Theme 2

Transatlantic slave trade

Methods of Obtaining Slaves

* Raids:

* Most common method.

* Villages were set on fire at night, and residents were rounded up.

* Allowed for a large number of slaves to be acquired quickly.

* Prisoners of War:

* African chiefs bartered prisoners captured during wars with rival groups.

* Eliminated insecurity from potential escapees providing vital information.

* Criminals were also disposed of this way, saving communities incarceration costs.

* Debtors were sold in lieu of repayment.

* African chiefs were unaware of the dehumanizing nature of West Indian slavery compared to their own system.

* Kidnapping:

* Rare, but occurred.

* West Africans who strayed from villages or were out late at night were at risk.

* Some kidnappings were motivated by jealousy or rivalry (e.g., love triangles, political competition).

The Journey to the Coast

* Captives were fastened in pairs with leg chains, then secured in groups of fours with ropes.

* Y-shaped sticks (yokes) were often used, fastened around necks.

* Coffles (groups of slaves) were heavily guarded by armed men.

* The journey was long and miserable, potentially lasting up to three months.

* Slaves carried their own small provisions in sweltering heat, while chained.

* They were allowed to stop and rest at night, as night travel was more dangerous.

* In the morning, a quick inspection was done; the weak and sick were left behind to die.
At the Coast

* Weary slaves were received by a factor or agent at a fort.

* The agent's job was to inspect and record the number of slaves received.

* Four European nations controlled forts: Dutch, French, English, and Portuguese.

* The Portuguese were the first to trade slaves to the Caribbean (1515).

* Slaves were divided into two groups:

* Accepted: Deemed fit for the journey to the West Indies.

* Rejected (Mackrons): Too sick, weak, or old to make the journey.

* Accepted slaves were branded with a hot iron, usually on the breast, for identification.

* Branding also prevented mixing accepted and rejected slaves.

* Slaves were housed in barracoons (small huts) and constantly watched by guards.

* The agent collected consumer goods (pots, pans, mirrors) from the ship to exchange for more slaves.

* Slave ships were prepared with box-like shelves (150 cm long, 50 cm wide) stacked in the hull.

* Slaves were examined by the ship's surgeon before embarking.

* Slaves were packed onto shelves, chained by their ankles and to the person next to them.

* Men were placed at the back, women and younger ones in the fore section.

* Supplies collected for the ship included:

* Water and food (yam, rice, fruits to prevent scurvy).

* Equipment (feeding bowls).

* Instruments (chisels, whips).

* Weapons (guns, knives).

The Middle Passage

* The journey from West Africa to the Caribbean.

* Called the "Middle Passage" as it was the second leg of a three-part journey.

* Lasted six to twelve weeks, depending on factors like raids, natural disasters, or stops for supplies.
* Conditions on board:

* Slaves were chained for most of the journey, crammed into spaces sometimes less than five feet high.

* 250-300 Africans were often packed into cargo holds.

* Tight packing: Packed as many slaves as possible, expecting some deaths but ensuring a large number survived.

* Loose packing: Fewer slaves loaded, more space, higher survival rate.

* Some captains allowed slaves on deck once a week for exercise (jumping), but some jumped overboard to their death,
believing their souls would return to Africa.

* Captains kept slaves chained on deck to prevent escapes; crew members sometimes whipped them to force exercise.

* Slaves were fed once or twice a day with mixtures of rice, cornmeal, yam, cassava, or plantains and water.

* Food supplies could be inadequate for both crew and slaves.

* Slaves who refused to eat as a protest had their teeth knocked out with chisels and food forced down their throats.

* Slaves performed bodily functions where they lay, leading to horrible stench and sores.

* Crew members periodically washed below deck with a water and vinegar mixture.

* Slaves suffered temporary blindness when brought on deck due to prolonged darkness below.

* Female slaves were often raped by crewmen.

* Deceased slaves were not removed until feeding time; their bodies were thrown overboard.

* Both crew and slaves were at risk of catching diseases from each other (dysentery, smallpox, flux, yaws, measles). The
Middle Passage was termed the "nursery of seamen" due to high mortality rates among them too.

Refreshment Period

* Slaves were often landed on small Eastern Caribbean islands to "refresh" and improve their condition after the Middle
Passage.

* This involved feeding them fresh fruits and other foods to improve skin, increase weight, and gain strength.

* "Doctoring" techniques were used to hide scars (e.g., rubbing gunpowder into wounds), shaving, and oiling them to
make muscles glisten.

Sale of Slaves

* Two main methods:

* Auction: Slaves were paraded and inspected like animals, with the auctioneer handling bids.
 * Scramble: At the sound of a gun, planters/buyers rushed onto the ship's deck and grabbed as many slaves as they
wished, then haggled and bargained for prices while the slaves looked on in bewilderment.

Effects of the Slave Trade on West Africa

* Reduction in population:

* Estimates suggest 10-15 million slaves were forcibly taken, leading to an artificial annual decline in population.

* Families separated: Parents and children were crudely snatched from each other.

* Homes destroyed: Villages were literally burned during raids.

* Economic decline:

* Young, strong people (the labor force backbone) were taken, leading to decreased production.

* Local production and crafts (pottery, brass work) decreased as skilled persons were taken and European consumer
goods became preferred.

* Increased distrust: Among neighbors and even friends.

* Increased conflict: Guns and ammunition traded for slaves provided means for some groups to raid others.

* Enrichment of some African chiefs:

* Some chiefs became wealthy and used profits to expand their kingdoms (e.g., Benin).

* New trade routes: Opened up in the interior of West Africa.

* Employment for locals: Sadly, some found jobs as cohorts with white slave raiders or supplied traders with food.

* Taxation: Some chiefs charged taxes for coffles to pass through their areas, using the money for territorial
development.

* Shift in priorities for some chiefs: Concentrated on the slave trade and its profits rather than their political duties.

Coffee production
* Colonies where coffee was grown as an export crop during slavery: Jamaica, Dominica, Grenada, St. Lucia.

* Land Preparation (by slaves):

* Forests/trees were burnt and cut.

* Land was prepared on steep hillsides.

