Chapter – 3 MaChines

Meaning of a Machine

• General Definition: A device with moving parts that uses power (human, electrical, fuel, etc.) to
perform tasks.
• Physics Definition: A device which enables us to gain mechanical advantage by applying a small
effort to overcome a larger load, or to gain speed, or to change the direction/point of application of
force.

The six common simple machines are:

[Link] Plane

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[Link] and Axle

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Simple machines have one or few components

and examples include levers, hammers, and
pulleys.

Complex machines have many elements, such

as bicycles, cars, computers, and phones.

Functions and uses of simple machines:

The various functions of machines are useful to us in the following four ways:

(1) In lifting a heavy load by applying less effort, i.e., as a force multiplier.

Examples: A jack is used to lift a car, a bar is used to lift a heavy

stone, a spade, pulleys, a wheel barrow or
2) In changing the point of application of effort to a convenient point.

Example: The rear wheel of a cycle is rotated by applying effort on the pedal.

(3) In changing the direction of effort to a convenient direction.

Example: Single fixed pulley to raise water from well.

(4) For obtaining a gain in speed (i.e., a greater movement of load by a smaller movement of effort)
Examples: A pair of scissors, Ice tongs

DEFINE MACHINES: A machine is a device by which we can either overcome a large resistive force (or
load) at some point by applying a small force (or effort) at a convenient point and in a desired direction or by
which we can obtain a gain in speed.

TECHNICAL TERMS RELATED TO A MACHINES:

▪ Load The resistive or opposing force to be overcome by a machine is called load (L).
SI Unit – Newton, CGS Unit - dyne

▪ Effort The force applied on the machine to overcome the load is called effort (E).
SI Unit – Newton, CGS Unit – dyne
 ▪ Mechanical advantage (M.A.) The ratio of load to effort is called the mechanical advantage of the
machine. MA = Load / Effort
Unit: It has no unit.

Value Of Mechanical Advantage

(1) M.A. > 1

While using a machine to overcome a certain load, if the effort needed is less than the load then MA
> 1. A machine having mechanical advantage greater than 1, acts as a force multiplier. Ex: a Jack

(2) M.A. <1

If it needs an effort greater than the load, it has MA < 1. A machine having mechanical advantage
less than 1 gives gain in speed. Ex: a pair of scissors.

(3) M.A. = 1
The machine having MA = 1 is generally used to change the direction of effort as there is no gain in
force or speed. Ex: a single fixed pulley.

Note: A machine cannot be used as a force multiplier as well as a speed multiplier simultaneously.

▪ Velocity Ratio (V.R.): The ratio of the velocity of effort to the velocity of load is called the
velocity ratio of machine,
i.e., Velocity Ratio = Velocity of Effort / Velocity of Load

Velocity ratio is also defined as the ratio of the displacement of effort to the displacement of load.
i.e., V.R. = dE / dL

Values of Velocity Ratio

(1) VR < 1 Gain in Speed

A machine in which the dL > dE, will have velocity ratio less than 1 and such a machine gives gain in speed
because load is moving at a faster rate.

(2) VA > 1 Force Multiplier

If velocity ratio of a machine is more than 1, i.e., the displacement of load is less than the displacement of
effort, the machine acts as a force multiplier.
(3) VR = 1 Changes the direction of effort

The velocity ratio of a machine is 1 if the displacement of load is equal to the displacement of effort. Such a
machine generally changes the direction of effort.
Unit: Since velocity ratio is also the ratio of two similar quantities (distances), so it has no unit.

▪ Work Input - The work done on the machine by the effort, is called work input.
Work input = work done by the effort (Work input = Effort x displacement of effort)

▪ Work output - The work done by the machine on the load is called work output (W).
Work output = work done on the Load. (Work output =Load x displacement of load)
 ▪ Efficiency (ɳ{eta}) - Efficiency of a machine is the ratio of the work done on the load by the
machine to the work done on the machine by the effort.
Efficiency = work output / work input x 100%

PRINCIPLE OF A MACHINE

The point at which energy is supplied to a machine by applying effort is called the effort point and the point
where energy is obtained by overcoming the load, is called the load point.

Input energy = work done at the effort point = effort x displacement of the point of application of effort.

Output Energy = work obtained at the load point = load x displacement of the point of application of load.

For an ideal machine, Output energy = Input Energy

Feature Ideal Machine Practical Machine

Friction Absent Present
Efficiency 100% Less than 100%
M.A. vs. V.R. M.A. = V.R. M.A. < V.R.
Work Output = Work Input < Work Input

Ideal machine: An ideal machine is that in which there is no loss of energy in any manner. Here the work
output is equal to the work input. i.e., the efficiency of an ideal machine is 100%.
Actual machine: In an actual machine, the output energy is always less than the input energy i.e., there is
always some loss of energy during its operation.

The loss of energy in a machine is due to the following three reasons:

1. The moving parts in it are neither weightless nor smooth (or frictionless),

2. The string in it is not perfectly elastic

3. Its different parts are not perfectly rigid.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EFFICIENCY (n), MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE (MA) AND

VELOCITY RATIO (VR)

Efficiency (ɳ) = work output / work input

ɳ = L x dL / E x dE
𝐿 1
= x 𝑑𝐸
𝐸
𝑑𝐿

Efficiency (ɳ) = M.A. / V.R.

