because of this, even if a country wanted
to stay out of our interconnected world, it would be almost impossible. The global economy involves
everyone, providing goods and services everywhere. Things are changing so fast that politics has changed,
too. Countries can't control everything inside their borders anymore; what happens in one place affects
others far away.
Economically, interdependence is evident in the flow of goods, services, and money across borders, which
has led to the integration of national economies into a global economy. This interdependence has created
opportunities for economic growth and development. Still, it has also increased the vulnerability of states to
global economic shocks and crises, and the powerful and wealthy are taking advantage of those with less
leverage in the marketplace.

Politically, interdependence can be seen in the expansion of international organizations and the growing
importance of multilateralism in global governance (the principle of participation by three or more
governments of different countries). States are increasingly dependent on international organizations to
address global challenges such as climate change, terrorism, nuclear proliferation and more. This
interdependence has led to the emergence of a complex global governance system, which requires states to
work together to achieve common goals.

Interdependence also has social and cultural dimensions. Spreading information and ideas across borders
through social media and other forms of communication has created a global community with many shared
values and interests. This interdependence has led to transnational social movements and advocacy
networks that promote human rights and environmental sustainability and seek to address other global
issues.

At the core of interdependence and globalization is the notion of interconnectedness, which refers to webs
and networks of ties of every sort. Interconnectedness is based on the view that every country and person is
affected to some extent by what occurs everywhere and by what others do. There is increasingly one global
market for many manufactured and agricultural goods, for oil, for investment, and even for services such as
technical support for technology. Such interconnectedness means that what happens in one place can affect
conditions in another. What begins at the local level can quickly become global. This is true of infectious
diseases like the COVID-19 pandemic, financial recessions, or a viral video. This degree of
interconnectedness can be mutually beneficial or bring vulnerability.

It's important to note that global interdependence or globalization is not a completely novel concept. The
global movement of people and goods has been a constant throughout history, exemplified by ancient trade
routes like the Silk Road and maritime voyages. However, the modern version of globalization stands out in
its magnitude, speed, and the diversity of items and information crossing borders. International tourism has
grown exponentially in the last few decades. There are also tens of millions of forcibly displaced people.
Foreign direct investment and the global trade in goods are in the trillions of dollars, a substantial increase in
just the last few decades.

The speed of these global flows is equally striking. Certain exchanges occur almost instantaneously, like
video calls between distant continents or rapid international financial transactions. Even slower processes,
like long-distance travel, are also relatively quick. This combination of speed and volume means that it is
often challenging, if not impossible, for governments to fully monitor or control everything that enters or exits
their borders.

Technological advancements have driven the surge in global interdependence. The development and
widespread use of the internet, planes, mobile phones, shipping containers, and satellites have been key
factors. Furthermore, policies that enhance trade and market access significantly contribute to this
interdependence. These policies allow businesses to manufacture and establish stores in other countries.

Geopolitical dynamics (international relations, as influenced by geographical factors), which involve states
competing for power and influence, also play a complex role in shaping interdependence. On the one hand,
global stability and the absence of large-scale conflicts like the world wars of the 20th century have facilitated
trade, investment, and movement. However, regional instabilities and conflicts have led to migration
pressures, which is evident in the many displaced people worldwide.

Managing Interdependence

The outcomes of heightened interdependence are complex and wide-ranging. Economically, the capability to
export fuels job creation, while imports provide access to affordable, quality goods that are not locally
produced. However, introducing imported goods can lead to job losses, influenced by factors like disparities
in labour costs, production efficiency, and various governmental policies.

The extensive exchange of information and ideas is a significant aspect of interdependence. While some
view this positively, others find certain content objectionable, and some governments oppose the
dissemination of information they consider destabilizing or unfriendly to their regimes. However, no state can
fully insulate itself from the effects of interdependence. Governments employ various strategies to moderate
their engagement in an interconnected environment, including implementing protectionist measures like
tariffs and trade barriers, controlling foreign investments, erecting barriers to immigration, and monitoring
national borders. Additional strategies like restricting legal entry, conducting health screenings, selectively
inspecting cargo, and controlling media and internet access are also utilized.