 * Fields were marked out in even rows with equal distances.

* Land was leveled with terraces for ease of work and to prevent soil erosion.

* Intercropping and Protection:

* Field slaves planted ground provisions (e.g., cassava) between young coffee trees for quick income.

* Trees were planted on most estates to protect coffee plants from strong winds.

* Maintenance:

* Constant weeding of the fields was performed.

* Reaping (Harvesting):

* Typically from late August to early September.

* Slaves went to the fields at dawn to pick berries.

* Picking continued until midday, followed by a lunch break.

* Picking resumed after lunch until sunset or it was too dark to see.

* A "Negro slave driver" checked each slave's basket; those with incomplete baskets were lashed.

* Processing (by slaves):

* Another group of slaves passed berries through a pumping/pulping mill to remove the skin.

* The "naked" berries were washed in cisterns.

* Slaves ensured cisterns had enough water for washing.

* Washed berries were spread on a platform or glacis to dry in the drying house.

* Old and sick slaves and children cleaned the coffee, picking out spoiled berries and storing good ones in a granary.

* Packaging and Export (by slaves):

* Another group of slaves packed the good beans for export onto carts.

* Slaves drove the carts to the port.

* Beans were stacked onto waiting ships.

Cocoa production
* Main Production Colonies: Jamaica, St. Domingue (Haiti), Cuba, Trinidad, Martinique, and Grenada.

* Land Preparation and Planting (by slaves):

* Slaves cleared the land.

* They planted cocoa cuttings directly.

* Alternatively, seedlings grown in nurseries were transplanted once they reached a certain height.

* Slaves planted cash crops around cocoa plants to increase humidity and provide shade.

* Growth and Maturation:

* Cocoa trees took about five years to reach maturity.

* The best harvest was achieved after eight years.

* Cocoa pods took about five and a half months to mature.

* Harvesting Seasons:

* There were two harvesting seasons due to the pod maturation period.

* Maintenance:

* Slaves constantly weeded the fields.

* Harvesting Process (by slaves):

* First Gang: Typically older or stronger slaves, armed with machetes.

* They swiftly cut pods from the trees and dropped them into baskets.

* They had to cover a wide area.

* Second Gang:

* Used machetes to split the pods open.

* Removed the pulpy fruit inside.

* Processing (by slaves):

* The pulpy fruit was put to dry and ferment in the sun for about five to seven days.

* The pulp drained away, leaving only the beans.

* In Grenada, slaves danced on the beans to give them a polished look, which made them more attractive to buyers.
 * The beans were then packed for export.

Layout of the Plantation

Land Usage:

* Agriculture:

* Canefields: Most of the land was dedicated to sugar cane cultivation. Some unsuitable land was used for other crops
like coffee (in Jamaica).

* Provision Grounds: Small, individual plots allotted to field slaves to grow cash crops (plantains, yams, cassava,
vegetables) for their daily meals.

* Woodland: Provided fuel for the boiling house, cooking, and other domestic purposes. Lumber was used by skilled
slaves (carpenters) for repairs and construction (fences, gutters, sheds).

* Grazing Land: A small portion set aside for estate animals, providing manure and supplementing the planter's
imported food supply (e.g., chickens for eggs/meat, cows for milk, pigs for Christmas slaughter).

Buildings:

* Factory:

* Crucial for efficient sugar manufacturing, housing expensive equipment.

* Consisted of five buildings:

* Mill

* Boiling House

* Trash House

* Curing House

* Distillery

* Workshops:

* Designated work area for artisans.

* Kept tools and unfinished work (e.g., coopers assembling hogsheads, carpenters making/repairing troughs).

* Hospitals/Goal:

* Makeshift hospital for the sick, infirm, convalescing, and new/soon-to-deliver mothers.
 * Shabbily built and sparsely furnished.

* Also used to confine enslaved people as punishment.

Living Quarters:

* Great House:

* Largest house on the plantation, belonging to the owner.

* Built for privacy, comfort, and relaxation, with several rooms and a large verandah.

* Furnished with imported items to reflect the owner's style, taste, and opulence.

* Location: Usually on a hill or elevated area, indicating the owner's high status in the plantation hierarchy. Located
away from the noise and heat of the plantation and distant from slave huts.

* Used for dining, entertaining guests, lavish balls, and parties.

* Overseer's House:

* Second largest house on the plantation.

* Served as the overseer's living quarters and office.

* Keep important records and documents.

* Sometimes stored medicine and clothing rations for distribution.

* Slave Huts:

* Mostly built by slaves themselves from thatch (roof) and wattle and daub (walls).

* Each hut was a one-room structure with one window and one door.

* Intended for sleeping only, as slaves were considered property.

* Located near the canefields for easy and quick transfer of slaves to their work area.

The Use of Labour

White Employees:

* Occupied managerial and supervisory positions.

* Overseer/Manager: Highest in rank. Responsible for overall supervision, ensuring materials, equipment, and necessities
were on the plantation (e.g., ordering slaves and horses, flour, saltfish; ensuring mills worked; adequate machetes and
hoes).
* Other White Employees: Clerks, bookkeepers, etc. Keep accurate records of estate assets, equipment (e.g., hogsheads
made, carts in stock). They received wages.

The Slaves:

* Undisputedly the largest percentage of the labor force.

* Did not receive wages.

* Types of Slaves: African slaves and Creole slaves.

* Work Divisions (three main groups):

* 1. Domestic Slaves:

* Considered the "crème de la crème" due to working in the Great House.

* Received favors and rewards (e.g., "hand-me-down" clothes, leftover food).

* Perceived as "privileged" by some other slaves.

* Comparatively lighter physical workload than field slaves, but more demanding as they had to respond to the
owner's every whim.

* Daily conditions depended on the master's temperament (some were spiteful, inhumane).

* No scheduled work times; could work from before dawn through the night for functions.

* Included: washerwomen, butlers, cooks, nursemaids, coachmen.

* 2. Artisans/Skilled Slaves:

* Most valuable slaves due to their role in converting cane to raw muscovado sugar.

* Worked in workshops and the factory.

