DIRECT CURRENT (DC) MACHINES

Principle of operation
DC machines operate under the following fundamental principles:
1) When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, voltage is induced in the conductor.
(Generator action)
2) When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor
experiences a mechanical force. (Motor action)

Construction
DC Generators and Motors are identical in construction.
A DC machine consists of two main parts:
1) Stationary part (Stator): It is designed mainly for producing the main magnetic field
(flux)
2) Rotating part: It is called the armature, where mechanical energy is converted into
electrical or conversely electrical energy into mechanical

The two main parts have other constituent parts as listed below:
a) Magnetic frame or yoke
b) Pole cores
c) Pole shoes
d) Pole coils (Field windings)
e) Armature core
f) Armature windings
g) Commutator
h) Brushes and bearings

1
 Field windings (or exciting windings)

These windings are for producing the main magnetic field in a DC machine. Each pole has a
winding on it and the windings are connected in series.

Field windings are classified according to the method of connection to the armature (shunt, series,
compound)

Whether a DC machine is operated as a motor or generator, the field windings are always
supplied with Direct Current.

Armature windings

There are two main variations of armature windings:

1) Lap type
2) Wave type

Lap Windings
A characteristic of the lap winding is the fact that the ends of each armature coil are connected to adjacent
commutator segments. An armature with a lap winding has as many paths in parallel in the armature circuit
as there are poles.

Wave windings

A distinguishing characteristic of the wave winding is the fact that the ends of armature coil are connected
to commutator segments that are approximately two pole spans apart.

Comparison of Lap and Wave winding

Lap winding Wave winding

1 Number of parallel paths (A) = poles (P) Number of parallel paths (A) = 2 (always)
Number of brush sets required is equal to Number of brush sets required is always equal to
2 number of poles two
Preferable for high current, low voltage Preferable for low current, high voltage capacity
3 capacity machines machines
Normally used for machines of capacity Normally used for machines of capacity less than
4 more than 500A 500A

2
Commutator

The purpose of the commutator is to maintain the same polarity at the brushes.

Commutation

Commutation is the process of reversal of current in armature coil as it makes contact with the brush. It
takes place while the coil is short-circuited by the brush. The brief period during which the coil remains
short-circuited is known as commutation period.

The process of commutation can be improved by the following methods:

1) Use of brushes of high resistance
2) Shifting the axis of the brushes
3) Installation of commutating windings
The purpose of commutating windings is to induce a voltage in the coil undergoing commutation so that
the voltage of self-induction caused by the reversal of the coil current is neutralized, thus allowing the
current to reverse uniformly. Commutating windings are connected in series with the armature circuit and
are wound on interpoles (or compoles).
Interpoles (or compoles)

3
Armature reaction

This is the effect of magnetic field set by armature current on the distribution of flux under the main
poles. It weakens and distorts main flux.

The effect of armature reaction is neutralized by use of compensating windings embedded in slots
under the pole shoes They are connected in series with armature in such a way that current in them
flows in opposite direction to that flowing in armature conductors directly below the pole.

Compensating windings

4
EMF equation of a DC generator
Let P = number of poles
Ø = flux/pole in webers
Z = total number of armature conductors
N = armature rotation in revolutions (speed for armature) per minute (rpm)
A = No. of parallel paths into which the ‘z’ no. of conductors are divided.
Eg = Generated emf (Volts).

According to laws of electromagnetic induction, the magnitude of induced/generated emf is equal to rate
𝑑Ø
of change of flux linkages. i.e 𝑒 = 𝑑𝑡 Volts
Flux cut by one conductor in one revolution of the armature, 𝑑Ø=P Ø Webers
60
Time taken to complete one revolution 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑁 sec
𝑑Ø 𝑃Ø 𝑃ØN
Emf generated per conductor 𝑑𝑡
= 60 = 60
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
⁄𝑁

Generated emf
Eg = (𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟)𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ
𝑷Ø𝐙𝐍 Ø𝐙𝐍 𝑷
Eg = 𝟔𝟎𝑨
or Eg = 𝟔𝟎
(𝑨) Volts

Where A=2 (for wave winding)

and A=P (for lap winding)

The magnitude of emf generated by a DC generator depends on the following major factors:
1) strength of main magnetic field
2) number of armature conductors
3) speed of rotation of armature conductors

5
Classification of DC Generators
DC generators are classified according to:
1) Excitation methods applied (separately excited and self-excited)
2) Manner in which field coils are connected to the armature (shunt, series, compound)

Separately Excited DC Generator

These are the generators whose field magnets are energized by some external dc source such as battery.
A circuit diagram of separately excited DC generator is shown in the figure below.

