Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction
• Asexual reproduction is the process resulting in the production of genetically
identical offspring

Examples include:
• Binary Fission (amoeba/bacteria)
• Budding (sponges/anemones)
• Spore Formation (ferns/mosses/fungi)

Advantages Disadvantages
• Rapid increase in population under
correct conditions • Limited genetic variation
to a
• Time/Energy efficient • Population is vulnerable to changes
population in environment – may be suited to
• Can exploit suitable environments
of species one habitat only
in the wild • Faster than sexual as only parent
• Disease can affect the entire
is required
population
• Isolated organisms can reproduce
• All offspring show same • If the parent plant has weak
to crop characteristics are parents, which characteristics (low yield, not
plants can be good (high yield, disease- disease-resistant), the offspring
resistant) would have the same traits

Sexual Reproduction
• Sexual reproduction is a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes
(haploid) to form a zygote (diploid) and the production of offspring that are genetically
different from each other
• Fertilisation is the fusion of gamete nuclei

Advantages Disadvantages
• Genetic variation
to a • Takes time and energy to find
• Can adapt to environmental
population mates
change, giving survival advantage
of species • Difficult for isolated members of a
in the wild • Disease won’t usually affect the
species to reproduce
whole population (due to variation)
• Higher yield
• Variation may lead to offspring
to crop • Increase in variation allows the
being less successful than parents
plants crops to cope with weather
at growing well or good harvest
changes
 Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Parts of a Flower
• Sepal: protects flower in bud form
• Petal: attracts insects
• Stigma: collects pollen grain
• Ovary: produces female gamete
• Ovule: inside the ovary; has female gamete
• Anther: produces and releases pollen which has
male gamete

Insect and Wind Pollinated Flowers

Insect Pollinated Flower Wind Pollinated Flower
Large and bright petals to attract insects Dull and drab petals, often green/brown
Nectar guides draw insect to nectar No nectar or scent
Lower number of pollen grain produced as High number of pollen grain produced as
there is a high rate of successful pollination there is a low rate of successful pollination
Large, sticky and thorny pollen grains to Smooth, small and light pollen grains so
attach to insects to be carried away they are easily blown away with wind
Anthers are inside flower, stiff and firmly Anthers are outside flower, swinging lose
attached so that insects brush against them on long filaments for easy pollen release
Stigma is inside flower, sticky so pollen Stigma is outside flower, feathery to catch
grain sticks to it when insects brush past drifting pollen grain

Pollination
• Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
• Self-pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of the same flower or different flower on the same plant
• Cross-pollination as transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma
of a flower on a different plant of the same species
• Cross-pollination improves genetic variation as there are 2 parent plants
• Lack of variation is bad as the offspring may not survive in different conditions
• Insect pollination relies of a vector, whereas wind pollination relies on the wind only.

Fertilisation
• Fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a nucleus in an ovule
• The male gamete in the pollen germinates and forms a pollen tube from the stigma
through the style. It then makes its way through the pollen tube and enters through a
gap in the ovule called the micropyle
• Once the male gamete reaches the end of the pollen tube the end disintegrates and
then the male gamete enters inside. Then the 2 gametes will fuse together and end up
forming a zygote
• The zygote divides via mitosis and forms the embryo. The ovule swells up to form the
seed seed. The integument of the ovule becomes hard and dry to form the testa. Water
ends up being withdrawn from the seed making it dormant. The ovule became the seed
and the ovary becomes 2 parts – radicle and tubule. The radicle ends up becoming
the root and the tubule becomes the chute. The cotyledon is formed out of starch and
amino acids to act as a food source. The micropyle becomes the hilum.
Factors Affecting Germination of the Seed
• Germination is the start of growth in the seed
• The factors that affect this are:
► Water – allows seed to swell up and the enzymes in the embryo to start working
so that growth can occur. The starch and protein cotyledon are digested by
enzymes to form glucose and amino acids suitable for the seeds nutrient need.
Vacuoles expand allowing the root and chute to grow. Turgor pressure is
maintained in the cells.
► Oxygen – Early stages of germination is anaerobic. When the testa splits open,
oxygen is allowed to permeate through and aerobic respiration occurs.
► Warmth – germination improves as temperature rises (till the optimum point)
as the reactions which take place are controlled by enzymes. Ideal temperature
varies depending on the seed itself.

Sexual Reproduction in Humans

Sex Cells and Fertilisation
Fertilisation is the fusion of the nuclei from a
male gamete (sperm cell) and a female gamete
(egg cell).

