Physical Geodesy

GI 23404 Unit - IV
Unit IV Physical Geodesy

Definition, history and importance of physical geodesy -

Geopotential theory - Earth's gravity field - Gravity anomaly
and its interpretation - Determination of gravity anomalies
using terrestrial and satellite measurements - Methods for
geoid determination - Geoid modeling and its applications
in geodesy - Satellite missions: GRACE, Jason - Geodesy in
geophysics, geodynamics, and plate tectonics
 Physical Geodesy
Physical geodesy is a branch of geodesy that deals with the study of the Earth's
shape, gravitational field, and how these are affected by physical forces. It focuses
on understanding the Earth's physical properties, such as:
The Earth's Shape: This includes the study of the Earth's surface and its deviations
1.

from a perfect sphere, like the equatorial bulge and local variations in topography.
Gravitational Field: This area focuses on understanding how gravity varies across
2.

the Earth's surface and how these variations are related to the Earth's density
distribution and its internal structure.
Geoid: A central concept in physical geodesy, the geoid is the hypothetical surface
3.

of the Earth that represents mean sea level across the globe, influenced by gravity
and Earth's rotation. It is used as a reference for measuring elevations and
determining the true shape of the Earth.
 Physical Geodesy
The history of physical geodesy is rich and intertwined with the development of
astronomy, mathematics, and physics, while its importance today spans a range of
critical scientific, practical, and technological applications.
Historical Overview
Early Beginnings:
•

In ancient times, scholars such as Eratosthenes and Ptolemy began measuring the
Earth’s size and shape. Their methods laid the groundwork for geodetic
measurements, albeit with limited precision.
Newton’s Influence:
•

Isaac Newton’s law of universal gravitation in the 17th century provided a theoretical
basis for understanding the Earth’s gravitational field. Newton predicted that the Earth
would not be a perfect sphere but rather an oblate spheroid (flattened at the poles), a
prediction later confirmed by geodetic measurements.
 Physical Geodesy
Historical Overview
18th and 19th Centuries:
•

Explorations and expeditions in the 18th and 19th centuries (e.g., the French Geodesic
Mission) further refined the measurements of the Earth's dimensions. These efforts
involved extensive fieldwork and mathematical modeling to reconcile observed
variations in gravity and the Earth’s shape.
Modern Era and Satellite Geodesy:
•

With the advent of satellite technology in the mid-20th century, physical geodesy
entered a new phase. Satellite missions such as GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate
Experiment) and GOCE (Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer)
have provided high-precision data on Earth’s gravitational field, vastly improving our
understanding of its internal structure and dynamic processes
 Physical Geodesy
Importance of Physical Geodesy
Accurate Earth Models:
•

Physical geodesy provides the framework for creating accurate models of the Earth’s
shape (the geoid) and gravitational field. These models are crucial for various scientific
applications, including tectonic studies, oceanography, and climate science.
Navigation and Positioning:
•

Precise geodetic data underpin global positioning systems (GPS) and other navigation
technologies. Without an accurate understanding of the Earth's gravity and shape,
positioning systems would be less reliable.
Engineering and Infrastructure:
•

From surveying for construction projects to mapping for large-scale infrastructure,

physical geodesy ensures that engineers have precise information about the Earth's
surface. This accuracy is vital for the safe and efficient design of buildings, bridges,
roads, and other infrastructure.
 Physical Geodesy
Importance of Physical Geodesy
Environmental and Climate Studies:
•

Changes in the Earth’s gravitational field can indicate mass redistribution due to
melting glaciers, groundwater depletion, or sea level rise. Monitoring these changes is
critical for understanding and mitigating the impacts of climate change.
Scientific Research:
•