Ia = Armature current, IL = Load current, VT = Terminal voltage, Eg = Generated emf

IF
IL Ia
Ra

+
VT Separate
RL
Field
Load

Armature source of
Eg
excitation

Voltage drop in the armature = Ia × R a Let, Ia = IL = I (say) Then,

voltage across the load, VT = IR L Power generated, Pg = Eg ×I Power delivered to the external load, PL =

VT×IL.

Self-excited DC Generators
These are the generators whose field magnets are energized by the current supplied by themselves. In
these type of machines field coils are internally connected with the armature. Due to residual magnetism
some flux is always present in the poles. When the armature is rotated, some emf is induced. Hence some
induced current is produced. This small current flows through the field coil as well as the load and
thereby strengthening the pole flux. As the pole flux strengthened, it will produce more armature emf,
which cause further increase of current through the field. This increased field current further raises
armature emf and this cumulative phenomenon continues until the excitation reaches to the rated value.
According to the position of the field coils the Self-excited DC generators may be classified as…

A. Series wound generators B. Shunt wound generators C. Compound wound generators

A. Series Wound Generator

In these type of generators, the field windings are connected in series with armature conductors as shown
in figure below. So, whole current flows through the field coils as well as the load. As series field
winding carries full load current it is designed with relatively few turns of thick wire. The electrical
resistance of series field winding is therefore very low (nearly 0.5Ω ). Let, R se = Series winding
resistance Ise = Current flowing through the series field R a = Armature resistance Ia = Armature current,
IL = Load current, VT = Terminal voltage, Eg = Generated emf

6
 Ise Rse
Series
IL Ia Field

Ra

+
VT
RL
Load
Eg Armature

Series Wound Generator

Then, Ia = Ise =IL =I (say) Voltage across the load, VT = Eg - I(R a +R se ) Power generated, Pg = Eg ×I

Power delivered to the load, PL = VT×I

B. Shunt Wound DC Generators

In these type of DC generators the field windings are connected in parallel with armature conductors as
shown in the figure below. In shunt wound generators the voltage in the field winding is same as the
voltage across the terminal. Let, R sh = Shunt winding resistance Ish = Current flowing through the shunt
field R a = Armature resistance Ia = Armature current IL = Load current V = Terminal voltage Eg =
Generated emf

Ish
IL Ia
Ra
+ Rsh
VT Shunt
RL
Load

Eg Armature Field

Shunt Wound Generator

Here armature current Ia is dividing in two parts, one is shunt field current Ish and another is load current
IL . So, Ia =Ish + IL The effective power across the load will be maximum when IL will be maximum. So, it
is required to keep shunt field current as small as possible. For this purpose the resistance of the shunt
field winding generally kept high (100 Ω) and large no of turns are used for the desired emf. Shunt field
current, Ish = VT/R sh Voltage across the load, VT = Eg - Ia R a Power generated, Pg = Eg ×Ia Power
delivered to the load, PL = VT×IL

C. Compound Wound DC Generator

In series wound generators, the output voltage is directly proportional with load current. In shunt
wound generators, output voltage is inversely proportional with load current. A combination of these two
types of generators can overcome the disadvantages of both. This combination of windings is called
compound wound DC generator. Compound wound generators have both series field winding and shunt
field winding. One winding is placed in series with the armature and the other is placed in parallel with
the armature. This type of DC generators may be of two types- short shunt compound wound generator
and long shunt compound wound generator

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Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator
The generators in which only shunt field winding is in parallel with the armature winding as shown in the
figure.