Still, complete detachment from an interdependent world is not feasible. National borders do not constrain
issues like climate change and the spread of diseases. Economic downturns and financial crises in one
region can quickly impact others. The interconnectedness through the internet brings both benefits and
vulnerabilities. Ideas can permeate even the most insular societies, and visitors can introduce diseases. No
economy is self-sufficient in producing or consuming all its resources and products. Isolation from the global
community carries significant drawbacks. For example, North Korea is one of the most isolated countries in
the world and among the poorest. Restricting imports limits access to consumer goods and can affect
exports, employment, and economic growth.

Most governments endeavour to foster elements they perceive as beneficial and oppose those they view as
harmful. Managing interdependence is a substantial challenge for every government, as they are often held
responsible for its effects — from immigration to climate change and disease outbreaks — even though they
may have limited control over these issues.

Governments also address interdependence through collaborative, multilateral responses. No single country
can completely avoid the negative impacts of interdependence or solely enjoy its benefits. Consequently, a
global framework encompassing legal, political, and commercial domains has emerged to manage issues
ranging from health and trade to Internet governance and climate change. This represents a form of global
governance despite the absence of a singular global government. However, there is often a lack of
consensus on how different aspects of interdependence should be managed or regulated.

Despite being more connected than ever, the world still faces huge issues like climate change, poverty, wars,
and many people being forced to leave their homes as refugees. These problems are too big for one country
to handle, showing that countries must work together.

Our world doesn't have one government that makes rules for everyone. Instead, we depend on different
countries or groups of countries working together to follow international rules and manage the organizations
that keep track of how interconnected our world is. This teamwork among countries is important for handling
the challenges of being so connected.

Guiding Prompt
Based on the information and interviews in this video, make note of the positive and negative aspects of
globalization.

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Possible Response:

Positive Aspects of Globalization

1. Technological Advancements and Accessibility:

- Globalization has facilitated the development and spread of technology, exemplified by the ubiquity
of smartphones.
- There are more active mobile connections than people, indicating high global accessibility to
communication technology.

2. Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction:

- Globalization has significantly contributed to lifting over a billion people out of extreme poverty since
1990.
- In China, for example, the poverty rate drastically dropped from 88% in 1981 to 6.5% in 2012,
largely due to economic growth fueled by globalization.

3. Global Interconnectedness:
- Globalization has shortened the distance between people around the world, leading to increased
cultural exchange and access to a variety of technologies and ideas.

4. Job Opportunities:
- The expansion of factories and global companies in developing countries has created job
opportunities, especially in urban areas, leading to economic growth.

Negative Aspects of Globalization

1. Social and Environmental Harm:

- Globalization has led to practices that can be socially and environmentally harmful, such as the
exposure of communities to toxic waste from mineral processing in Inner Mongolia.

2. Inequality and Exploitation:

- Workers in some factories, such as those assembling smartphones, face low wages and poor
working conditions.
- The disparity in wages and living standards is stark; a smartphone might cost a month's wage for the
worker who assembled it, while consumers in wealthier countries can afford it with far less labour.

3. Limited Movement of People:

- While goods and money move freely across borders, people's movement is more restricted due to
immigration laws.

4. Economic Displacement and Inequality:

- Globalization benefits certain groups (like entrepreneurs and businesses) more than others, leading
to inequality and feelings of being left behind in parts of society.
- There is a growing divide between those who are positively impacted by globalization and those who
are negatively affected, leading to social and political unrest.

5. Rise of Nationalism and Rejection of Globalization:

- The perceived negative impacts of globalization have contributed to the rise of nationalistic and
isolationist sentiments in various countries.
- This rise in nationalism is seen as a response to the inequalities and changes brought about by
globalization.

6. Challenges to Democracy:
- There is a need for a new era of reform in which democracy and public interest take precedence
over trade and capital flow.
 - The future of globalization should ideally be more democratically oriented, with public interest as a
priority.

Negative Impacts of Interdependence

Interdependence in the global context is a topic of considerable debate, with its impacts felt unevenly across
different sectors and populations. One major concern is the loss of jobs, often attributed to international
competition and imports. Smaller businesses often struggle to compete with large, globally established firms
that benefit from economies of scale and well-known brands. While this is sometimes true, technological
advancements have frequently enabled more cost-effective and higher-quality production, not just foreign
trade.

