Techniques of Integration Ch 7
Chapter 7: Integration Techniques
Recall that in Section 5.5 we introduced our first
integration technique, the Substitution rule.
In Chapter 7, we introduce several more techniques for
evaluating definite and indefinite integrals:
7.1 Integration by Parts
7.2 Trigonometric Integrals
7.3 Trigonometric Substitution
7.4 Partial Fractions
7.8 Improper Integrals
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7.1 Integration by Parts
Integration by Parts
The following formula is called the integration by parts,
which can be proved by the product rule of differentiation.
Simply, it may be written as
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Integration by Parts
Therefore, its definite integral form is given by
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Examples
1.
2.
3.
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Examples
4.
5.
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Integration by Parts
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Integration by Parts
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Exercises
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7.2 Trigonometric Integrals
Trigonometric Integrals
In Section 7.1, recall that we used the method of
integration by parts to find the recurrence relations:
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Trigonometric Integrals
In this Section 7.2, we use only basic identities to change
integrals involving trigonometric functions into another form,
which can be evaluated.
First, we consider the case when powers of sine or cosine
functions appear.
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Examples.
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Another useful way to handle such cases is using
to reduce powers of trig functions.
To summarize, we list guidelines to follow when
evaluating integrals of the form:
∫ sinmx cosnx dx
where m ≥ 0 and n ≥ 0 are integers.
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Trigonometric Integrals
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Examples.
3.
4.
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Trigonometric Integrals
We can use a similar strategy to evaluate integrals of the
form: ∫ tanmx secnx dx.
Since (d/dx) tan x = sec2x, we can separate a (sec2x)
factor and convert the remaining even power of secant
to an expression involving tangent using the identity:
(1) sec2x = 1 + tan2x.
Or, since (d/dx) sec(x) = sec(x) tan(x), we can
separate out a (secx tanx) factor and convert the
remaining even power of tangent to secant.
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Example 5.
Evaluate ∫ tan6x sec4x dx.
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Trigonometric Integrals
A strategy for evaluating general integrals of the form
∫ tanmx secnx dx is summarized below.
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Trigonometric Integrals
For other cases, the guidelines are not as clear-cut. We
may need to use identities, integration by parts, and
occasionally a little ingenuity.
Sometimes, we will also need to integrate tan(x) by using
the formula given below:
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Trigonometric Integrals
Finally, we also need the indef. integral of secant:
We could verify this formula by differentiating the right
side, or as follows. First we multiply numerator and
denominator by sec x + tan x:
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Trigonometric Integrals
If we substitute u = sec x + tan x, then
du = (sec x tan x + sec2x) dx, so the integral becomes
∫ (1/u) du = ln |u| + C.
Thus we have
∫ sec x dx = ln |sec x + tan x| + C
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Example 7.
Find ∫ tan3x dx.
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Example 7.
Find ∫ tan3x dx.
Solution:
Here only tan(x) occurs, so we use tan2x = sec2x – 1
to rewrite a tan2x factor in terms of sec2x:
∫ tan3x dx = ∫ tan x tan2x dx
= ∫ tan x (sec2x – 1) dx
= ∫ tan x sec2x dx – ∫ tan x dx
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Example 7. (cont.)
= – ln |sec x| + C
In the first integral we mentally substituted u = tan x so that
du = sec2x dx.
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Trigonometric Integrals
We can also make use of the following set of trig identities:
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Example 9.
Evaluate ∫ sin 4x cos 5x dx.
Solution:
This integral could be evaluated using integration by parts,
but it’s easier to use the identity in Equation 2(a) as
follows:
∫ sin 4x cos 5x dx = ∫ [sin(–x) + sin 9x] dx
= ∫ (–sin x + sin 9x) dx
= (cos x – cos 9x) + C
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Exercises
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7.3 Trigonometric Substitution
Trigonometric Substitution
A number of practical problems require us to integrate
algebraic functions that contain an expression of the form
Sometimes, we can get rid of the root sign by trigonometric
substitution.
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Trigonometric Substitution
Notice the difference between the substitution u = a2 – x2
(in which the new variable is a function of the old one) and
the substitution x = a sinθ (the old variable is a function of
the new one).
In general, we can make a substitution of the form x = g(t)
by using the Substitution Rule in reverse.
Replacing u by x, and x by t, in the Substitution Rule, we
obtain:
This kind of substitution is called an inverse substitution.
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Trigonometric Substitution
To make our calculations simpler, we assume that g has an
inverse function; that is, g is one-to-one.
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Example 2
Find the area enclosed by the ellipse . .
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Trigonometric Substitution
Example 3 Find .
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Examples
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Exercises
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7.4 Partial Fractions
Partial Fractions
Let us consider the integration of certain rational functions.