Physical geodesy contributes to our broader understanding of geophysical processes,

such as the movement of tectonic plates, the dynamics of the Earth's mantle, and
variations in Earth’s rotation. This research is fundamental to the fields of geophysics
and Earth science
Physical Geodesy
Physical geodesy is the branch of geodesy that deals with the physical
properties of the gravitational field of the earth. Similar to other branches of
geodesy, physical geodesy uses the geoid as a primary model for the Earth’s
shape and its other properties
The geoid is the equipotential surface of the Earth at the mean sea level.
This means that without the tides, waves, and oceanic currents, the ocean
surface coincides the geoid. The geoid is greatly affected by the Earth’s gravity
field or more commonly known as the geopotential.
The geopotential is the differences in potential of the gravitational field
of the Earth while the geoid is the equipotential surface (surface with constant
geopotential) of the geopotential. Geopotential is the potential of the Earth's
gravity field. Geopotential is often defined as the negative of the potential
energy per unit mass, so that the gravity vector is obtained as the gradient of
this potential, without the negation.
 Physical Geodesy - Geopotential theory
Geopotential theory is a fundamental concept in geodesy and geophysics that
describes the gravitational potential of the Earth. It is essential for understanding
and modeling the Earth's gravity field and has several key aspects:
Definition and Concept
•Gravitational and Centrifugal Potentials:
The geopotential combines both the gravitational potential (due to the mass
distribution within the Earth) and the centrifugal potential (arising from the Earth’s
rotation). Together, they form a scalar field that represents the total potential
energy per unit mass at any point in or above the Earth’s surface.
•Equipotential Surfaces:
One of the core ideas in geopotential theory is the concept of equipotential
surfaces, where the geopotential is constant. The most notable of these is the
geoid, which approximates mean sea level and serves as a reference surface for
measuring elevations.
 Physical Geodesy - Geopotential theory
Mathematical Framework
•Laplace's and Poisson’s Equations:
Outside the Earth’s mass, the geopotential satisfies Laplace's equation, while within
the Earth, where mass is present, it satisfies Poisson’s equation. These differential
equations form the mathematical backbone of potential theory.

.
 Physical Geodesy - Geopotential theory
Mathematical Framework
•Spherical Harmonics:
Geopotential is often expressed in terms of spherical harmonics. This expansion allows
scientists to model the Earth’s gravity field with high precision by decomposing it into
a series of functions that capture both large-scale (global) and small-scale (local)
variations.
 Physical Geodesy - Geopotential theory
Applications and Importance
•Geoid Determination:
By analyzing the Earth's geopotential, scientists can accurately determine the shape
of the geoid. This is critical for establishing a reference frame for heights and for
ensuring the accuracy of topographic maps and satellite navigation systems.
•Satellite Geodesy:
Satellite missions, such as GRACE and GOCE, measure variations in the Earth's
gravity field. Geopotential theory helps interpret these measurements, providing
insights into mass distribution changes in the Earth’s system, including ice mass
loss, groundwater depletion, and ocean circulation.
•Geophysical and Climate Studies:
Variations in the geopotential are linked to dynamic processes within the Earth,
such as tectonic movements, mantle convection, and climate-related phenomena.
Understanding these variations aids in predicting and monitoring environmental
changes.
 Gravity
Forces acting on the object which is located on earth
surface are Centrifugal force (P), Gravitational force (F) and
gravity force (g).
Blue arrows point from Earth's surface toward its
centre. Their lengths represent local gravitational field
strength. Gravitational force is strongest at the poles because
they are closest to the centre of mass. This difference is
enhanced by the increasing density toward the centre.
Centrifugal Force is caused by inertia: An object in motion keeps moving at the
same speed in the same direction unless a force acts on it. Everything on the rotating
Earth tries to keep moving in a straight line and fly off into Space. The force of gravity
continuously changes this direction of motion, making objects move in circles around
Earth's rotation axis. On the equator, everything moves to the east at 465 meters per
second, or 1000 miles per hour
 Gravity
Red arrows show the direction and magnitude of the
centrifugal force. On the equator, it is large and straight up.
Near the poles, it is small and nearly horizontal.
Vector addition of the blue and red arrows gives the
net result of gravity plus centrifugal effect. This is shown by
the green arrows, which represent the net apparent force of
gravity and the direction of local "down". Weaker downward
gravitational force at the equator plus relatively strong
upward centrifugal effect results in a net apparent force of
gravity 1/2 of 1% less than it is at the poles. If you weighed
200 N at the poles, you would weigh 199 N at the equator.
Magnitude of gravity force is gravity (g) and direction is plumb line or vertical
line given by the instruments. Gravity is expressed in terms of gal. (1gal = 1cm/s2).
Gravity at equator is 978 gal and at poles is [Link]
Gravity is usually measured in units of acceleration. In the SI system of units, the
standard unit of acceleration is 1 metre per second squared (abbreviated as m/s2).
 Gravity
Gravity is usually measured in units of acceleration. In the SI system of units, the
standard unit of acceleration is 1 metre per second squared (abbreviated as m/s2).
Reason for variation of gravity at different point
• Non Uniform shape of the earth
• Non Uniform angular velocity
• Change in the density of the earth crust
There are two types of gravimeters:
1. Relative and 2. Absolute.
Absolute gravimeters measure the local gravity in absolute units, gals.
Relative gravimeters compare the value of gravity at one point with another. They must
be calibrated at a location where the gravity is known accurately, and then transported
to the location where the gravity is to be measured. They measure the ratio of the
gravity at the two points.
Uses of Gravity
a) Mapping and Surveying – physical geodesy produces a more actual and
accurate model of the Earth and its surface. Maps and surveys done using
geodetic (from the geopotential) control points are more reliable.
• Correction to Base line measurement
• Reduction of sprit levelled height
• Establishing vertical geodetic control
• Determination of orbit of artificial earth satellites