* 3. Field/Praedial Slaves:

* Largest portion of the slave population.

* Performed the most strenuous work in the fields.

* Worked in three main seasons: planting, maintenance, and reaping/harvest.

* Further divided into three gangs, each supervised by a slave driver (a fellow slave with authority, expected to use a
whip).

* First Gang: Strong and healthy slaves (male and female). Responsible for cane planting (including land
preparation) and, at harvest, quickly cutting and tying canes in bundles.
 * Second Gang: Young boys and girls (approx. 10-12 years old), pregnant, and convalescing slaves. Performed lighter
work like weeding and harrowing.

* Third Gang ("pickney" gang): Children of six or seven years old, supervised by the elderly. Carried out tasks like
weeding gardens, carrying sticks for fire, collecting yam peels for animal feed, and other light work suitable for their
age, size, and strength.

* Newly arrived Africans ("guinea birds") were assigned to a Creole slave for training and language instruction, part
of the "seasoning period."

Here's a breakdown of the manufacturing process on a typical 18th-century sugar estate or plantation, based on the
provided text, in bullet points:

Manufacturing Process on a Typical 18th Century Sugar Estate or Plantation

Planting Time

* Field slaves began working shortly after roll call at dawn.

* Any extra grass or shrub was burnt.

* Enslaved people used machetes to dig cane holes.

* Cane tops were placed at the bottom of each hole and covered with dirt.

* Cane plants took about 15 months to mature; ratoons took approximately 12 months.

* Slaves worked until 8 or 9 AM for a breakfast prepared by elderly female slaves (consisting mainly of starch).

* Mid-day meal (second and last meal) allowed about two hours, prepared by the slaves themselves, to allow time for
working on their provision grounds or resting.

Harvest Time

* Field slaves, armed with machetes, cut ripe canes into specific lengths called "fraggotts" for rhythm and efficiency.

* Some sang digging songs, which planters/overseers allowed as it helped concentration and made the work seem
easier/heat more bearable; it also allowed slaves to reminisce.

* Vigilant watchmen looked out for "pilferers" (slaves who stole cane joints for sale).

* Slaves placed cut canes in bundles tied with cane wisps and loaded them onto waiting carts called "wains."

The Mill

* Three common types of mills: wind, water, and animal mills.

* Most estates aimed for two functioning mills for efficiency, despite the expense.

* Animal Mill:

* Usually a "back-up" mill.

* Slower than wind or water mills but more reliable as it didn't depend on weather.

* More expensive due to animal food and replacement costs.

* Windmill:

* Most common in Leeward Islands colonies.

* Water Mill:

* Used in colonies with abundant rivers or streams, such as Jamaica and British Guiana.

At the Mill

* Slaves passed fraggotts by hand through three rotating iron rollers to extract juice.

* Only 50-60% of the juice was extracted due to time constraints.

* Juice flowed from the mill through a wooden trough or gutter into the boiling house.

* An artisan slave (usually a carpenter) was ready to repair the gutter if it broke.

* Another group of slaves removed "trash" (cane residue) from the juice and took it to the nearby trash house to dry for
use as fuel in the boiling house.

In the Boiling House

* Juice flowed into the first receptacle, a "syphon."

* Juice was clarified by heating it with a small quantity of lime.

* Clarified juice was ladled into successive copper boilers, each smaller and hotter than the last (usually three boilers).

* The last and hottest boiler was sometimes called a "teache."

* Boiling reduced the juice via evaporation to a thick syrup that could stretch between thumb and forefinger.

* The sticky mass was then run off into shallow wooden troughs to cool.

* Cooled syrup was put into hogsheads in the curing house.

In the Curing House

* Hogsheads spent about three weeks in the curing house.

* They were hung on wooden beams, bottom down, with holes to allow molasses to drip into accurately placed cisterns
below.

From the Estate to the Ship

* After three weeks, hogsheads were sealed and rolled onto carts (wains).

* They were then ready for the short trip to the port and onward to Europe.

* An 18th-century hogshead commonly weighed about 1,400 hundredweight (711.23 kg) upon leaving the estate.

* 10-25% of this weight was still molasses, which would drip out during the journey to Europe.

* At the port, slaves unloaded hogsheads from carts onto waiting boats called "lighters."

* Lighters transported the hogsheads to the ship.

* If the ship hadn't arrived, hogsheads were stored in a warehouse at the port.

early sugar trade

* Early Control: The Dutch initially controlled the sugar trade, acting as middlemen, providing expertise, credit, and
selling sugar in European ports.

* Shift to Imperial Control (Mercantilism):

* As the sugar industry became more profitable, imperial governments sought to control the trade by restricting
foreign involvement.

* Mercantilism: A theory that all trade should be controlled by the mother country, excluding foreigners. Colonies were
not allowed to develop their own industries, and foreign goods importation into the mother country was prohibited.

* British Navigation Acts: British laws imposed to break the Dutch monopoly, stating:

* All English trade was to be carried out using English ships.

* Foreign ships were banned from transporting goods from England or its colonies.

* Result: Sugar and rum from the British Caribbean were shipped directly to England.

* Shipping and Sale:

* Ships carrying sugar and rum were offloaded into warehouses at British slave ports (e.g., Bristol, Liverpool).

* Planters made prior arrangements with an agent to collect shipments.

 * Agents handled shipping costs (custom duties, porterage, insurance, warehousing charges).

* Agents stored hogsheads in warehouses, awaiting the best sale price (often paid on commission).

* Agents sold sugar and rum to the highest bidder, sometimes hiring a broker.

* After sales, agents paid brokers (if applicable), subtracted their commission, and typically deposited the remainder
as per arrangement with the planter.

* On return to the Caribbean, ships carried supplies for planters (food, liquor, clothes, tools, equipment, machinery),
sourced and credited by the agent to the estate.

* Risks in the Trade:

* Loss of Ship and Cargo: Due to tropical storms, pirates, running aground, or war.

* Dishonest Agents: Fraud and embezzlement causing losses to planters.

* Sudden Price Drops: Resulting from poor market conditions, low demand, and glut.