The spread of primarily Western ideologies and practices raises concerns about the potential marginalization
of non-Western ideas and values. Interdependence poses challenges to local identity and cultural practices.
Cultural and lifestyle influences from around the world, disseminated through media such as television,
movies, and the internet, can overshadow traditional ways of life. The influence of global trends on individual
societies and people is often more pronounced than the reverse.

In response to this, there has been a resurgence of ethnocentric and exclusive forms of nationalism that
have disrupted the current global order. Hypernationalism, characterized by hostility towards other countries
and their citizens, can lead to aggressive foreign policies and interventions in other countries. This has
perhaps been most evident as part of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. The enduring conflict between
nationalism and global order continues to challenge the balance between internal societal tolerance and
peaceful international relations.

Interdependence can lead to competition and conflict between states with different interests and priorities. In
addition, the unequal distribution of power and resources in global politics can create asymmetric
relationships where powerful actors can dominate and exploit weaker or less powerful actors.

Nevertheless, there are still questions about how much things have really changed from the past when
countries were more independent. Big international companies that operate in many countries are still not
that common. Most companies do business in other countries but are based in their home country. Richer
countries still have more control over money; companies that invest in poorer countries usually come from
richer ones.

Globalization, often aligned with free markets and capitalism principles, disproportionately benefits wealthier
nations, amplifying their influence over less affluent economies. The accessibility of advanced technologies
in richer countries can increase economic imbalances, and the interconnectedness facilitated by such
technologies also presents security challenges, as they can be exploited for illicit activities, including
terrorism. Furthermore, the growing power of multinational corporations, which often operate beyond the
accountability of any single national government, raises issues of regulatory oversight and ethical
responsibility. While promoting business growth, international trade agreements can also result in job
relocation to countries with lower labour costs. However, this can result in:

Exploitation, where corporations exert their power to exploit labourers and actually increase poverty
and inequality disparities in wealth and resources.
Dependence on a limited range of exports can make countries susceptible to economic instability,
particularly when the market decreases or prices shift. Additionally, less powerful countries are often
subject to economic pressures from stronger states or corporations.
The centrality of certain cultures or languages can sideline minority groups, leading to their
underrepresentation and inequitable treatment.
Disparities in global power can ignite tensions, especially when influential states manipulate
international rules or organizations to maintain their dominance.
Environmental degradation occurs because economic gain is prioritized over environmental
sustainability, and the weaker states can succumb to pressure from corporations to limit
environmental oversight to retain their presence in the country.

*Some of these sections were inspired by and summarized from Richard Haass's The World: A Brief
Introduction.
 Read this article on one of the negative impacts of globalization and respond to the following prompt.

In what ways has globalization had a negative impact on the Ladakh community? You should have about
six points, each a sentence or two.

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Possible Response:

In what ways has globalization had a negative impact on the Ladakh community? You should have
about six points, each a sentence or two.

1. Economic Shifts: Globalization led to a shift from self-reliance to dependence on the global
economy, undermining local food production and traditional livelihoods.
2. Social Disruption: The introduction of new economic elements created competition for jobs,
exacerbating ethnic and religious tensions and leading to conflict where there was harmony.
3. Cultural Erosion: Westernized education and media exposure led to a devaluation of
traditional Ladakhi culture and lifestyle.
4. Psychological Impact: The changes brought by globalization caused a loss of identity and
confidence among the Ladakhi people.
5. Environmental Degradation: Global economic influence promotes practices like
deforestation, which adversely affects the local environment.
6. Political Disempowerment: Decision-making shifted from local communities to centralized
authorities, reducing local involvement in important decisions.

Guiding Questions for the Reading

1. Describe all of the ways in which our world has become interdependent.
2. What have been the positive impacts of this interdependence, and what are the challenges?

Teacher only box

The following are some of the possible answers students may have come up with:

1. Describe all of the ways in which our world has become interdependent.

- The global economy is characterized by the extensive flow of goods, services, and money across
borders, leading to the integration of national economies. This includes the trade of various
commodities, such as manufactured items, food, energy resources, and different currencies.

- The development and widespread use of technologies like the internet, planes, mobile phones,
shipping containers, and satellites have significantly reduced barriers and accelerated global
interconnectedness.

