Chapter 1: CHEMISTRY LABORATORY APPARATUS, USES

AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

1.1 Laboratory Apparatus: What are they made of?
A laboratory is a place, usually a room, where scientific
experiments are performed by the use of pieces of apparatus and
chemical reagents. Laboratory apparatus are either made of
glass, porcelain, plastic, or metal.
Glass is widely used in making most of the laboratory apparatus.
This is because glasswares are not readily attacked by chemical
reagents and solvents. The most common variety of glass is
'pyrex' (borosilicate); the other is soda-lime silica glass
(sodaglass). Beakers, flasks, test tubes and measuring cylinders
are examples of pieces of apparatus that are made of glass.
Porcelain is generally used in molding apparatus that are often
used in experiments requiring very strong and prolonged heating.
Examples of such apparatus include crucible and evaporating
dish. Others are mortar and pestle.
Plastics such as 'polythene' and 'polypropylene' are widely used
in the production of laboratory apparatus, because they are not
affected by water, alkalis and dilute acids but are readily attacked
by organic solvents.
Metals such as platinum, copper, steel, stainless steel,
aluminum, nickel, brass, and silver are used in making a number
of apparatus. Examples are Bunsen burners, retort stand, crucible
tong, scissors, wire gauze, etc.
1.2 Chemistry Laboratory Apparatus and their uses
The most essential and frequently used apparatus are drawn
below. You are expected to be able to identify them by their
names physically, and, or, when drawn in two dimensions. At the
same time, you must be familiar with their uses. Most of the
apparatus are made of glass - hence fragile. They should be
handled with care to avoid damages. It should be noted that most
of glass apparatus are of various sizes and capacities. The types
to be used depend on the scale of experiment.
Laboratory Apparatus
Drying (absorption) Tubes (26) are made of glass. There are
two types: (a) has a U-shape with side arms, and (b) is straight
with a bulb near one end. When filled with a drying agent such as
anhydrous CaCl₂, they are used in drying or in absorbing gases.
Distillation Column, Fractional (27) is a long glass tube filled
with glass beads, used during fractional distillation of miscible
liquids with widely different boiling points e.g. a mixture of
ethanol (b.p. 78°C) and water (b.p. 100°C).
Filter Paper is a circular thin white sheet. It is used in filtering
and in absorbing solvents from wet crystals (or precipitates).
Filter Pump (28) is made of glass, plastic, or nickel-plated brass.
When connected to a water jet-line, it will provide vacuum
suitable for filtration by suction.
Flasks They are made of glass. There are various types:
 Conical Flask (29) is commonly used to hold liquids
especially during titration. Graduated conical flask can be
used to estimate the volume of a solution.
 Flat-bottom (30) and Round-bottom (31) Flasks are used
for boiling liquids.
 Filtering Flask (32) has a short side-arm. It is used for
filtration under suction.
🔥 Heating & Combustion
 Bunsen Burner (14): Provides high temperatures using
propane/butane gas.
 Combustion Boat (19): Used for combustion experiments
to estimate carbon, acid, or sulfur.
 Gauze, Wire (41): Iron mesh with asbestos center; supports
flasks during heating.
⚗️Glassware & Flasks
 Conical Flask (29): Used in titration; may be graduated.
 Flat-bottom Flask (30) & Round-bottom Flask (31): For
boiling liquids.
 Filtering Flask (32): Has side-arm; used for suction
filtration.
 Distillation Flask (33): With slanting side arm; used in
simple distillation.
 Volumetric Flask (34): Pear-shaped; used for preparing
standard solutions.
 Retort Flask (35): Pyrex; used for preparing NO with strong
heating.
 Separating Funnel (37): For separating immiscible liquids.
 Thistle Funnel (38): For intermittent reagent addition.
 Buchner Funnel (39): Porcelain; used with suction
filtration.
 Filter Funnel (36): Supports filter paper or transfers liquids.
🧪 Measurement & Transfer
 Burette (5): For accurate volume measurement during
titration.
 Measuring Cylinder (43): Graduated; measures solution
volumes.
 Graduated Pipette (45): Delivers various small volumes.
 Bulb Pipette (46): Transfers specific volumes accurately.
 Dropping Pipette (47): Adds solutions dropwise.
 Pipette Filler (48): Rubber; fills pipettes safely.
🧫 Storage & Handling
 Sample Tube (50): Stores small solid samples.
 Gas Jar (42): Collects gases.
 Desiccator (25): Keeps solids dry and dust-free.
 Corks (21, 22): Used as stoppers or supports.