* Shipping Issues: Insufficient, unsuitable, and unreliable shipping causing delays and cargo rotting.

* Profits:

* Planters and agents became very rich from sugar and rum sales.

* In the 17th and 18th centuries, planters in Barbados, Jamaica, and St. Domingue grew extremely wealthy.

* These islands became known as the 'jewels of the empire' in Britain and France.

* Profits depended on high prices, driven by:

* Growing European population.

* High wages in Europe.

* Sugar replaced honey as the main sweetener.

* High demand and affordability, leading to high prices (e.g., 1 shilling per pound).

* Tariffs, duties, and taxes brought significant revenue to imperial countries.

* Historian Eric Williams noted that sugar profits fueled the British Industrial Revolution.

The British Way

* Profitability and Wealth:

 * Sugar crops generated enormous profits for planters.

* Barbados sugar planters were the first English colonists to experience this wealth in the mid-17th century, creating
the "sugar revolution."

* Leeward Islands planters followed, and by the early 18th century, Jamaican planters became the wealthiest.

* Some of the wealthiest planters were absentees living in England, hiring managers locally or sending them from
England to run their businesses.

* Less wealthy planters remained in the West Indies.

* Limitless European Market:

* Wealth was based on the seemingly limitless European market for Caribbean sugar.

* Sugar became a common consumption item for millions of Europeans in the 17th and 18th centuries; previously, it was
a rare and expensive commodity for the elite.

* Before widespread sugar consumption, working classes in Britain used honey as a main sweetener, while the elite
bought sugar from the Mediterranean, Middle East, and Asia.

* Portuguese large-scale production in Brazil in the late 16th century did not significantly lower prices in England due
to taxes and duties on "foreign goods."

* Expansion of Sugar Consumption in England and Wales:

* Consumption increased twenty-fold between 1663 and 1775, mostly from English Caribbean colonies.

* This expansion was driven by population growth (4.5 million to 7.5 million between 1663 and 1775), rapidly falling
sugar prices (from 1 shilling per pound to about sixpence by the late 17th century), and increasing real wages for
average British workers.

* Rising real wages led to widespread consumption of colonial goods like tea and coffee, strengthening sugar demand.

* The industrial sector (breweries, confectionery) also consumed large quantities of sugar.

* Sugar needed to reach the British retail market at competitive prices, good quality, and with reliability.

* Marketing Business and Government Involvement:

* The marketing business generated significant profits.

* Colonial and imperial governments demanded their share in the form of taxes.

* Planters, mostly living in the Caribbean, needed agents or brokers in England to handle marketing.

* Some planters trained kin as agents; absentee planters could handle it directly. Most needed formal marketing
arrangements.
* Mercantile System and Protectionism:

* European colonial powers developed similar views on commodity marketing:

* They did not want rival imperial nations to undersell their own planters.

* They aimed to maximize financial benefits by excluding other nations from marketing their goods.

* All European nations passed laws to keep rival colonial goods out of their domestic markets.

* They also tried to exclude rival European goods/services from their colonial markets.

* This system, based on "rival nationalism" (political) and "national monopoly" (economic), was called the "mercantile
system." Each nation had its version.

* The underlying theory: trade size determined national wealth, and trade size was limited, so a nation increased its
share by reducing rivals'.

* Caribbean sugar marketing was central to these laws.

* West Indian planters enjoyed preferential treatment for their sugar in England over French or Portuguese sugar.

* Planters disliked imperial government taxes and restrictions on who they could do business with, often preferring
more efficient/economical Dutch merchants over English ones.

* Planters' Grievances and Evasion:

* English sugar planters hated the 4.5% duty on exported sugar (average weight of a cast).

* Resented colonial governments collecting this duty after 1663 and even more after 1670 when it went to the imperial
government.

* Tried various "underhand methods" to avoid duty and mercantile restrictions.

* Brokers/Agents and Imperial Taxes:

* Brokers/agents were less concerned about duties as they received commissions.

* The imperial government was determined to get its share, increasing duties and taxes (e.g., 1685, 1698, 1705
additional duties).

* Total duty reached 3s. 4d per hundredweight for raw sugar and 11s. 1d for clayed/semi-refined sugar by 1705.

* Monopoly Status:

* "Foreign" sugar paying higher tariffs made "local" sugar more attractive in the British market.

* Sugar producers in Barbados, the Leeward Islands, and Jamaica enjoyed an effective monopoly of their domestic
sugar market.
 * This monopoly was maintained through the commission agency system.

* Commission Agency System:

* Some agents were based in the colonies, taking sugar on consignment for commission, easing distribution pressure.

* Most were based in London.

* Planters consigned sugar to London agents who received it, arranged warehousing, and sale.

* Agent's Roles:

* Took commission and kept the balance of sale on the planter's account, acting as a banker.

* Provided financial and commercial services: bought plantation supplies (clothes for enslaved workers, agricultural
equipment) and charged them to the planter's account.

* Provided loans and credit when accounts were overdrawn.

* Functioned as an investment broker if the planter had a large credit balance.

* Protection for Agents:

* The 1732 Credit Act allowed England-based agents to take legal action against Caribbean planters in English and
Caribbean courts to recover debts.

* This often led to seizure of the planter's estate or property.

* Commission agents were the "life-line" of sugar planters, providing specialized services from financial arrangements
to supplying grocers and refiners, allowing planters to focus on production and management of enslaved workers.

The French Way

* Similar to British System:

* In the 17th century, the French developed a legal framework for trade monopoly similar to the English.

* The 'Exclusif' (Colonial System):

* Developed by Jean Baptiste Colbert (French Minister of Colonial Affairs) in the 1660s.

* Main purpose: colonies existed to increase the mother country's wealth.

* French sugar planters could only sell to French merchants, using only French ships, operating only from French
ports.

* Colbert aimed to exclude Dutch merchants from wealth generated in French colonies.

* Planters' Dislike and Appeasement:

 * French sugar producers disliked this system of control and restriction.

* Colbert, following the English, appeased planters by offering a guaranteed market in France.

* From 1655, raw sugar from rival imperial nations was heavily taxed in France to give preferential arrangements to
planters in Martinique, St. Domingue, and Guadeloupe.