- The expansion of international organizations and the importance of multilateralism in global

governance illustrate political interdependence. States increasingly rely on these organizations to
address global challenges like climate change, terrorism, and nuclear proliferation.

- Information and ideas spread across borders through social media and other forms of communication,
creating a global community with shared values and interests. This leads to transnational social
movements and advocacy networks.

- The flow of labour, tourists, migrants, and refugees shows a human aspect of interdependence,
contributing to cultural and social interconnectedness.

- Issues like climate change, pandemic diseases, and financial recessions highlight the interconnected
nature of our world as they transcend national borders and have global impacts.

-The exchange of media and data, including the spread of viruses (both computer and biological),
showcases our interconnected digital world.

- States competing for power and influence in international relations shape interdependence. This
includes the impact of trade agreements, foreign policies, and regional conflicts.

2. What have been the positive impacts of this interdependence, and what are the challenges?

Positive Impacts of Interdependence:

Similar to many of the ideas listed in the first question, interdependence has allowed for:

- The integration of national economies into a global economy, creating opportunities for economic
growth and development. This includes the expansive movement of goods, services, and money across
borders.

-The expansion of international organizations and the growing importance of multilateralism in global
governance are key aspects. This has led to collaborative efforts to address global challenges such as
climate change, terrorism, and nuclear proliferation.

-The spread of ideas and information across borders has fostered a global community with shared
values and interests. This has given rise to transnational social movements and advocacy networks
promoting human rights and environmental sustainability.

Challenges of Interdependence:

- Interdependence has increased states' vulnerability to global economic shocks and crises. The
powerful and wealthy can take advantage of those with less leverage in the marketplace, leading to
greater disparity. Similarly, the unequal distribution of power and resources in global politics can create
imbalanced relationships in which powerful actors dominate weaker ones.

- The introduction of imported goods and international competition can lead to job losses and
challenges for smaller businesses.

-The spread of dominant cultures and ideologies, often Western, can marginalize non-Western ideas
and values, leading to conflicts between global trends and local identities.

- Interdependence can lead to competition and conflict between states with different interests. The
resurgence of nationalism, as seen in events like Russia's invasion of Ukraine, poses significant
challenges to global order.

- Economic priorities can sometimes overshadow environmental sustainability, leading to degradation

and pressure on weaker states to limit environmental oversight.

- Advanced technologies and the interconnectedness they facilitate can be exploited for illicit activities,
including terrorism and cyber warfare.

-The growing power of multinational corporations raises issues of regulatory oversight and ethical
responsibility. The exploitation of labour and resources in weaker countries is a significant concern.

- Dependence on a limited range of exports can make countries vulnerable to economic instability.
Applying Your Knowledge / Global Politics in Action / Checking for Understanding

Introduction to International Organizations

This section is a brief introduction to some of the intergovernmental actors in global governance (IGOs). We
will primarily focus on collective security, strategic alliances, and political and economic cooperation. The
rationale for any act of cooperation or alliance usually has a long history and various elements. While we
can't touch on all of these reasons for the formation of the many international alliances and acts of
cooperation, we can briefly introduce them so that you can build on this knowledge and understanding later
in the course.

At this point, we will not explore nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), violent actors or corporations but
will touch on all of them as part of the thematic studies later in the course. As with all of the material in
this unit on Understanding Power and Global Politics, this section is only meant to be introductory; you can
build on your knowledge and understanding of these organizations and alliances in the thematic units.

Click on this link. Which of these international global organizations are you most familiar with? Least
familiar with?

International Cooperation

In a world where countries depend on each other, problems can't be solved by one country alone.
International organizations bring countries together, helping them to cooperate and make decisions that are
good for everyone. They make sure that smaller countries have a voice and that bigger countries work
together with others. They also help to share information, resources, and expertise across borders. When
there's a disaster, like an earthquake or a famine, international organizations help by providing aid and
support to the affected countries.

For example, when there's a global health crisis, countries need to share information about the disease, work
together to find a cure or vaccine, and make sure that all countries, not just the rich ones, get help.
International organizations make this cooperation possible.

These alliances and organizations represent a diverse range of partnerships and cooperations,
encompassing military alliances, economic and political unions, regional cooperatives, and more. Each
contributes to global stability, economic development, and political collaboration.