Rse
Ise Series Field
IL Ish
Ia
Ra
VT Rsh
+ Shunt
Load

RL
Eg Armature Field

Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator

Series field current, Ise = IL Shunt field current, Ish = (VT+Ise R se )/ R sh Armature current, Ia = Ish + IL
Voltage across the load, VT = Eg - Ia R a - Ise R se Power generated, Pg = Eg × Ia Power delivered to the
load, PL =V×IL

Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator

The generators in which shunt field winding is in parallel with both series field and armature winding as
shown in the figure.
Ish
Ise Rse
IL Series
Ia Field
Ra Rsh
VT Shunt
RL +
Field
Load

Eg Armature

Long Shunt Compound Wound Generator

Shunt field current, Ish =V/R sh Armature current, Ia = series field current, Ise = IL +Ish Voltage across the
load,
VT=Eg - Ia R a - Ise R se =Eg - Ia (R a +R se ) [since Ia = Ise ] Power generated, Pg = Eg × Ia Power delivered to
the load,
PL =VT×IL In a compound wound generator, the shunt field is stronger than the series field.

8
When the series field assists the shunt field; generator is said to be commutatively compound wound. On
the other hand if series field opposes the shunt field; the generator is said to be differentially compound
wound.

D.C. GENERATOR CHARACTERISTICS

The following are the three most important characteristics of a d.c. generator:

Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) (E0 /If )

This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. at no-load (E0 ) and
the field current (If ) at constant speed. It is also known as magnetic characteristic or no -load saturation
curve. Its shape is practically the same for all generators whether separately or self-excited. The data
for O.C.C. curve are obtained experimentally by operating the generator at no load and constant speed
and recording the change in terminal voltage as the field current is varied.

External characteristic (V/IL )

This curve shows the relation between the terminal voltage (V) and load current
(IL ). The terminal voltage V will be less than E due to voltage drop in the armature circuit. Therefore, this
curve will lie below the internal characteristic. This characteristic is very important in determining the
suitability of a generator for a given purpose. It can be obtained by making simultaneous measurements of
terminal voltage and load current (with voltmeter and ammeter) of a loaded generator.

Internal or Total characteristic (E/ Ia )

This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. on load (E) and the
armature current ( Ia ). The e.m.f. E is less than E0 due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction.
Therefore, this curve will lie below the open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.). The internal characteristic is
of interest chiefly to the designer. It cannot be obtained directly by experiment. It is because a voltmeter
cannot read the e.m.f. generated on load due to the voltage drop in armature resistance. The internal
characteristic can be obtained from external characteristic if winding resistances are known because
armature reaction effect is included in both characteristics

9
Open Circuit Characteristic of a D.C. Generator
The O.C.C. for a d.c. generator is determined as follows. The field winding of the d.c. generator (series or
shunt) is disconnected from the machine and is separately excited from an external d.c. source as shown in
fig (ii). The generator is run at fixed speed (i.e., normal speed). The field current (If ) is increased from zero
in steps and the corresponding values of generated e.m.f.
(E0 ) read off on a voltmeter connected across the armature terminals. On plotting
the relation between E0 and If , we get the open circuit characteristic as shown in Fig. (i)

Characteristics of a Separately Excited D.C. Generator

(i) Open circuit characteristic.
The O.C.C. of a separately excited generator is determined
in a manner described earlier. The figure shows the
variation of generated e.m f. on no load with field current
for various fixed speeds. Note that if the value of constant
speed is increased, the steepness of the curve also increases.
When the field current is zero, the residual magnetism in
the poles will give rise to the small initial e.m.f. as shown.

(ii) Internal and External Characteristics

The external characteristic of a separately excited generator is the curve between the terminal voltage (V)
and the load current IL (which is the same as armature current in this case). In order to determine the
external characteristic, the circuit set up is as shown in Fig (i). As the load current increases, the terminal
voltage falls due to two reasons:
a) The armature reaction weakens the main flux so that actual e.m.f. generated E on load is less than
that generated (E0 ) on no load
b) There is voltage drop across armature resistance (=IL R a = Ia R a )

10
Characteristics of Series Generator
The figure below shows the connections of a series wound generator. Since there is only one current (that
which flows through the whole machine), the load current is the same as the exciting current.