* The 'exclusif' remained largely intact until 1861 when trade was liberalized.

* Marketing Choices for French Planters:

* Typical planters aimed to sell a million pounds or 250 barrels of sugar annually to a guaranteed market for profit.

* They decided whether to use a local or French agent/broker.

* Many tried to market their own sugar by being in France when shipments arrived.

* Other options:

* Selling directly to a ship's captain (common in early days, an exchange system for tools, food, garments, enslaved
workers, etc.).

* Selling to a foreigner (common but illegal, often involved smuggling, especially in outlying districts). English, Dutch,
and American merchants were keen to exchange manufactured goods and enslaved Africans for French sugar.

* Most sugar was sold legally within the French colonial system.

* Mass market development in France was slower than in England, pushing planters and merchants to seek markets
outside the 'colonial system' (much French Caribbean sugar was resold to Dutch and German agents for distribution
across Europe).

* Commission Agents (for largest planters):

* Largest planters marketed similar to English planters, consigning sugar to commission agents in France who sold to
retailers and wholesalers.

* Some preferred secure, long-standing arrangements; others chose agents yearly based on market conditions.

* French agents also acted as bankers for planters, keeping sales proceeds and making plantation purchases from
declining balances.

* Agents extended credit when accounts had negative balances.

* Debt Recovery Challenges: French agents had a much harder time recovering debts from planters (in both colonies
and France) due to colonial courts being controlled by planters or sympathetic jurists, making debt recovery almost
impossible for merchants.

* Planter Protection in French System:

 * French sugar planters protected themselves more effectively than English planters.

* Towards the end of slavery, French sugar planters were in a stronger position to defend their preferential marketing
arrangements than their English counterparts.

African Cultural Forms in the Caribbean up to 1838

Religion

Though the planters tried to stifle the indigenous religion, much cultural retention

occurred. The slaves held on to their beliefs and practices as much as and where

possible. Here are some of them:

- Life after death.

- The spirit world: duppies or ghosts.

- The forces of good and evil and the constant struggle between the two.

- That the dead are still a part of the community.

- Two types of magic. Obeah- used to inflict hurt or harm and Myalism- used to promote

life, love, health, and success. Both involved the use of herbs, oils, potions, etc.

- A lot of music and dance in their expressions of worship.

- Ancestral spirits and that one can actually make contact with them and that they are

constantly watching over us.

- Chanting of songs.

- Gods of nature- rain, thunder, lightning and fertility.

- Highest respect for Mother earth.

Food

The slaves had to prepare their own meals. They did it the way they were taught back

home in Africa. Also, the fact that they were allowed to grow their own provisions meant

that they were able to choose what to grow- example, yam, coco, dasheen, etc. They

continued their culinary skills. Trinidadian slaves had the luxury of beans and palm oils
as they would have had in Africa.

Dress

They were given either two suits of clothing per year or the equivalent yards of

osnaburg. This is a type of rough khaki also called guinea blue or Dutch stripes. The

women would wrap themselves with the cloth the way they would have in Africa to form

dresses or skirts. And of course, they did not forget their “tie head’’.

Language

The slaves came from different areas and ethnic groups in West Africa and so spoke

different languages. This forced them to create a new tongue we now know as patois or

local creole. But several African words survived such as mumu, all yuh, nyam, pickney

and jumbie.

Music and Dance

They had all sorts of songs, work or digging songs as we have learnt, love songs, songs

of sorrow, songs of joy and so on. In fact, it seems as if they had a song for every occasion just as they had a proverb to
fit every situation. Their music had a lot of rhythm

and beat. It involved the use of instruments such as: Tambourines, Banjos, Flutes,

Rattles, and Xylophones. Their dance had a lot of movement and passion, involving

gyration of the hip and pelvic areas and the shaking of the rear. This was seen as vulgar

by many of the whites, though secretly they were aroused by it, no wonder they

understood its sexual importance and described it as debauchery. Types of dance

included: Dinkie Minnie, Kumina, and Brukins.

Medicine

Traditional African Medicine is a holistic discipline involving extensive use of indigenous

herbalism combined with aspects of African spirituality. The Africans fiercely resisted the

medicinal practices of the Europeans and preferred to use their indigenous methods of
healing. The Africans used a lot of herbs and plants to treat ailments. They also

believed that not only the physical body should be free from illness but the spirit as well.

African healers not only used plants and herbs to cure ailments but also charms,

incantations, and the casting as spells. The individual should be both physically and

spiritually sound.

Storytelling

The spoken word was important to Africans who used it to transfer vital information to

the next generation. This was called oral tradition, which allowed them to keep their

history, culture, values and language are alive. Griots would sing, recite poems or act out

themes around fire. Many use imagery and analogy to teach young people life lessons,

values, morals and skills. Enslaved people continued this tradition on the plantation.

They used it to keep the people together in solidarity, rally them for a cause and inform

about events on the island. The most famous stories that have survived are the

Akan stories of Anansi the trickster spider. These stories taught important moral lessons

which were used to guide the young generation to develop acceptable habits.

Reasons it was difficult for slaves to retain their Culture

1. The opposition which they faced from the planters who instituted laws to suppress

aspects of the culture, like drumming and obeah.

2. Planters discouraged the slaves from practising their dances, which some mistakenly

described as devil worship.

3. Slaves were not encouraged to practise their tribal religions but, instead, were

sometimes baptized into the Euro-Christian churches so as to try to destroy their link

with their native religion, since they worked for most of the daylight hours.

4. During the ‘’seasoning’’ period, definite attempts were made to ‘’deculturize’’ the
slaves as they were taught the language of the master and forbidden to use their own

tribal languages.5. The planters tried to ensure that their slaves were from different ethnic groups so that

they would not unite around common customs.

6. Marriages and families were never encouraged in the British colonies.

7. In some cases, planters deliberately separated family members so as to deprive the

male of any other object of his loyalty other than the planter himself.

8. Slaves were robbed of their African names that would allow them to identify with their

African origin, and given European names.