Organizations like the United Nations (UN), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the World Trade
Organization (WTO) play a huge role in bringing countries together to talk, make decisions, and solve
problems that affect lots of countries or even the whole world. International organizations provide a platform
where countries can discuss and find solutions to global issues. For example, the UN holds meetings about
climate change where countries agree on actions to reduce carbon emissions.

These organizations set up rules and guidelines that countries agree to follow. This helps in making things
fair and predictable. For example, the WTO creates rules for international trade to ensure that all countries
have a fair chance to trade their goods. Some international organizations, like the UN, work to keep peace
between countries. They can send peacekeepers to places where there's conflict to help prevent wars.
Organizations like the WHO look after global health issues. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the WHO
played a big role in coordinating efforts to control the virus and distribute vaccines.

As our world becomes more interdependent, the role of international organizations becomes more crucial.
They help manage the connections between countries, solve global problems, and make sure that all
countries can work together for a better world.

The Three Elements of International Organizations

International organizations (IOs) are key actors in global politics. They are established by international law as
independent entities, legally distinct from the states that compose them. This means they have legal rights
and obligations.
International organizations also work as forums. One of the values of IOs is that they act as meeting places
where states discuss issues that interest them or concern them. It is the states themselves that discuss
these issues.

IOs are also political resources that states use to pursue their domestic and international goals.
Governments use the decisions and statements of international organizations as a means to advance their
ideals and interests. States also debate what international organizations should do and what these actions
may mean for global politics.

These three aspects co-exist and are in tension with one another, but they must be considered together. To
see IOs as only one of these three elements would lead to a partial view of their nature and power.

Military Alliances

Military organizations play a central role in shaping global security dynamics and maintaining international
order. These organizations, encompassing various forms of alliances, coalitions, and defence agreements,
are established by states to collectively address security challenges, deter aggression, and promote peace
and stability. Ranging from regional defence groups to extensive multinational alliances, military
organizations often reflect the geopolitical interests and strategic priorities of their member states. They often
operate under the principles of mutual defence, shared intelligence, joint training exercises, and, in some
cases, coordinated military interventions. The existence and actions of these organizations significantly
influence global diplomatic relations, security policies, and the balance of power among nations. Their impact
extends beyond mere defence postures, affecting socio-political and economic landscapes across the world.

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization

The most seminal and well-known military alliance is the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Read
the information in this CFR Backgrounder on NATO and answer the guiding questions below.

Guiding Questions

1. What are the origins of NATO?

2. Read the "Beyond Collective Defense" and "An Alliance for a New Era" sections and explain the
way in which NATO has changed and is changing.

Teacher only box

Possible responses:

1. What are NATO's origins? Established in 1949, NATO was created to counter Soviet aggression,
focusing on the collective defence of member states. It represented a significant security alliance
during the Cold War.
2. Read the "Beyond Collective Defense" and "An Alliance for a New Era" sections and explain the
way in which NATO has changed and is changing. NATO's evolution reflects its shift from a
traditional collective defence role to addressing broader security challenges. This includes crisis
management and cooperative security. NATO has expanded its scope to include cybersecurity,
hybrid warfare, and the impact of emerging technologies. Furthermore, NATO's strategic concept
is evolving to respond to new threats and changing geopolitical dynamics, signifying a significant
shift in its focus and operational priorities.
 If you have a subscription to Foreign Policy, you may find this article on NATO's revival valuable to
review with your students after exploring the NATO CFR Backgrounder. Here are some guiding
questions you might consider using with your class.

1. What factors contributed to NATO's recent resurgence and increased unity?

2. How has Russia's invasion of Ukraine affected NATO's strategic focus and member states'
defence spending?
3. How has China's rise influenced NATO's strategic outlook and partnerships in the Indo-Pacific
region?
4. How are new technologies and economic dependencies shaping NATO's agenda, particularly
regarding cyberdefense and resilience of critical infrastructure?
5. How did the transition from the Trump to the Biden administration in the U.S. affect trans-Atlantic
relations and NATO's coherence?
6. How does NATO's success and endurance compare to other military alliances, such as SEATO?
7. What are the possible future scenarios for NATO, such as a Europe-only NATO, a global NATO,
or a fragmented NATO, and what factors might lead to these outcomes?