11
 Compound Generator Characteristics
In a compound generator, both series and shunt excitation are combined The shunt winding can be
connected either across the armature only (short-shunt connection S) or across armature plus series field
(long-shunt connection G). The compound generator can be cumulatively compounded or differentially
compounded generator. The latter is rarely used in practice. Therefore, we shall discuss the characteristics
of cumulatively-compounded generator. It may be noted that external characteristics of long and short
shunt compound generators are almost identical.

External characteristic

a) If series winding turns are so adjusted that with the increase in load current the terminal voltage
increases, it is called over-compounded generator. In such a case, as the load current increases, the series
field m.m.f. increases and tends to increase the flux and hence the generated voltage. The increase in
generated voltage is greater than the Ia R a drop so that instead of decreasing, the terminal voltage
increases as shown by curve A.
b) If series winding turns are so adjusted that with the increase in load current, the terminal voltage
substantially remains constant, it is called flat-compounded generator. The series winding of such a
machine has lesser number of turns than the one in over-compounded machine and, therefore, does not
increase the flux as much for a given load current. Consequently, the full-load voltage is nearly equal to
the no-load voltage as indicated by curve B.
c) If series field winding has lesser number of turns than for a flat-compounded machine, the terminal
voltage falls with increase in load current as indicated by curve C. Such a machine is called under-
compounded generator.

Voltage Regulation
The change in terminal voltage of a generator between full and no load (at constant speed) is called the
voltage regulation, usually expressed as a percentage of the voltage at full-load.
(𝑉𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐹𝐿 )
% Voltage regulation = 𝑥 100%
𝑉𝐹𝐿

VNL = Terminal voltage of generator at no load

VFL = Terminal voltage of generator at full load

Note that voltage regulation of a generator is determined with field current and speed held constant. If
the voltage regulation of a generator is 10%, it means that terminal voltage increases 10% as the load is
changed from full load to no load.

12
 LOSSES IN DC MACHINES

There are three main categories of losses in DC machines;

1. Electrical losses (copper losses) – Armature (𝐼𝑎 2 𝑅𝑎 ), Field (𝐼𝑠ℎ 2 𝑅𝑠ℎ ) or (𝐼𝑠𝑒 2 𝑅𝑠𝑒 )
2. Magnetic losses (iron losses) – Hysteresis and Eddy current losses
3. Mechanical losses (rotational losses) – Friction at bearings and commutator, friction loss of
rotating armature, losses due to resistance of wind (windage losses).

EFFICIENCY OF DC MACHINES
Power output Power output
Efficiency = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
x 100% or 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡+𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 x 100%

DC GENERATORS – TUTORIAL EXERCISES

1) A short-shunt DC compound generator supplies 200A at 100V. The resistances of armature,

series field and shunt field windings are 0.04, 0.03 and 60 Ω respectively. Find

i. armature current
ii. the generated e.m.f
2) A 4-pole shunt generator with a shunt field resistance of 100 Ω and an armature resistance of 1
Ω has 378 wave-connected conductors in its armature. The flux per pole is 0.02wb. If a load
resistance of 10 Ω is connected across the armature terminals and the generator is driven at 1000 rpm,
calculate

i. the generated emf

ii. the power absorbed by the load
3) A shunt generator delivers 195A at a terminal voltage of 250V. The armature resistance and
shunt field resistance are 0.02 Ω and 50 Ω respectively. The iron and friction losses amount to 950W.
Find

i. emf generated
ii. copper losses
iii. overall efficiency

4) A 4-pole, long shunt lap-wound compound generator supplies 25Kw at a terminal voltage of
500V. The armature resistance is 0.03 Ω, series field resistance is 0.04 Ω and shunt field
resistance is 200 Ω. The brush drop may be taken as [Link] on each side. If the speed is 1200
rpm and the flux per pole is 0.02 Weber, determine the

i. generated emf
ii. number of armature conductors

13
DC MOTORS

A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
(mechanical rotation).