b) Environmental Management and Geotechnical Engineering – since

physical geodesy take into consideration the “true shape” of the Earth,
environmental concerns can be easily mapped out and identified using data
obtained from physical geodesy.
• Ground water exploration
• Contaminant delineation
Uses of Gravity
c) Geophysics - geophysics deals with the physical response of the earth to a variety of
forces and the internal structure of the earth affecting its motion. Also, gravity is one of
the most important sources of information used in geophysics.
• Study of gravity anomaly over an area
• Determination of polar flattening

d) Oceanography – oceanography involves the location, movement, and trends of

shorelines, tides, etc. Physical geodesy provides data of comparison for deviations from
the mean sea level from an equipotential surface of the earth’s gravitational field (eg.
Geoid).
• Determination of Geoid
• Determination of deflection of vertical

e) Geology – physical geodesy provides geologists of mapping data, both horizontal

and vertical. Also, it provides geologists with knowledge of the location and stability of
certain geological formations.
• Crustal movement studies.
• Study of isostasy of the region (Influence of a huge mountain on a plane area)
Level Surface
The surface of constant gravity potential. It is also called equipotential
surface. A surface which at every point is perpendicular to a plumb line or the
direction in which gravity acts; parallel to the surface of still water.
 Geopotential surface (GEOPS)
Geopotential surface is the level surface of the actual gravity field on the
earth surface. For convenience it is often defined as the negative of the potential
energy per unit mass, so that the gravity vector is obtained as the gradient of this
potential, without the negation.
Equipotential surface(W) = Centrifugal potential (Φ) + Gravity potential (Ѵ)
W=Φ+Ѵ
Gravity
Gravity potential (dW) = Force (g) X distance (dH)

Gravity is defined as negative vertical gradient of gravity potential

𝑑𝑊
𝑔=− Where H is the orthometric height
𝑑𝐻
Spherops (Sphero potential surface) – The level surface of normal gravity field
on the surface of the spheroid.

Normal gravity (ϒ) : The gravity on the surface of spheroid. Normal gravity is
defined as negative vertical gradient of sphero potential.
𝑑ϒ
𝑔=− Where h is the spheroidal height
𝑑ℎ
Normal gravity cannot be observed, but can be computed since the spheroid is
an imaginary surface.
Gravity
 Gravity Anomaly and Gravity Disturbance
Gravity anomaly is difference between actual
gravity at geoid (g0) and normal gravity at spheroid
(ϒ). It is separated by geoidal undulation.
Δg = 𝑔 0 − ϒ
• Gravity anomalies helps in computing the
deflection of vertical for reduction of base lines
from geoid to reference ellipsoid

• The separation of Geoid from reference ellipsoid

can be determined by using the value of gravity
anomaly in stoke’s formula
Gravity Anomaly and Gravity Disturbance

Disturbing potential
Fundamental equation of Physical Geodesy
Gravimetric Method of Determining Geoid / Geoidal Undulation (N)
Gravimetric method of determining deflection of vertical
Gravimetric method of determining deflection of vertical
Gravity measurements and its reduction
Gravity can be divided into Absolute gravity and Relative gravity
Methods of determining the Absolute gravity
1. Simple pendulum 2. Free fall method 3. Rise and fall method
Simple pendulum