Sperm Egg
Very small Large
Flagellum No flagellum
Can move Can’t move
Produced daily in Present from birth,
large numbers after one matures and is
puberty released each cycle
after puberty

Gamete Feature Reason

Flagellum (tail) Enables it to swim to the egg
Sperm Enzymes in head (acrosome) To digest jelly coat and cell membrane of egg
Many mitochondria Provides energy for locomotion
Provides energy for dividing zygote after
Cytoplasm with energy store
fertilisation
Egg
Jelly coat that changes after Forms an impenetrable barrier after fertilisation
fertilisation to prevent other sperm nuclei entering the cell

Male Reproductive System

• Testis: produces sperm and testosterone
• Scrotum: sac supporting testes, to ensure sperm is
kept at a tempereature slightly lower than the body’s
• Epididymis: stores sperm
• Sperm Duct: pathway of the sperm in which it mixes
with seminal fluid
• Seminal Vesicle: produces seminal fluid to help
sperm swim (fluid + sperm = semen)
• Prostate Gland: secretes an alkaline fluid to help
sperm swim and to neutralise acid in vagina
• Urethra: carries semen and has a muscle that prevents semen mixing with urine
 • Penis: allows semen to pass into the vagina of a woman during intercourse

Female Reproductive System

• Ovary: contains egg which will mature and develop
when hormones are released; produces oestrogen and
progesterone.
• Oviduct: egg moves through this by cilia (present on
the lining) movement and peristalsis; fertilisation occurs
here
• Uterus: muscular bag with soft lining where the zygote
will be implanted into the endometrial lining to develop
into a foetus
• Cervix: ring of muscle below uterus to keep the baby in
place during pregnancy
• Vagina: sperm deposited here; muscular tube that leads to
the inside of the woman’s body. Passageway for exit of
menstrual blood. Passage for exit of foetus during labour.
Sex Hormones in Humans
Puberty
Hormonal changes in humans: Males Females
• Testosterone in males Sperm produced (main characteristic) Maturation of egg (main
• Oestrogen in females Growth of hair characteristic)
Development of muscles Hips become broader
Gonads are the reproductive Voice cracks as larynx changes shape as pelvis widens
structures (testes and ovaries) Broadening of shoulders Vagina becomes larger
in which hormones are Penis becomes larger Breasts develop and
produced and are the Scrotum expands to contain larger testes nipples become larger
hormone’s target organs. Formation of acne as skin becomes oily Menstrual cycle begins

The Menstrual Cycle

• 28 days long on average
• Controlled by hormones
• Ovulation (release of an egg) occurs
about halfway through the cycle
• Menstruation (breaking of the uterus
lining) lasts around 5-7 days and
signals the start of the next cycle

Hormones Involved in the Menstrual

Cycle
1 Follicle Stimulating - produced in the pituitary gland
Hormone (FSH) - stimulates 1 follicle to mature
- follicle becomes a Graafian follicle
- stimulates ovary to produce oestrogen

2 Oestrogen - stops FSH secretion (so only 1 egg matures)

- stimulates pituitary gland to produce LH
- stimulates repair in lining of uterus
 3 Luteinising - stimulates ovulation
Hormone (LH) - stimulates formation of the corpus luteum

4 Progesterone - released by corpus luteum

- prepares uterus for pregnancy and implantation
- prevents FSH and LH secretion so another egg doesn’t mature

• Ovulation occurs once the follicle matures and oestrogen level is at its peak
• If the egg isn’t fertilised the corpus luteum breaks down and progesterone level falls
• If pregnancy occurs progesterone production continues until the placenta is developed,
preventing the uterus lining from breaking down and aborting the pregnancy

Growth and Development of the Foetus

Growth and Development
In early development, the zygote divides by mitosis to form
the embryo, which will implant into the wall of the uterus.
The gestation period is 9 months. In the first 12 weeks,
development of the organs occur and after that, the foetus
grows in size.

The Foetus in the Uterus

• Amniotic Sac: membrane made out of mother’s
blood plasma, that encloses the amniotic fluid
• Amniotic Fluid: protects the foetus against
mechanical shocks and prevents it from drying out
and prevents temperature fluctuations
• Umbilical Cord: connects mother to the foetus and
contains blood vessels for transfer of materials

The Placenta
The placenta has several important functions in during the gestation period:
• Involved in the exchange of nutrients (like glucose) from the mother to the baby
• Involved in the exchange of wastes (like CO2 and urea) from the baby to the mother
• Protection to the foetus is provided by the mother’s immune systems
• Protects against dangerous fluctuations in the mother’s blood pressure
 • Secretes progesterone to maintain uterus lining (corpus luteum breaks down by 3rd
month)

The placenta also develops finger-like projections called

villi, which extend into the wall of the uterus. This
increases the surface area for diffusion of wastes and
nutrients.

There is no direct contact between maternal and foetal

blood as their blood groups may be different. This also
makes sure that pathogens do not reach the baby.