Inquiring into Military Alliances

Below is a selection of military-related alliances besides NATO. Choose two you are interested in and
research a recent political issue they have been involved in.

Briefly describe the issue.

Explain the way in which the organization was involved.
Assess their effectiveness within the context of the issue.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) --- For your information only, choose from one of the other ten
options.

Established: 1949
Purpose: Collective defence, initially against the Soviet Union during the Cold War and now focusing
on broader international security challenges.
Notable Members: United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, and
several other European countries.

Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)

Established: 1992
Purpose: Military alliance for mutual defence and security among several former Soviet states.
Members: Russia, Belarus, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.

Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)

Established: 2001
Purpose: Initially focused on regional security and combating extremism, it has now expanded to
include political, economic, and cultural cooperation.
Members: China, Russia, India, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, with
several observer states and dialogue partners.

European Union (EU) Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP)

Established: 1999 (as a part of the EU)

Purpose: Enable the EU to take a leading role in peacekeeping operations, conflict prevention, and
strengthening international security.
Members: 27 European Union member states.
Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA)

Established: 1971
Purpose: A series of defence relationships established by a series of bilateral agreements between
the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia, and Singapore.
Members: United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia, and Singapore.

African Union Peace and Security Council (PSC)

Established: 2004
Purpose: Framework for the prevention, management, and resolution of conflicts in Africa.
Members: Representatives from 15 African Union member states.

Arab League Joint Defence and Economic Cooperation Treaty

Established: 1950
Purpose: Coordinates military defence measures among Arab League member states.
Members: Member states of the Arab League.

Nordic Defence Cooperation (NORDEFCO)

Established: 2009
Purpose: Promote defence cooperation among the Nordic countries.
Members: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden.

Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty)

Established: 1947
Purpose: System of mutual defence among American states.
Members: Most countries in the Americas, though some have withdrawn or denounced the treaty in
recent years.

ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF)

Established: 1994
Purpose: Facilitates regional peace and security in Asia and the Pacific.
Members: 27 participants, including ASEAN member states, dialogue partners, and other key regional
actors.

NORAD (North American Aerospace Defense Command)

Established: 1958
Purpose: NORAD is a bi-national military command responsible for the aerospace defence of the
United States and Canada. Its primary mission is to detect, validate, and warn of any aerial threats to
North America and to maintain sovereignty of the airspace. NORAD also provides a maritime
warning for the defence of North America.
Members: NORAD is a joint command of the United States and Canada. It integrates the capabilities
and resources of both nations, allowing for a unified response to potential aerospace and maritime
threats.

Economic and Political Cooperation

Economic and political cooperation in global politics involves collaborative efforts among countries to
organize themselves and improve their political cooperation to make relations between countries operate
more smoothly and efficiently. Much of this cooperation aims to improve economic relations, enhance trade,
and promote collective prosperity. This cooperation is often realized through various agreements and
organizations designed to facilitate the flow of goods, services, and investments across borders.

Similar to the previous section, we are going to start this discussion by taking a closer look at two of the most
seminal and well-known economic cooperation organizations --- the World Trade Organization (WTO) and
the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Click on the headings, read CFR Backgrounders, and answer the
guiding questions.
The World Trade Organization (WTO)

Guiding Questions

1. What are the origins of the WTO?

2. In what ways does the WTO seem crucial to global governance?
3. What type of trade does the WTO promote?
4. How does the WTO deal with trade conflicts?
5. Why is the WTO appeals system on "life support"?
6. Thoroughly summarize the key criticisms of the WTO.
7. What alternatives to the WTO have countries increasingly engaged in?

Teacher only box

Possible answers:

1. What are the origins of the WTO? Established in 1995 as a successor to GATT, it was formed to
create a more structured and formal approach to trade regulation and dispute resolution.
2. In what ways does the WTO seem crucial to global governance? Plays a crucial role in
facilitating international trade, setting legal ground rules, and ensuring that trade flows as
smoothly, predictably, and freely as possible.
3. What type of trade does the WTO promote? Promotes free trade, focusing on reducing tariffs,
eliminating trade barriers, and facilitating open and fair competition.
4. How does the WTO deal with trade conflicts? Utilizes a comprehensive dispute settlement
system where member countries can bring grievances and seek resolutions.
5. Why is the WTO appeals system on "life support"? Struggles due to political disagreements
among major members lead to a dysfunctional Appellate Body, which is crucial for resolving
trade disputes.
6. Thoroughly summarize the key criticisms of the WTO. The WTO faces criticisms for perceived
inefficiencies and a lack of transparency in its operations. Critics argue that it disproportionately
benefits wealthier nations and large corporations, while smaller countries and marginalized
groups are often left at a disadvantage. Additionally, there are concerns about the WTO's ability
to address modern challenges such as digital trade, environmental issues, and labour rights.
7. What alternatives to the WTO have countries increasingly engaged in? In response to the WTO's
limitations, countries are increasingly exploring bilateral and regional trade agreements. These
alternatives offer more flexibility and can be tailored to specific regional needs and priorities.
However, such agreements can also create complex webs of rules and potentially undermine the
global trade system regulated by the WTO.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Guiding Questions

1. Explain the role of the IMF in global politics.

 2. Which areas of the IMF do critics argue are in need of reform?
3. What have been the key criticisms of the IMF?

Teacher only box

Possible answers:

1. Explain the role of the IMF in global politics. The International Monetary Fund primarily focuses
on fostering global monetary cooperation, securing financial stability, facilitating international
trade, promoting high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reducing poverty.
2. Which areas of the IMF do critics argue need reform? Critics suggest reforms in the IMF's
governance structure, including greater representation for emerging and developing economies.
Additionally, the stringent austerity measures and structural adjustments tied to IMF loans are
seen as needing reevaluation to be more sensitive to the social and economic impacts on
borrowing countries.
3. What have been the key criticisms of the IMF? Criticisms focus on its approach to economic
stabilization in crisis-hit countries, often involving harsh austerity measures that can lead to
increased poverty and inequality. There's also concern about the IMF's influence over the
economic policies of sovereign states, which sometimes lead to social unrest.

Watch the following video and answer the prompt below:

Guiding Prompt

How has increasing global interdependence impacted the avocado trade in:

Mexico
 the USA

China

Teacher only box

Possible Response:

Mexico:

NAFTA significantly boosted Mexican avocado exports to the U.S., more than doubling from
2000 to 2015.
80% of Mexico's avocado exports go to the U.S., creating a strong dependency on this market.
Strikes over low wages and environmental issues like illegal deforestation and high water usage
have arisen due to increased avocado production.
Drug cartels have entered the avocado market, seeking profits from its high value.

USA:

American avocado consumption has increased over one thousand percent in the last four
decades, partly due to NAFTA.
Reliance on Mexican avocados means that events like worker strikes in Mexico and droughts in
California can cause significant price fluctuations in the U.S.
Political uncertainty regarding NAFTA, especially during the Trump administration, has raised
concerns about future avocado prices and availability.

China:

Chinese demand for Mexican avocados has grown rapidly, with imports increasing from $4,000
in 2010 to $24 million in 2015.
Mexican producers are diversifying their markets by focusing on China, reducing their
dependency on the U.S.
This trend shows the global spread of avocado consumption and its impact on international trade
dynamics.

Inquiring into International Organizations

Inquiring into International Economic and Political Cooperation

Current economic and political alliances, forums and agreements play a vital role in shaping global
cooperation and trade and economic policies. Below is a list of some of the more notable examples of
economic and political cooperation.

Choose two of the regional organizations/alliances listed below (besides the EU) research:

The number and names of all of the states involved

Purpose (beyond the brief description below)
Impact and efficacy
Criticisms of the organization or alliance
 A recent global political issue(s) the organization was involved in

Your research will be shared with your group members following a brief oral presentation on both of your
regional organizations.

Several of the organizations have Council on Foreign Relations Backgrounders, which may be a good place
to start your research.

European Union (EU) --- For your information only, choose from one of the other ten options.

Established in 1993 (Maastricht Treaty), with origins in the 1950s.

Purpose: Economic and political union among European countries, promoting economic integration,
including a single market and a common currency (Euro) among most members.
Members: 27 European countries.
For more information on how the European Union operates, please see this CFR Backgrounder.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), replaced by the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement
(USMCA)

Established: USMCA in 2020, replacing NAFTA of 1994.

Purpose: Facilitate free trade and economic integration between the United States, Mexico, and
Canada.