🌀 Separation & Filtration
 Centrifuge (16): Separates fine solids from liquids.
 Chromatographic Jar (17): Develops TLC plates.
 Filter Paper: Filters and absorbs solvents.
 Filter Pump (28): Creates vacuum for suction filtration.
 Distillation Column (27): Fractional distillation of liquids.
🧷 Support & Accessories
 Clip (18a, 18b): Mohr and crocodile clips for flow control
and wire connection.
 Rod, Stirring (49): Stirs liquids and dislodges precipitates.
 Scissors (51): Cuts filter paper or magnesium wire.
 Spatula (52): Transfers solids; used in flame tests.
 Crucible (23): Porcelain; used for igniting solids.
 Crucible Tong (24): Holds hot crucibles.
💨 Gas Handling
 Drying Tubes (26): Absorbs gases using drying agents.
 Gas Generator (40): Supplies gases like CO₂, H₂, H₂S.
Laboratory Apparatus
 Combustion Tube (65): Made of hard glass tubes wide
enough to hold chemical substances requiring strong
heating, especially during combustion experiments.
 Capillary Tube: Made of tiny glass tubes with very small
diameters, used in capillary experiments. When sealed at
one end, it can be used in the determination of the melting
points of solids.
 Tile (66): Made of white plastic or white porcelain, usually a
square, used during titration to obtain sharp end points.
 Triangular Pipe-Clay (67): Made of iron covered with pipe-
clay, used in supporting a crucible on a tripod stand.
 Pneumatic Trough (68): Made of thick glass, can be
cylindrical or rectangular but usually rimless. It is used in
holding water during the preparation and collection of gases
over water.
 Water (steam) Bath (69): Made of aluminum or copper
fitted with concentric rings.
Laboratory Apparatus and Setups
1. (8)
o Delivery tube
o Gas in
o Gas jar
o Water trough
o Bee-Hive Stand
2. (9)
 o Gas in
o Gas out
o Woolff's bottle
o Drying agent
3. (10a)
o Delivery tube
o Gas jar
4. (11)
o Gas
o Delivery tube
o Funnel
o Stand
5. (12)
o Gas in
o Delivery tube
o Beaker
6. (13)
o Sample
o Clamp
o Combustion tube
o Bunsen burner
7. (14)
o Boiling water
o Burette clamp
 o Conical flask
8. (16)
o Beaker (upper)
o Beaker (lower)
o Layers
9. (17)
o Thermometer
o Clamp
o Beaker
o Rubber band
o Coiled tube (with sample)
o Liquid pipette
o Retort stand
o Wire gauze
o Bunsen burner
10. (18)
o Thermometer
o Clamp
o Stirrer
o Boiling tube
o Beaker
o Liquid sample
o Tripod stand
o Bunsen burner
Laboratory Rules and Guidelines
Danger
(i) Always handle glassware with care - being fragile, and to
avoid glass cuts. (ii) Never use sodium, potassium,
phosphorus or concentrated acids and alkalis unless you are
specially instructed. These chemicals are corrosive. Always
add concentrated acids to water slowly, when diluting the
acid; never add water to acid. This is to avoid acid burns,
explosion, and fire. (iii) Do not taste, nor drink any chemical,
and never smell any chemical directly. This is to avoid
swallowing or inhaling toxic chemicals. (iv) Do not mix
chemicals aimlessly, nor carry out any experiment except
when instructed - to avoid explosion or fire outbreak. (v) Do
not put a glowing splint or a burning paper in the waste box -
to avoid fire outbreak. (vi) Do not touch nor hold any
electrical instrument with wet or bare hand. Any electrical
instrument should be switched off first before making any
connection, when disconnecting and then immediately after
use. This is to avoid electric shock. (vii) All accidents should
be reported immediately to the instructor. (viii) Do not enter
the laboratory unless an instructor is present.
Cleanliness
(i) Pour liquids only, down the sink. Never pour solids - to
avoid blockage. (ii) Clean the apparatus after use, and
replace them in their proper places. (iii) Wipe down your
bench, and leave it clean and dry.
Expense
(i) Use the minimum amount of chemicals, because the
success of your analysis is not directly proportional to the
quantity of the chemical used. Results are faster with small
 quantity and you still save money. (ii) Do not light the
Bunsen burner or other sources of heat until required. Turn
off when no longer required.
General
(i) Be careful and considerate always. (ii) Do not block the
fire, or escape doors with chairs, stools, textbooks and other
materials. (iii) Try to avoid waste of all kinds.