9. The slaves’ fear of the severe punishment that could result from disobeying anti-African cultural laws and
regulations.

10. Their need for survival, which was guaranteed only by loyalty to, and cooperation

with, the whites, meant that some of them were extremely cautious about continued

participation in traditional cultural activities which planters frowned upon.

Ways in which slaves resisted planters and retained some aspects of their Culture

1. The slaves congregated late at nights and in secret which was against the law.

2. Some plantation owners used obeahmen as supplements to doctors. This was

intended to be a cost effective measure but provided the slaves with the opportunity to

pass down herbal secrets and practices of their forefathers.

3. Others used or allowed the obeahmen to continue his practice as a means of driving

fear in the slaves.

4. The slaves conducted their own funeral services and so the tradition and practices

were preserved with each successive funeral that they performed. Of course, the

planter did not attach any significance to these ceremonies so he did not attend them.

His absence gave the slaves the opportunity to do their own thing and so preserve their
heritage.

5. The slaves used their own language when communicating. This includes the

language of the drums and other musical instruments. As more slaves were bought and

brought to the estates, the languages revived.

6. They kept their dances and songs, and the planters, at times, believed that when they

danced and sang, it was a sign of their contentment, and so left them alone.

7. They held on to the rhythm of African music and revelry.

8. The slaves were given some amount of leniency at Christmas time in particular. They

managed to mix and hide their religion within the established faith. For example,

Pocomania is a mixture of the Roman Catholic faith and the African religion.

Reasons slaves were able to keep aspects of their Culture

1. Firstly, the mortality rate was very high on the estates. This meant that the planters had to

constantly buy new slaves. Though he tried to buy slaves from different areas, the reality was that most planters liked
to buy slaves from a particular area of the West

African coast because they were known for their hard work and industrial skills.

2. The slaves had a strong determination to continue to practice their culture.

3. They practiced some aspects like drumming and obeah secretly because any

evidence of these cold have dire consequences including death for the adherents.

4. The large number of slaves helped to keep the culture alive as they were able to

strengthen the will and the memory of one another, so that what some were afraid to do,

others would dare to do, and what some forgot, others would remind them of.

5. Many of the slaves who came were young, and they had a strong recollection of their

cultural practices and so, although they were robbed of the material aspects when they

were taken from Africa, they could use what was available locally to recreate what they
had lost.

6. The planters’ ignorance of the significance of some aspects of the culture caused

them to encourage or ignore some and outlaw others and so, even though the John

Canoe dance, for example, was fraught with rebellious overtones, the planters did not

understand that, and so they allowed the slaves to practice it freely.

7. They were able to pass on aspects of their culture to succeeding generations through

their strong oral tradition, which was encouraged by the quasi-communal lifestyle, which

they maintained.

8. Their obeahmen were responsible for the survival of the culture as they provided bold

leadership and defied the odds in order to maintain their practices

social relations on the plantation

Limited Social Contact between Slaves and Masters:

* Maintained distance to preserve notions of white superiority and Black inferiority.

Forced Interactions:

* Planters, Overseers, and White Employees: Interacted when issuing orders, supervising, and carrying out punishments.

* Planters and Domestic Slaves: Most day-to-day contact due to personal tasks (serving meals, assisting with baths).

* Overseer and Field/Artisan Slaves:

* Constant daily interaction at roll call, supervising ration distribution (food, clothing).

* Supervising planting, reaping, and sugar production.

* Determining if illnesses warranted medical attention; dispensing medicines.

* Masters and Field Slaves: Chiefly at holiday times (e.g., watching slave parades at Christmas, inviting slaves to
perform amusements).

Sexual Contact:

* Planters viewed slaves as property, believing they had the right to exploit them sexually.

* Society largely ignored sexual relations and mistreatment of slaves.

White Women and Slave Women:

* Much resentment and hostility due to white men's involvement with enslaved women.

* White women tried to hurt or maim enslaved women, complain about their work to get them demoted to the fields, or
give them demeaning jobs.

* Some white or colored women in towns who owned taverns and brothels also owned female slaves who served patrons
(sailors, military officers).

Slaves and Slaves:

* Planters used a "divide and conquer" strategy to keep slaves apart, fostering resentment (e.g., domestics feeling
superior).

* Limited time for social interaction due to the demands of slavery.

* Instances of Relation:

* Holidays: Christmas, Easter, "pickney Christmas" in games and festivals like Jonkonnu.

* Exchange of items: Artisans' crafts for field slaves' provisions.

* Funerals and wakes: If they could manage to have them.

* Midwives during birth.

* Obeahmen: Administering medicine or offering help.

* Field Slaves: During lunchtime or after work, telling Anansi stories.

* Nannies and Old Women: More regular interaction with children (combing hair, telling stories).

* Saturday Market: Meeting "friends" from other plantations and gossiping.

* Newly arrived slaves: Older Creole slaves caring for them provided a chance to relate without suspicion.

* Christian slaves: Deacons/leaders found time to relate during church schedules and meetings.

Theme 5
factors that led to the decline of the sugar industry in the post-emancipation period
* Exodus of Ex-Slaves and Labor Shortage:

* After emancipation, many ex-slaves left the estates to become peasant proprietors.
 * This created a significant labor shortage, disrupting the sugar industry's workforce.

* Those who did work on plantations often did so only seasonally, not providing a consistent, cheap labor supply.

* Increasing Costs of Production:

* Mismanagement of estates by managers contributed to higher costs.

* Planters now had to pay wages to laborers, a new expense not present during slavery.

* Increasing Debts:

* Planters had borrowed heavily but struggled to repay loans.

* Banks became hesitant to provide further credit, limiting access to capital.

* Competition from Beet Sugar:

* The discovery of extracting sugar from beets (Franz Achard, 1808) led to European beet sugar production.

* European governments provided incentives (cash payments on exported sugar) to their beet producers.

* This made European beet sugar cheaper than Caribbean cane sugar.

* Competition from Other Sugar Producers:

* Spanish Sugar Producers (Cuba and Puerto Rico):

* Cuban plantations were larger and could afford new, efficient machinery (vacuum pans, steam engines, centrifugal
drying machines).