We can integrate these functions by expressing them as sums
of simpler fractions, called partial fractions, that we already
know how to integrate.
* We focus on the case with denominator of degree < 4.
Example. Find
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Partial Fractions
Notice that the denominator can be factored as a product of
linear factors:
So we can write it as:
Comparing both sides or evaluating at some special values,
we can find A and B.
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Partial Fractions
Hence we obtain:
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General Cases
Case 1: If the degree in the numerator in Example 1 was the
same as that of the denominator (or higher) we would have
had to take the preliminary step of performing a long division.
For example,
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General Cases
Case 2: If the denominator has distinct linear factors, we need
to include a term corresponding to each factor. For example,
where A, B, and C are constants determined by solving a
system of three equations in the unknowns A, B, and C.
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General Cases
Case 3: If a linear factor is repeated, we need to include extra
terms in the partial fraction expansion. Here’s an example:
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General Cases
Case 4: When we factor a denominator as far as possible,
we might obtain an irreducible quadratic factor ax2 + bx + c,
where the discriminant b2 – 4ac < 0 is negative.
Then the corresponding partial fraction has the form:
where A and B are constants to be determined. This term can
be integrated by completing the square and using the formula
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Examples
Write out the form of partial fractions expansion for each:
2.
4.
8.
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Partial Fractions
Example 5.
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Rationalizing Substitutions
Some nonrational functions can be changed into rational
functions by means of appropriate substitutions.
In particular, when an integrand contains an expression of
the form then the substitution may be
effective.
Other instances appear in the exercises of Section 7.4.
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Rationalizing Substitutions
Example 9. Evaluate
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Exercises
1.
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Exercises
2.
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Exercises
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7.8 Improper Integrals
Improper Integrals
In this section, we extend the concept of a definite integral to
the cases where:
(1) the interval is infinite,
(2) f(x) has an infinite discontinuity in [a, b].
In either case the integral is called an improper integral.
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Improper Integrals
Before we get started, first recall the following limits:
______, 𝑟𝑟 > 0,
lim 𝑥𝑥 𝑟𝑟 = � ______, 𝑟𝑟 = 0,
𝑥𝑥→∞
_______, 𝑟𝑟 < 0.
______, 𝑟𝑟 > 0,
lim+ 𝑥𝑥 𝑟𝑟 = � ______, 𝑟𝑟 = 0,
𝑥𝑥→0
_______, 𝑟𝑟 < 0.
These will be useful later on.
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Type 1: Infinite Intervals
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Type 1: Infinite Intervals
Consider the infinite region S that lies
under the curve y = 1/x2,
above the x-axis, and
to the right of the line x = 1.
The area of the part of S that lies to the left of the line x = t is
Figure 1
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Type 1: Infinite Intervals
Notice that A(t) < 1 and
So we can say that the area of the infinite region S is 1
and we write
Figure 2
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Type 1: Infinite Intervals
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Type 1: Infinite Intervals
Remark: Any of the improper integrals in Definition 1 can be
interpreted as an area provided that f(x) is a positive function.
Example. Determine whether the following integral is
convergent or divergent:
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Type 1: Infinite Intervals
Let’s compare the result of Example 1 with the example given at
the beginning of this section:
Figure 4 Figure 5
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Type 1: Infinite Intervals
Based on the previous examples, we conclude that
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Example 3.
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Type 2: Discontinuous Integrands
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Type 2: Discontinuous Integrands
Suppose that:
f is a positive continuous function on [a, b)
but has a vertical asymptote at b.
Let S be the unbounded region:
under the graph of f and above the x-axis between a and b.
The area of the part of S between a and t (the shaded region)
is
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Type 2: Discontinuous Integrands
If A(t) approaches a definite number A as t → b–, then we say
that A is the area of the region S, and we write:
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Type 2: Discontinuous Integrands
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Type 2: Discontinuous Integrands
Example 5. Find
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Type 2: Discontinuous Integrands
Example 8.
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Type 2: Discontinuous Integrands
Example. Determine for which values of p does the following
integral converge, and evaluate it when convergent:
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A Comparison Test
for Improper Integrals
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A Comparison Test for Improper Integrals
Sometimes it is impossible to find the exact value of an
improper integral, but it still is important to know whether it
is convergent or divergent.
In such cases the following theorem is useful.
Remarks
(1) A similar theorem is true for Type 2 integrals.
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A Comparison Test for Improper Integrals
(2) We omit the proof of the Comparison Theorem, but the
following figure makes it seem plausible.
That is:
if the area under the top curve y = f(x) is finite, then so is
the area under the bottom curve y = g(x);
or if the area under y = g(x) is infinite, then so is the area
under y = f(x).
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A Comparison Test for Improper Integrals
Example 9. Show that is convergent.
Notice that:
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Exercises
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Exercises
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