Principle of operation
The operation of a DC motor depends upon the fact that a current carrying conductor in a transverse
magnetic field has a force exerted on it.

Construction
The DC motor is identical in construction to the DC generator.

Classification
DC motors are classified in the same manner as DC generators (i.e Seperately excited, series, shunt
and compound).

Back emf (Counter emf)

As the motor armature rotates, its conductors cut the flux of the main field. In accordance with the
laws of electromagnetic induction, emf is induced in them whose direction, as found by Fleming’s
right hand rule, is in opposition to the applied voltage.
Because of the opposing direction, it is referred to as back emf (counter emf), Eb .

The rotating armature generating the back emf, Eb is like a battery of emf Eb put across a supply
mains of VT Volts.

Obviously, VT has to drive Ia against the opposition of Eb .

The power required to overcome this opposition is Eb Ia .

net voltage VT − Eb
Armature current, Ia = resistance = Ra

The value of back emf, Eb is given by the same relationship as for the induced emf in generator, i.e

ɸ𝑍𝑁 𝑃
𝐸𝑏 = ( )
60 𝐴
Volts

Back emf depends among other factors, upon the armature speed. If speed is high, Eb is large, hence
armature current, Ia is small. If the speed is low, then Eb is low, hence more current flows which
develops more torque. So we find that Eb acts like a governor, i.e it makes a motor self regulating so
that it draws as much current as is just necessary.

Voltage equation of a DC Motor

The voltage, VT applied across the armature has to:

i) overcome the back emf, Eb and

ii) supply the armature Ohmic drop Ia R a

Therefore VT = Eb + Ia R a
This is known as voltage equation of a DC motor

14
Multiplying both sides by Ia , we get VT Ia = Eb Ia + 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑅𝑎
VT Ia = electrical input to the armature
Eb Ia = electrical equivalent of mechanical power developed in the armature
𝐼𝑎 2 R a = copper loss in the armature
Hence, out of the armature input, some is wasted in 𝐼𝑎 2 R a loss and the rest is converted into
mechanical power within the motor.

NOTE: Mechanical power developed by a motor, Pm = VT Ia - 𝐼𝑎 2 R a or Pm = Eb Ia

Armature torque of a DC motor

Consider a conductor at radius r
Torque, T= Force X radius
For a DC motor, gross or armature torque (Ta ) is the sum of the torques due to all armature
conductors.
Let r = average radius of armature in Metres
𝑙 = effective length of each conductor in Metres
Z = total number of armature conductors
A = number of parallel paths in the armature circuit
Ia
i= 𝐴
= current in each conductor
B = average flux density in Webers per square metre
Ø = flux/pole in webers
P = number of poles
Force on each conductor = Bi 𝑙 Newtons
Torque due to each conductor = F X r Newton-Metre
Total armature torque, Ta = 𝑍𝐹𝑟 = ZBi𝑙 r Newton-Metre
Ia Ø
Now, i = 𝐴
and B=𝑎 where a is the cross-sectional area of flux path per pole at radius r.
2πrl
Clearly, a=
𝑃

Ø I Ø I ZØI P 𝑷
 Therefore Ta =Z*(𝑎)*( 𝐴a )* 𝑙 *r = Z*2π𝑙𝑟⁄ * 𝐴a *𝑙 *r = 2πA
a
=0.159Z ØIa (𝑨) N-m
𝑃

𝑷
Ta =0.159Z ØIa ( ) N-m
𝑨
Since Z, P and A are fixed for a given machine, Ta ∝ ØIa
Hence torque in a DC motor is directly proportional to flux per pole and armature current.