* Railways in Cuba facilitated easier transportation of cane.

* Other Regions: Competition also came from Mauritius, Brazil, and Louisiana.

* Technological Backwardness:

* Many planters lacked modern machinery that could improve efficiency and output, such as:

* Centrifugal systems

* Ploughs

* Harrows

* Vacuum pans

* Railways
 * Steam mills

* Environmental Factors:

* Older colonies like Jamaica, Barbados, and Antigua suffered from infertile and "tired" soils due to prolonged
cultivation.

* Soil exhaustion led to poor quality sugar yields, making it difficult to compete in a market with higher quality
alternatives.

* Trade Regulations (indirect impact):

* While some acts (Navigation Acts, Staple Act, Plantation Duties Act) initially aimed to control trade, the Sugar
Duties Equalization Act of 1846 significantly impacted the Caribbean sugar industry.

* This act removed preferential tariffs for British colonial sugar, meaning foreign-grown sugar paid the same duties,
increasing competition for Caribbean producers in the British market.

the different responses of landowners/employers and freed people

Island Separateness and Development:

* After emancipation, British West Indian islands developed at different rates, unlike the uniformity of the slave-based
plantation economy.

* Larger islands (e.g., British Guiana, Jamaica) faced greater labor problems due to more land and larger numbers of
ex-slaves unwilling to work on plantations.

* Smaller, more densely populated islands (e.g., Antigua, Barbados, St. Kitts) had less available land, leading many
ex-slaves to return to the estates.

Landowners/Employers' Responses to Labour Shortage:

* Coercive Attitude:

* Used magistrates and police as agents of labor discipline (e.g., anti-vagrancy laws).

* Attempted to trim wages to avoid paying high rates.

* Preferred the "day's work" system (paid per day) over "task work" (paid per task).

* Charged workers rent for tools, pasture, houses, and grounds, often tying rent to wages and threatening eviction for
non-payment.

* Tied worker accommodation on plantations to actual work on the estate, preventing workers from living in one place
and working elsewhere.
 * Attempted to bind freed people to plantations through contracts and the "truck system" (payment in goods rather
than money).

* Conciliatory Attitude:

* Some landowners, realizing the permanence of emancipation, adopted more positive strategies.

* In British Guiana and Trinidad, employers competed for labor by offering higher wages.

* Imported indentured laborers from overseas to address the labor shortage.

* Introduced labor-saving devices (e.g., steam engine, plough, harrow) to reduce the reliance on manual labor,
particularly in British Guiana.

* Explored the "Metaire/Metayage system" (sharecropping) in some areas, especially the Windward Islands, where
freed people shared the sugar cane fields with owners.

Freed People's Responses to Emancipation:

* Withdrawal of Labour:

* Women and children largely withdrew their labor from the estates.

* This was largely a protest against the "inequities of early freedom" and a desire for autonomy, not necessarily a
flight from slavery's horrors.

* Establishment as Peasant Proprietors:

* In larger territories with readily available unused land (e.g., British Guiana, Jamaica), many ex-slaves purchased or
illegally occupied land to become peasant proprietors, settling away from estates.

* Return to Estates (in specific contexts):

* In smaller, densely populated islands with limited available land (Antigua, Barbados, St. Kitts), most ex-slaves
returned to work on the estates.

* Sharecropping:

* In territories like the Windward Islands, ex-slaves engaged in sharecropping sugar cane fields with plantation
owners.

* Desire for Independent Living and Part-Time Work:

* Freed people sought to live in their own villages and preferred offering part-time work on estates.

* Migration to Towns and Diversification of Occupations:

* Believed new opportunities and higher wages could be found in towns, leading to migration from rural areas.
 * Sought new lives outside the agricultural sector, turning to occupations like "higglering" (street vending).

* Skilled ex-slaves moved to towns to practice their trades.

* Refusal of Certain Work Conditions:

* Some ex-slaves refused to work on non-sugar properties that often demanded weekend work.

* Intra-Caribbean Migration:

* Freed people also migrated from one part of the Caribbean to another in search of better opportunities.

Attitude of the Labourers:

* Desire for Independence and Land: The primary goal of ex-slaves was to escape plantation life entirely. They
recognized the need for their own land for subsistence farming to support dependents (young, old, sick) and avoid
continued plantation labor.

* Limited Access to Education: While there was a desire for education, it was secondary to the need for land. Few parents
could afford to forgo the wages their children could earn. Existing schools, primarily from Nonconformist Churches,
offered only basic education, and regular attendance was low.

Attitude of the Planters:

* Fear of Labor Shortage and High Wages: Planters widely feared losing their workforce or being financially ruined by
excessive wage demands. Many abandoned their plantations before 1838.

* Seeking Cheap Labour: Those who remained pressured legislatures to implement measures ensuring a cheap and
adequate labor supply.

* Resistance to Labourers Acquiring Land: Planters saw the availability of land to ex-slaves as the biggest threat to
their labor supply. They attempted various strategies to prevent this, including:

* Unsuccessfully urging the British government to ban the sale of Crown Land to Black people.

* Attempting to prevent squatting on Crown Land and imposing heavy fines (e.g., three months hard labor in British
Guiana).

* Imposing heavy taxes on land and prohibiting the breaking up of large estates.

* Insisting on cash sales only for land.

* Coercive Measures to Retain Labourers: When preventing land acquisition failed, planters resorted to making life
difficult for those who did not work on plantations:

* Issuing notices to quit, with continued residency dependent on plantation work.

* Passing acts like the Ejection Act (allowing one week's notice for eviction) and the Trespass Act (imprisonment for
returning to the home estate).
 * Charging high rents for cottages if laborers did not work on the estate, and often removing access to provision
grounds.

* Initially paying high wages to retain labor, but many found this unsustainable, with a maximum wage bill of
two-thirds of running costs.

* Limited Conciliatory Approaches: Only a few enlightened planters tried to make plantation life attractive and
rewarding, but faced very high labor costs.

Blacks' Acquisition of Land (Despite Planter Resistance):

* Despite planter efforts, Black individuals successfully acquired land through:

* British government's occasional willingness to make Crown Land available.