M.A. = V.R. x ɳ
LEVERS

A lever is a rigid, straight (or bent) bar which is capable of turning about a fixed axis. The axis, about which
the lever turns, passes through a point of the lever which is called the fulcrum. It is generally marked by the
letter F. This point does not move, but remains fixed when the lever is in use.

Principle of a lever (M.A. of a lever)

A lever works on the principle of moments according to which at the equilibrium position of the lever, the
sum of clockwise moments must be equal to the sum of anti-clockwise moments.

Clockwise moment of load about the fulcrum = Anticlockwise moment of effort about the fulcrum . i.e.,
Load x load arm = Effort x effort arm or L × LA = E × EA

KINDS OF LEVERS Depending upon the relative positions of effort, load and fulcrum, there are following
three types of levers

(1) Class I levers, (2) Class II levers, and (3) Class III levers.

(Mnemonic – Funny [class I ] Little [ class II ] Elephant [class III])

1) Class I levers
In this type of levers, the fulcrum F is in between the effort E and the load L .
Examples: A seesaw, a pair of scissors, etc.
 For class I levers, the mechanical advantage and velocity ratio can have any value either greater than
1, equal to 1 or less than 1.

M.A. >1 M.A. =1 M.A. <1

2) Class II levers

In this type of levers, the fulcrum F and the effort E are at the two ends of the lever and the load L is
somewhere in between the effort E and the fulcrum F.
Examples: A nut cracker, a bottle opener, etc.

The effort arm is always longer than the load arm. The mechanical advantage and velocity ratio of
class II levers are always more than 1.

3) Class III levers

In this type of levers, the fulcrum F and the load L are at the two ends of the lever and the effort E is
somewhere in between the fulcrum F and the load L.
Examples: Sugar tongs, knife, fire tong, spade, fishing rod etc.
 The mechanical advantage and velocity ratio of class III levers are always less than 1.

EXAMPLES OF EACH CLASS OF LEVERS AS FOUND IN THE HUMAN BODY

In a human body, we can find examples of all the three classes of levers. (1) Class I lever in the action of
nodding of head: In this action, the spine acts as the fulcrum F, load L is at its front part, while effort E is at
its rear part.
(2) Class II lever in raising the weight of the body on toes: The fulcrum F is at the toes at one end, the load L
(i.e., weight of the body) is in the middle and effort E by muscles is at the other end.

(3) Class III lever in raising a load by forearm: The elbow joint acts as fulcrum F at one end, biceps exerts
the effort E in the middle and load L on the palm is at the other end.
PULLEY

A single pulley can be used in two ways: (1) as a fixed pulley by keeping its axis of rotation stationary i.e.,
keeping its frame fixed in position, and (2) as a movable pulley by changing its axis of rotation i.e., keeping
the whole frame movable.

SINGLE FIXED PULLEY - A pulley which has its axis of rotation stationary in position, is called a fixed
pulley.

It is the friction between the string and the surface of the rim of the pulley which rotates the pulley when the
string is pulled down.

M.A., V.R., and ɳ of a single fixed pulley

MA = load/effort

MA = 1

In actual practice, however, there is always some friction at the axle or in the pulley bearings, so the effort
needed is little more than the load to be lifted.
Thus, mechanical advantage is less than 1 but velocity ratio is 1, so efficiency is always less than 100%.
A fixed pulley is used only to change the direction of effort to be applied, i.e., with its use, the effort can be
applied in a more convenient direction.

SINGLE MOVABLE PULLEY - A pulley whose axis of rotation is movable (i.e., not fixed in position) is
called a movable pulley.

VR = 2
M.A. = 2T/T = 2

ɳ = M.A./ V.R. = 2/2 = 1 or 100%

Way to change the direction of effort using a movable pulley

• With a single movable pulley, the effort has to be applied in the upward direction.
• However, it is inconvenient to apply effort in an upward direction; therefore, a movable pulley is
used along with a single fixed pulley to change the direction of effort.

M.A
.

Combination of Pulleys

• When a heavy load is to be lifted or shifted from one place to another, we require a pulley system of
MA > 2, so a single movable pulley is not enough. A combination of several pulleys is then used.

1. Using one fixed pulley and other movable pulleys

M.A.= L / E = 23
In general, if n movable pulleys are connected with one fixed pulley, then

M. A = 2n

If n movable pulleys are connected, then VR is V. R = 2n

2. Using several fixed pulleys in two blocks (the block and tackle system)

If the total number of pulleys used in both the blocks is n and the effort is being applied in the downward
direction, then the tension in n segments of the string supports the load; therefore, we have M.A. = n

The effort required to balance the load is E = L/n

V.R. = nd/d = n

Thus, VR is always equal to the number of strands of tackle (or sections of the string) supporting the load.
No of Pulleys in Upper block is equal to or greater than Lower block.
Effect of weight of pulleys on MA, VR and η

Consider a system of ‘n’ pulleys. Let ‘w’ be the total weight of the lower block along with the pulleys.

In the balanced position,

E = T & L + w = nT
L= nT – w = nE – w

M.A. = L/E = nE – w/E

= n – w/E

Thus, MA is less than the ideal value n.

VR does not change. Therefore V.R. = n

𝑛−𝑤/𝐸 𝑤
Efficiency (ɳ) = M.R. / V.R. = = 1 - 𝑛𝐸
𝑛

Therefore, efficiency is reduced due to the weight of the lower block of pulleys.

For greater efficiency, the pulleys in lower block should be as light as possible and friction be reduced.