Some toxins (nicotine) and pathogens (HIV and Rubella

virus) are small enough to pass across the placenta and
reach the foetus.

There are 2 blood vessels in the umbilical cord:

• Umbilical artery: carries deoxygenated blood and wastes away from the foetus to the
placenta
• Umbilical vein: carries oxygenated blood and nutrients to the foetus from the placenta

Towards the end of pregnancy, even antibodies cross the placenta so that the baby has
immunity to certain diseases. This is an example of passive immunity.
 Antenatal Care and Labour
Antenatal Care
Antenatal care is the care provided during the pregnancy period.

Dietary needs include:

• Sufficient proteins
• Calcium and Iron
• Folic acid (prevents birth defects of the brain and spine)

The mother should avoid smoking as it has severe effects:

• Low birth weight
• Birth defects related to the brain, heart and lungs

The mother should avoid alcohol consumption as it has severe effects:

• Increased risk of miscarriage
• Increased risk of premature birth
• Affects brain development – leads to learning disability and behavioural problems later

Labour
The process of labour is:
1 Breaking of the amniotic sac
2 Contraction of the muscles in the uterus wall (stimulated by oxytocin)
3 Cervix dilates (stimulated by oxytocin)
4 Baby passes out through the vagina
5 Umbilical cord is cut and tied (so that there is no blood loss)
6 Delivery of the afterbirth (placenta)

Breast Milk vs Formula Milk

Advantages Disadvantages
• Free
• At correct temperature
• Can lead to postnatal
• Has antibodies
depression if it doesn’t
• Has all nutrients in right
come out of the mother
proportions
Breast Milk easily
• Baby develops bond with
• Only the mother is
mother
responsible for feeding
• Less risk of contamination the baby
• Easy to digest
• No additives
• Father can be involved
• Baby gets hungry less • Expensive
Bottle Feeding using
Formula Milk
often • Risk of infections if bottle
• Mother doesn’t need to be isn’t sterilised properly
worried about their diet
 Methods of Birth Control
Artificial Insemination (AI)
Treats fertility by inserting semen directly into uterus close to ovulation. The sperm may be
obtained by from the partner or a donor. This is done if:
• Sperms aren’t motile enough
• Male has erectile dysfunction

In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF)

Treats infertility by containing eggs and sperms outside the body within a petri dish.
• Woman is given fertility drugs
• Eggs are obtained
• Kept in a petri dish and fertilised with sperms
• Grown in an incubator
• Healthy embryos are transferred into the uterus

Methods of Birth Control

Natural:
• Abstinence: refrain from having intercourse
• Monitoring Body Temperature: body temperature rises near ovulation (not effective)
• Rhythm Method: woman keeps track of her ovulation (not effective)
• Monitoring Cervical Mucus: woman knows when mucus is thick enough to block
sperm (not effective)
Barriers:
• Condom: placed on penis and prevents sperm from reaching egg (and HIV)
• Femidom: placed in vagina and prevents sperm from reaching egg (and HIV)
• Diaphragm: cervical cap that prevents sperm from reaching egg, but is usually
effective when used with a spermicidal
Chemical:
• Spermicidal: kills sperm (applied on the vagina)
• Intra Uterine Device: placed in uterus, acts as a barrier and breaks down
endometrium, so the embryo doesn’t get implanted and is removed from the body
• Intra Uterine System
• Contraceptive Pill: contains high levels of oestrogen and progesterone so that uterus
lining is maintained and so that new egg doesn’t develop and get released
• Implant: releases progesterone which will restrict ovulation
• Injection: injects progesterone which will restrict ovulation
Surgical:
• Vasectomy: sperm duct is cut and tied so it doesn’t mix with seminal fluid
• Tubectomy: oviduct is cut and tied so the egg doesn’t reach the site of fertilisation

Social Implications of Contraception and Fertility

• Fertility treatments are very expensive
• Can lead to overpopulation
• IVF can lead to multiple pregnancies, risking life of foetus and mother
• Can cause emotional and financial loss as these can cause miscarriages
• Children born through this are prone to mental retardation, lung problems and learning
disabilities
• Women are obtaining professional degrees so they can focus on their work
 Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI)
STIs
• STIs are infections that are transmitted via body fluid through sexual contact
• Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is an STI

Methods of Transmission
Transmitted through body fluids, especially semen:
• Unprotected sex
• Sharing needles
• Unsterilised surgical instruments
• Blood transfusion
• From infected mother to foetus via blood or milk

HIV
Viruses attack some types of lymphocytes; hence the number of lymphocytes are reduced
and therefore there is a reduced ability to produce antibodies. HIV can cause AIDS.

Treatment
• Condoms
• Screen blood before transfusion
• Sterilised needles and surgical instruments
• Feed baby with formula milk (if mother has AIDS)