* Some planters being willing to sell land.

* Squatting becoming an accepted (though illegal) method.

* Cooperation among Black people to pool resources and buy entire estates.

* Missionary organizations purchasing land for individuals or groups.

* Land speculators buying large tracts and subdividing them for sale.

* By 1860, nearly 40% of cultivable land in Jamaica was owned by Black individuals.

Solutions to the Labour Problem (Varying by Island):

* Small, Densely Populated Islands (Antigua, Barbados, St. Kitts):

* Very little land available for labourers, forcing them to work for wages on plantations.

* Usually allowed to keep small provision grounds (around 300 sq ft), insufficient for independent subsistence.

* These islands quickly overcame labor problems, and their sugar industries survived.

* Large Colonies with Available Land (British Guiana, Trinidad):

* Relatively easy for workers to find land (Crown Land or squatting), leading to a desperate labor problem for
planters.

* Adopted a policy of large-scale foreign immigration (e.g., indentured laborers).

* Jamaica (A Separate Case):

* Land was available, but less Crown Land than British Guiana/Trinidad and often infertile.

* Planters were very reluctant to sell land to workers.

 * Acute labor shortage due to strong hatred of plantation labor, even prompting workers to settle on poor land far
from estates, encouraged by missionaries.

* Jamaican government did not resort to large-scale, non-white immigration to the same extent, leading to persistent
labor problems throughout the 19th century.

Effect on Sugar Production:

* Small Islands: Sugar industries survived and some even increased production (e.g., Barbados saw a nearly 2.5x
increase in sugar production between 1838-1848). This was due to their ability to retain labour on estates.

* Large Territories: Suffered enormous short-term labor problems, threatening the collapse of their sugar industries
(e.g., Jamaica's sugar production dropped to a third of its former level).

Schemes of immigration
Immigration Numbers (according to Look Lai, 1993):

* Indians: 429,623 (1838 - 1917)

* Portuguese: 40,971 (1835 - 1881)

* Freed Africans: 39,332 (1834 - 1867)

* Chinese: 17,904 (1853 - 1884)

* Europeans: 4,582 (1834 - 1845)

* Other (mainly African Americans): 3,898 (1835 – 1867)

Aims of Immigration:

* To restore and expand the sugar industry.

* To create a steady supply of laborers.

* To ensure the ruling class maintained control over the labor force.

* To keep wages low through competition between immigrant labor and the freed populace.

East Indian Immigration:

* Began in 1838 with the arrival of 396 Indians.

* Reasons for leaving India (Push Factors): Unemployment, overpopulation, low wages, famine (1857-1877), escape from
police and the caste system.
 * Attractions to the Caribbean (Pull Factors): Higher wages and steady work, prospect of land, better living conditions
(shelter, medical care), opportunity for new occupations.

* Contract terms included working every day except Sundays and public holidays, making up jail days, 7 hours/day for
field workers, 10 hours/day for factory workers.

* Wages were 1 shilling per day for men over sixteen, 8 dimes for women and boys under sixteen.

* Provided with food for the first three months (4d deduction from wages), rent-free housing in barracks, free medicine
and hospitalization, and a return passage upon contract completion.

Chinese Immigration:

* Began in the 1850s.

* Reasons for leaving China: Overpopulation, heavy competition for land, high taxes, cruel administration, and the
Taiping Rebellion (1851-1864).

* Main destinations in the British Caribbean were British Guiana, Trinidad, and Jamaica. Cuba was the largest importer
of Chinese laborers.

* Problems included planters' complaints about them as estate workers, few re-indenturing (preferring to return to
China or open retail shops), higher cost than Indians, and the Chinese government's insistence on a full return passage
after a five-year contract.

Madeiran Immigration:

* Attracted by higher wages in the Caribbean compared to 3d per day in Madeira.

* Mainly went to British Guiana, Trinidad, and some to the Windward Islands.

* Most came during periods of famine in Madeira (1846-1847).

* Problems included high death rates from yellow fever, malaria, overwork, and inadequate food. Most went into trading
after their contracts ended.

European Immigration:

* Sought by planters to increase the white population and provide an example of industry to ex-slaves.

* Intended to settle on available land and force ex-slaves back to plantations.

* Jamaica imported the largest number, with others going to Trinidad, British Guiana, and St. Kitts.

* Mainly Scots, Irish, French, and Germans.

* Problems included high death rates from tropical diseases, heat stroke, and alcoholism, refusal to work with blacks on
plantations, and many returning home or migrating to the United States.
African Immigration:

* Composed of two groups: Free Africans (willingly opted to work) and Liberated Africans (freed by British Navy from
illegal slave ships).

* Attempts to recruit Free Africans from the Kru Coast and Sierra Leone were initially met with British government
reluctance.

* Liberated Africans were forcibly indentured for up to five years, primarily in British Guiana, Trinidad, and Jamaica.

* Problems included a low willingness of Africans to come to the Caribbean (no catastrophes in Africa to force them to
leave), many not remaining on plantations (settling as peasant farmers), and the small number of liberated Africans.

Effects of Immigration:

* On the Sugar Industry:

* Increased labor supply, solving shortages.

* Decreased wages, cutting production costs.

* Increased sugar production, especially in Trinidad and British Guiana.

* Many immigrants remained, working in skilled and unskilled jobs.

* Indian immigrants are said to have encouraged mechanization.

* Slowed the diversification of the Caribbean economy.

* On Caribbean Society and Culture:

* Racial tensions existed between Indians and blacks, and between blacks and Chinese.

* Led to the expansion of social services like medical facilities and police forces.

* Resulted in plural/multi-ethnic societies with diverse racial groups, ancestral cultures, and religions.

* Introduced entrepreneurship and retail trading (shops, restaurants, etc.).

* The Chinese introduced games of chance like Whe Whe and Chinapoo.

* Reinforced close family ties and extended families.

* Introduced new religions (Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism) and festivals (Divali, Hosein, Holi, Chinese New Year).

* Introduced new culinary skills and foods (curry, stir-frying, roti, tamarind, bow, noodles).