1. Where g is
2.

L is length of pendulum and T is Time of observation

 SIMPLE PENDULUM

A simple pendulum consists of a heavy

metallic (brass) sphere with a hook
(bob) suspended from a rigid stand,
with clamp by a weightless
inextensible and perfectly flexible
thread through a slit cork, capable of
oscillating in a single plane, without
any friction, with a small amplitude
(less than 150) as shown in figure 6.
There is no ideal simple pendulum. In
practice, we make a simple pendulum
by tying a metallic spherical bob to a
fine cotton stitching thread.
 SIMPLE PENDULUM

The spherical bob may

be regarded by as a point mass
at its centre G. The distance
between the point of
suspension S and the centre G
of the spherical bob is to be
regarded as the
effective length of the
pendulum as shown in figure.
The effective length of a simple
pendulum, L = l + h + r. Where l is
the length of the thread, h is
length of hook, r is radius of
bob.
 SIMPLE PENDULUM

The simple pendulum produces Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) as the

acceleration of the pendulum bob is directly proportional to its displacement
from the mean position and is always directed towards it. The time period (T) of a
simple pendulum for oscillations of small amplitude, is given by the relation,
T = 2 π √ (L/g)
Where, g = value of acceleration due to gravity and L is the effective length of the
pendulum.
T2 = (4π2/g) X L or T2 = KL (K= constant)
and, g = 4π2(L/T2)
If T is plotted along the Y-axis and L along the X-axis, we should get a parabola. If
T2 is plotted along the Y- axis and L along the X-axis, we should get a straight line
passing through the origin.
 PROCEDURE
[Link] the vernier constant and zero error of the vernier callipers same as experiment 1.
[Link] the radius (r) of the bob using a vernier callipers same as experiment 1.
[Link] the length of hook (h) and note it on the table 6.1.
[Link] h and r is already known, adjust the length of the thread l to make L = l + h + r an
integer (say L = 80cm) and mark it as M1 with ink. Making L an integer will make the drawing
easier. (You can measure the distance between the point of suspension (ink mark) and the
point of contact between the hook and the bob directly. Hence you get l + h directly).
[Link] mark M2, M3, M4 , M5, and M6 on the thread as distance (L) of 90 cm, 100 cm,
110cm, 120cm and 130 cm respectively.
[Link] the thread through the two half-pieces of a split cork coming out just from the ink mark
(M1).
[Link] the split cork between the clamp such that the line of separation of the two pieces of
the split cork is at right angles to the line along which the pendulum oscillates.
[Link] the clamp in the stand and place it on the table such that the bob is hanging at-least 2 cm
above the base of the stand.
 PROCEDURE
9. Mark a point A on the table (use a chalk) just below the position of bob at rest and draw a
straight line BC of 10 cm having a point A at its centre. Over this line bob will oscillate.
[Link] the least count and the zero error of the stop clock/watch. Bring its hands at zero
position
[Link] the bob by hand to over position B on the right of A and leave. See that the bob
returns over line BC. Make sure that bob is not spinning.
[Link] counting oscillations, from the instant bob passes through its mean position L, where its
velocity is maximum. So starting from L it traverses LL2, L2L, LL1, L1L hence, one oscillation is
completed. We have to find time for 20 such oscillations.
[Link] start the stop watch at the instant the bob passes through the mean position A. Go on
counting the number of oscillations it completes. As soon as it completes 20 oscillations, stop
the watch. Note the time t for 20 oscillations in the table 6.1.
[Link] the measurement at least 3 times for the same length.
[Link] increase the length of the thread by 10 cm or 15 cm (M2) and measure the time t for
this length as explained from step 6 to 14.
[Link] step 15 for at least 4 more different lengths.
 OBSERVATIONS
Vernier constant
Vernier constant of the vernier callipers, V.C. = ______________ cm
Zero error, ±e = _____________cm