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

Established: 1967
Purpose: Promote economic growth, cultural development, and regional stability among member
states in Southeast Asia.
Members: 10 Southeast Asian countries.

African Union (AU)

Established: 2001
Purpose: Economic and political integration among African states.
Members: 55 member states from Africa.

Mercosur (Southern Common Market)

Established: 1991
Purpose: Promote free trade and fluid movement of goods, people, and currency.
Members: Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela (suspended).

Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)

Established: 1994
Purpose: Promote economic integration through trade and investment.
Members: 21 African member states.

Caribbean Community (CARICOM)

Established: 1973
Purpose: Promote economic integration and cooperation among Caribbean nations.
Members: 15 Caribbean nations and dependencies.

Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU)

Established: 2015
Purpose: Economic integration, including a single market for goods, services, labour, and capital.
Members: Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Armenia, and Kyrgyzstan.
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)

Established: 1981
Purpose: Economic and political alliance among Arab states of the Persian Gulf.
Members: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.

Group of Twenty (G20)

Purpose: Forum for governments and central bank governors from 19 countries and the European
Union to discuss and promote international financial stability.
Members: Major advanced and emerging economies, including the United States, China, Japan,
Germany, India, and others.

Group of Seven (G7)

Purpose: Forum of the world's seven largest advanced economies - Canada, France, Germany, Italy,
Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States - to discuss economic policies, security, and
energy policy.
Members: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

World Economic Forum (WEF)

Purpose: International NGO committed to improving the state of the world by engaging business,
political, academic, and other leaders to shape global, regional, and industry agendas.
Membership: Comprises global business leaders, political leaders, intellectuals, and journalists.

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

Purpose: Promote free trade and economic cooperation throughout the Asia-Pacific region.
Members: 21 Pacific Rim member economies, including the United States, China, Japan, South
Korea, Indonesia, and Australia.

Organization of American States (OAS)

Purpose: Regional forum for cooperation and dialogue in the Americas.

Members: 35 independent states of the Americas.

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)

Purpose: International organization that works to build better policies for better lives, focusing on
democracy and the market economy.
Members: 38 member countries, primarily from North America and Europe, but also including
countries from South America and the Asia-Pacific region.

Commonwealth of Nations

Purpose: Political association of mostly former territories of the British Empire, focusing on
development, democracy, and peace.
Members: 54 member states, mostly former territories of the British Empire.

BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa)

Purpose: Association of five major emerging national economies for political consultation and
economic collaboration.
Members: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

 Purpose: OPEC's primary aim is to coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its member
countries and ensure the stabilization of oil markets. This is to secure an efficient, economical, and
regular supply of petroleum to consumers, a steady income to producers, and a fair return on capital
for those investing in the petroleum industry.
Members: The organization is comprised of 13 member countries, primarily from the Middle East,
Africa, and South America. Key members include Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, the United Arab
Emirates, and Venezuela.

Teacher only box

Name: European Union or EU

Number of States: 27

Purpose: It has given EU states greater influence worldwide than they would have otherwise.

Impact:

Unique because it includes both intergovernmental and supranational features – pooled

sovereignty is a key feature.
The most advanced example of regional integration in the world
Accounts for 23% of the world’s GDP and produces 25% of the world’s merchandise.
Brought peace and political stability to the continent

Criticisms:

Divisions among states on issues have sometimes paralyzed the EU

National, language, and cultural differences may make it impossible for EU bodies to establish
genuine political allegiances.
Migration from countries outside of the EU has proved to be divisive.

A Recent Issue(s):

A recent global political issue the European Union was involved in during 2023 is the ongoing war in
Ukraine and the Israel-Hamas conflict. The war in Ukraine, which entered its second year, continued to
be a significant concern for the EU, particularly in terms of managing its impact on the region's stability
and security. Additionally, the Israel-Hamas war brought fresh instability to the Middle East and
exacerbated divisions between EU countries. These conflicts presented major challenges for the EU,
including dealing with the cost-of-living crisis, the impact of migration, and broader geopolitical
concerns.

Global Politics in Action: The Belt and Road Initiative

Watch the two videos related to China's Belt and Road Initiative and answer the question below.
Guiding Question:

In what ways is China's Belt and Road Initiative a reflection of our world's increasing
interconnectedness?