NOTE
a) For a shunt motor, flux Ø is practically constant, therefore Ta ∝ Ia
b) For a series motor, flux Ø is directly proportional to armature current, Ia provided
magnetic saturation does not take place, in which case, Ta ∝ 𝐼𝑎 2

Alternative expression for armature torque, Ta

ɸ𝑍𝑁 𝑃
𝐸𝑏 = ( )
60 𝐴

𝑃ɸ𝑍 60𝐸𝑏
=
𝐴 𝑁

𝑃ɸ𝑍 60𝐸𝑏 𝑷 60𝐸𝑏 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 P

Putting 𝐴
= 𝑁 in Ta = 0.159Z ØIa (𝑨), we get, Ta =0.159*(𝑁
)*Ia or Ta =9.55 𝑁
N-m=9.55 𝑁m
N-m

15
Shaft Torque, Tsh

This is the torque available at the motor shaft. It is the shaft torque that produces useful output.

𝑃
Shaft torque, Tsh =9.55 𝑜𝑢𝑡 N-m
𝑁
Shaft torque (Tsh ) is usually less than armature torque, (Ta ) since some torque is lost in rotational
process (iron and frictional losses).

𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = rotational losses

Speed Regulation of a DC Motor

Speed regulation of a DC motor is the change in speed from no-load to full-load and is expressed
as a percentage of the speed at full-load.
(𝑁𝑁𝐿 −𝑁𝐹𝐿 )
% speed regulation = 𝑁𝐹𝐿
𝑥 100%

NNL = No-load speed

NFL = Full-load speed

(𝑁0 −𝑁)
Or 𝑁
where 𝑁0 = No-load speed and N = Full-load speed

DC Motor rating

Motors are rated in Watts or Horsepower (Hp) where 1Hp = 746 Watts.

DC MOTORS – TUTORIAL EXERCISES

1) A 4-pole, 220-V shunt motor has 540 lap-wound conductors. It takes 32A from the
supply mains and develops output power of 5.595 Kw. The field winding takes 1A.
The armature resistance is 0.09 Ω and the flux per pole is 30 mWb. Calculate
i. the speed
ii. the shaft torque
2) Find the useful flux per pole on no-load of 250V, 6-pole shunt motor having a wave-
connected armature winding with 110 turns. The armature resistance is 0.2 Ω. The
armature current is 13.3A at the no-load speed of 908 rpm.
3) A 4-pole, 240V, wave connected shunt motor gives an output of 11.19Kw when
running at 1000 rpm and drawing armature and field currents of 50A and 1.0A
respectively. The armature has 540 conductors and resistance of 0.1 Ω. Assuming a
drop of 1 volt per brush, find
i. gross armature torque
ii. shaft torque
iii. useful flux per pole
iv. rotational losses
v. efficiency of the motor

16
STARTING OF DC MOTORS

Application of the rated voltage to the motor on starting produces an armature current far in
excess of the rated value. Therefore a resistor is usually connected in series with the armature
circuit to limit the amount of current taken by the motor upon starting. The starting operation
is as follows:

1) The insertion of external resistance into the armature circuit to limit the starting current
taken by the motor.
2) The removal of this resistance in steps as the motor accelerates.

The insertion and removal of resistance in the armature circuit may be done manually or
automatically.

Manual Starters

There are two types of manual faceplate starters as follows:

1) Three-point starter
2) Four-point starter

Three-point starter
Three-point motor starters limit starting current by providing variable resistance. These
devices are so named because they connect to the motor using three terminals: the armature
(A) terminal connected to the armature winding; the line (L) connected to the positive supply
pole; and the field (F) terminal linked to the field winding.

As discussed above, the primary purpose of a DC motor starter is to provide resistance

proportional to the amount of generated CEMF. Three-point starters accomplish this by
providing variable resistance at five studs along the path of the starter handle.

17
 A three-point motor circuit, showing the three terminals (L, F, and A) and five studs.
Image credit: Electrical4u

In order to start the motor, the spring-loaded starter handle is moved from OFF to the first
stud position. At this point, the first resistor (R1 above) provides high starting resistance, as
CEMF has not yet developed. As the handle is slowly moved toward the RUN position, series
resistance decreases as the motor gains speed and CEMF increases. When the handle reaches
the RUN position, resistance is eliminated.