Diameter of the bob and length of hook

Observe diameter of the bob:= (i) ______cm, (ii)________cm, (iii)___________cm
Mean diameter of bob, d0 = _________cm
Mean corrected diameter of bob, d = d0 ±e = __________cm
Radius of the bob, r = d/2= ____________ cm
Length of the hook, h= __________cm
Standard value acceleration due to gravity, g1 : 980 cm s-2
Least count of stop clock = ____________s
Zero error of stop clock = ___________s
Table Determination of time-periods for different lengths of the
pendulum.
Gravity measurements and its reduction
Free fall method
Free fall method
Free fall method
Rise and fall method
Rise and fall method
Rise and fall method
Relative gravity measurements
Relative gravity measurements
Relative gravity measurements
Relative gravity measurements
Relative gravity measurements
Relative gravity measurements
Methods of measuring Relative gravity
Methods of measuring Relative gravity
Methods of measuring Relative gravity
Methods of measuring Relative gravity
Height system used in Geodesy
Vertical position is a position along a vertical direction above or below a
given vertical datum. Vertical distance or vertical separation is the distance
between two vertical positions. Many vertical coordinates exist for expressing
vertical position: depth, height, altitude, elevation, etc.
Height is measure of vertical distance, either vertical extent or vertical
position. In three-dimensional space, height is measured along the vertical z
axis, describing a distance from (above or below) the x-y plane.
In geodesy, the following heights systems are employed:
Orthometric height
Dynamic height
Normal height
Ellipsoid height
Geoid
Height system used in Geodesy
1. Orthometric Height (H):
The vertical distance from a point on the Earth's surface to the geoid (mean
sea level), measured along the plumb line.
o Reference Surface: Geoid.
o Measurement Basis: True gravity field of the Earth.
Orthometric heights are most commonly used in engineering and
topographic maps.
Orthometric height
Orthometric height
 Normal height (HN)
The vertical distance from a point to the quasi-geoid, an approximation of the
geoid that uses a simplified gravity model.
o Reference Surface: Quasi-geoid.
o Measurement Basis: Normal potential field of an ellipsoidal Earth model.
The quasi-geoid is a mathematical model approximating the geoid (mean sea
level) used as a vertical reference surface, particularly when dealing with normal
heights, which are heights relative to this surface.
A simplified approach used in geodesy when full orthometric data is unavailable
or impractical.
 Normal height
Normal heights is a type of height above sea level introduced by Mikhail
Molodenskii. The normal height (HN) of a point is computed from geopotential
numbers by dividing the point's geopotential number by the average, normal
gravity computed along the plumbline of the point
Normal height
Dynamic height
Dynamic Height (Hdyn):
The height is calculated based on the geopotential difference between a point and
the geoid, normalized by the mean gravity value.
o Reference Surface: Equipotential surface of Earth's gravity field.
Measurement Basis: Gravitational potential energy.

Dynamic height is tied to gravitational potential, making it ideal for studying fluid
dynamics and sea level.
Dynamic heights are critical for scientific studies, such as sea-level change and
hydrology.
Dynamic height
Dynamic height is a way of specifying the vertical position of a point above a
vertical datum, as opposed to orthometric height or normal height. It can be
computed dividing the location's geopotential number by the normal gravity at the
centre of the area or the normal gravity at 45 degree latitude.
Dynamic height is constant if one follows the same gravity potential as they
move from place to place. Dynamic heights are usually chosen so that zero
corresponds to the geoid. Dynamic height is the most appropriate height measure
when working with the level of water over a large geographic area.
Dynamic height
Aspect Orthometric Height Dynamic Height Normal Height
Quasi-geoid
Equipotential surface of
Reference Surface Geoid (mean sea level). the Earth’s gravity field.
(approximation of the
geoid).

Takes actual gravity along Based on mean gravity Uses a simplified gravity
Gravity
the plumb line into and geopotential model for Earth's
Consideration account. difference. ellipsoid.

Derived from geopotential Calculated using

Measurement Requires precise gravity
differences, normalized ellipsoidal gravity and
Method data along the plumb line.
by gravity. quasi-geoid.

High-accuracy gravity Simplified model, less

Relatively less dependent
Data Requirement data needed for precise
on local gravity data.
data-intensive than
values. orthometric height.

Practical applications in Regional mapping and

Large-scale hydrological
Common Usage engineering and
and sea-level studies.
when orthometric heights
construction. are impractical.
Height system used in Geodesy
Height system used in Geodesy
Height system used in Geodesy
Height system used in Geodesy
Geoidal Height
Spheroidal / Ellipsoidal Height
Spheroidal / Ellipsoidal Height
Spheroidal / Ellipsoidal Height
 GRACE Missions:
Gravity Recovery and Climate
Experiment

Original GRACE satellites 2002-17

GRACE Follow-on launched 2018

 GRACE Mission:
Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment
“

GRACE consists of two identical spacecraft that fly about 220 kilometers apart
in a polar orbit 500 kilometers (310 miles) above Earth. GRACE maps Earth's
gravity field by making accurate measurements of the distance between the
two satellites, using GPS and a microwave ranging system. It is providing
scientists from all over the world with an efficient and cost-effective way to
map Earth's gravity field with unprecedented accuracy.

“The gravity variations studied by GRACE include: changes due to surface and
deep currents in the ocean; runoff and ground water storage on land masses;
exchanges between ice sheets or glaciers and the ocean; …”
GRACE satellites sensing gravity changes
Example of distance & topography relationship
 GRACE data characteristics:

2–6 month latency

Monthly data (some months missing)
Coarse spatial resolution (~100s km)

GRACE original mission ran 2002–2017 (5-year expected duration was far
outlived, although by late 2016 GRACE was under modified operations to
prolong battery life)

GRACE Follow-on mission launched May 2018, initially had some issues with
onboard equipment, but data flow was expected in 2019.
Animation of the change available from [Link]
Animation of the change available from [Link]
Example of GRACE Groundwater Data
GRACE April 2015 anomaly from 2002 to 2015 average
Methods for geoid determination
Geoid determination is a fundamental task in physical geodesy, aiming to establish
an accurate reference surface that approximates mean sea level. Several methods
have been developed over the years, each with its advantages and limitations.
Here’s an overview of the primary techniques:
1. Classical Methods
i. Spirit Leveling Combined with Gravity Measurements
ii. Gravimetric Geoid Determination
2. Gravimetric Geoid Determination
i. Satellite Gravimetry
ii. Satellite Altimetry
3. Combined and Hybrid Approaches
i. Data Integration
ii. Least-Squares Collocation
iii. Spherical Harmonic Analysis
Classical Methods
i. Spirit Leveling Combined with Gravity Measurements
•Spirit Leveling:
This traditional method involves precise differential leveling between a network of
benchmarks. When combined with gravity observations, it enables the
determination of gravitational potential differences.
•Stokes’ Formula:
The potential differences are integrated over the Earth's surface using Stokes’
formula, which relates the geoid height to the measured gravity anomalies.
Classical Methods
ii. Gravimetric Geoid Determination
•Terrestrial Gravity Surveys:
Detailed gravity measurements over a region are used to map the gravity
anomalies. These anomalies are then processed through integral equations (like
Stokes’ formula) to compute the geoid.
•Regional Approaches:
In areas where high-resolution gravity data is available, regional geoid models are
computed with corrections for local topography and density variations.
Gravimetric Geoid Determination
i. Satellite Gravimetry
•Satellite Missions:
Missions such as GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) and GOCE
(Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer) have revolutionized
geoid determination. These satellites measure minute variations in the Earth's
gravity field from space.
•Global Gravitational Field Models:
The data from these missions are processed to generate high-resolution spherical
harmonic models of the Earth’s gravity field. These models are then transformed
into geoid models, providing global coverage and consistent accuracy.
Gravimetric Geoid Determination
ii. Satellite Altimetry
•Ocean Surface Measurements:
Satellite altimeters (on missions like TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason series) measure
the height of the ocean surface with high precision. Since the ocean surface
approximates an equipotential surface (the geoid), these measurements are used
to infer geoid heights.
•Combining with Gravimetric Data:
Altimetric data is often merged with gravity data to improve the resolution and
accuracy of geoid models, particularly over oceanic regions.
 Combined and Hybrid Approaches
Data Integration:
Modern geoid determination frequently involves integrating data from ground-based
gravity surveys, satellite gravimetry, and satellite altimetry. This hybrid approach
leverages the high spatial resolution of terrestrial surveys and the global coverage
provided by satellites.\
Least-Squares Collocation:
This statistical method is used to optimally combine different datasets. It estimates
the geoid by minimizing the differences between measured and modeled values,
accounting for the uncertainties in each data source.
Spherical Harmonic Analysis:
Many of these methods rely on expanding the Earth's gravitational potential into
spherical harmonics. This mathematical framework allows scientists to represent both
global and local variations in the gravity field, which is essential for precise geoid
computation.