The handle remains in the RUN position against the force of the spring because the no
voltage coil (NVC) shown above is magnetized when current flows through the starter. The
NVC also acts as a safeguard during motor operation. If the motor's voltage supply is cut for
any reason, the NVC demagnetizes and the handle spring returns the handle to the OFF
position, effectively cutting the motor.

The fact that the no voltage coil is magnetized by the field current represents the drawback of
three-point starters. A motor's speed is controlled by current changes effected by the field
rheostat; because the NVC relies on the constant supply of field current, speed changes may
result in the demagnetization of the NVC, the release of the starter handle, and the
unintentional cutting of the motor. Four-point starters overcome this problem by adding an
additional terminal.

18
Four-point starter
Four-point starters are identical to three-point devices, but they add an additional terminal
(N) that links the supply to the no voltage coil. These starters are typically employed in
applications where the motor is expected to operate above normal speed. The N terminal is
necessary because higher speeds reduce field currents through the F terminal so that the
handle is unable to remain in the RUN position. By establishing an independent current
supply to the NVC, the motor can run continuously regardless of field current and will not be
unnecessarily tripped by high-speed operation or speed changes.

Image credit: Electrical4u

Automatic starters

The major types of automatic starters of DC motors in use are:

1) Definite time automatic starter (or time delay automatic starter).

2) Current-limit automatic starter

1).Definite time automatic starter

In this type of starter, the starting resistors are removed from the circuit in a definite time,
regardless of the motor reaction to its connected load.

2) Current limit automatic starter

The operation of the current-limit type of automatic starter is based upon the fact that he
armature current of a motor decreases as the motor accelerates. In this type of starter, a starting
resistor is not short-circuited (removed) until the current reaches a pre-determined value.

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SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

The speed of a DC motor is given by the relation:

(𝑉𝑇 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 ) 𝐴
𝑁 = 60 ( )
𝑍ɸ 𝑃

For a given machine, Z, A and P are constant, therefore

(𝑉𝑇 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 )
𝑁=𝐾
ɸ

The speed can therefore be controlled by varying

i) flux per pole, ɸ (flux control)

ii) resistance of armature circuit (rheostatic control)
iii) applied voltage (voltage control}

Speed control of shunt motors

i) Flux control method (field control)

By decreasing the flux, the speed can be increased and vice versa, hence the name
flux (or field) control method.

ii) Armature or rheostatic control method

The voltage across the armature is varied by inserting a variable resistance

(rheostat) or controller resistance in series with the armature circuit.

iii) Voltage control method

In this method, the armature is supplied by different voltages by means of suitable

switchgear. The most common system in use is the Ward – Leonard system.

Speed relations
In a dc motor speed is directly proportional to back emf, 𝐸𝑏 and inversely proportional to flux, φ.
N∝ Eɸb
Let as assume that it is desired to change speed of a DC motor from initial speed 𝑁1 to a
new speed 𝑁2

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DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL – TUTORIAL EXERCISES

1) A DC series motor runs at 800 rpm when the voltage is 400V and the
current is 25A. The armature resistance is 0.4 Ω and the series field
resistance is 0.2 Ω. Determine the resistance to be connected in series to
reduce the speed to 600 rpm with the same current.
2) A 500V DC shunt motor runs at its normal speed of 600 rpm when the
armature current is 120A. The armature resistance is 0.2 Ω. Determine
the speed when the armature current is 60A and a resistance of 0.5 Ω is
connected in series with the armature, the shunt field current remaining
constant.
3) A 250V DC shunt motor takes a current of 41A and runs at 800 rpm on
full load. Armature and shunt field resistances are 0.2 Ω and 250 Ω
respectively. If a resistance of 2 Ω is placed in the armature circuit,
determine speed at full-load torque.

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DC Motor Characteristics
(i) Torque and armature current characteristics
(Ta/Ia): It is the curve between armature
torque and armature current of a dc motor
(ii) Speed and armature current characteristics
(N/Ia): It is the curve between speed and
armature current.
(iii)Speed and torque characteristics (N/Ta): It is
the curve between speed and armature torque

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