Key Laboratory Apparatus & Their Uses
 Weighing bottle: For holding solids during weighing.
 Spatula: For transferring solids into test tubes.
 Filter funnel: For pouring liquids into burettes or during
filtration.
 Crucible tong: For holding hot crucibles.
 Bee-hive shelf: For supporting gas jars during gas
collection.
 Volumetric flask, pipette, burette: For accurate liquid
measurements.
 Desiccator: For keeping salts dry.
 Kipp’s apparatus: For generating gases without heating.
 Liebig condenser: For converting vapor to liquid in
distillation.
⚠️Common Laboratory Faults
 Heating when not required or failing to heat when needed.
 Apparatus hanging in air or not air-tight.
 Using wrong drying agents or collecting soluble gases over
water.
 Leaking taps during titration.
 Mispositioned delivery tubes.
🔥 Common Laboratory Accidents & Prevention
 Glass cuts: Handle glassware carefully.
 Acid burns & explosions: Always add acid to water, not
the reverse.
 Inhaling/swallowing chemicals: Never taste or directly
smell chemicals.
 Electric shocks: Avoid using electrical instruments with wet
hands.
 Fire outbreaks: Don’t mix chemicals aimlessly or dispose
of burning items improperly.
🧼 Safety Rules
 Clean apparatus after use.
 Pour only liquids down the sink.
 Use minimal chemicals to save cost.
 Don’t block fire exits.
 Always work under supervision.
🧫 Basic Techniques in Qualitative Analysis
 Putting solids into test tubes: Use a spatula or folded
paper method.
 Pouring liquids: Bring container close to test tube mouth
and pour gently.
 Filtration:
o Fold filter paper into a cone.
o Wet it and place in funnel.
o Pour mixture using a glass rod to guide flow.
 o Residue stays in paper; filtrate collects in beaker.
Qualitative Analysis
Laboratory Confirmatory Tests for Individual Gases
Individual or specific chemical tests are usually performed to
confirm the presence of a particular gas. Tests such as the
recognition of the colour, odour, or the action of a gas on
moist litmus papers are used to eliminate as many gases as
possible. The only exception to this is ammonia, NH₃, which
is at present, the only accepted alkaline gas.
The following experiments or tests are designed to enable
the students master the physical properties of common
gases, and the reactions in which they are involved. The
confirmatory tests for the gases are fully described.
For demonstration or practice, appropriate known salts
should be used. Later unknown salts could be supplied to the
students for identification.
Note that for a number of gases, several chemical tests are
given in order to allow a choice to be made according to the
reagents and time available.
List of Materials/Reagents Required
1. Test tubes
2. Strips of filter papers
3. Wooden splint
4. Bunsen burner
5. Anhydrous CuSO₄ (white)
6. Anhydrous CoCl₂ (blue)
7. Concentrated HCl
8. Concentrated ammonia solution
9. Lead ethanoate solution
10. Fresh starch solution
11. Potassium iodide solution
12. Tetrachloromethane solution
13. Acidified KMnO₄ solution
14. Acidified K₂Cr₂O₇ solution
15. Lime water (fresh)
16. AgNO₃ solution
(See the appendix for the preparation of the reagents.)
(D) Tests for Carbon (IV) Oxide or Carbon Dioxide, CO₂
CO₂ gas is evolved when the trioxocarbonate (IV), CO₃²⁻ or
HCO₃⁻ salts are heated (except Na₂CO₃ and K₂CO₃ that are
stable to heat) or by the action of dilute acids such as HCl on
any CO₃²⁻ or HCO₃⁻ salt.
Test: (a) Put a little amount of solid CaCO₃ or NaHCO₃ in a
test tube, and heat. or (b) Put a little of anhydrous Na₂CO₃ or
NaHCO₃ in a test tube, and add dilute HCl dropwise.
Observation: There is a brisk effervescence in (b); a gas is
given off (in both cases) which is colourless, odourless, turns
blue litmus paper to red (acidic), and extinguished burning
splint.
1) Hydrogen Chloride, HCl gas. HCl gas is given off when
conc. H₂SO₄ is heated with any chloride salt.
Test: Put some NaCl crystals in the test-tube, add a few
drops of conc. H₂SO₄, warm. Observation: There is
effervescence, gas evolved is colourless, has irritating smell,
and acidic to litmus.
To confirm HCl gas (a) Put a thin strip of filter paper soaked
in concentrated ammonia solution by the mouth of the test-
tube containing the gas. A dense white fumes of ammonium
chloride is produced. HCl + NH₃ → NH₄Cl (s)
(b) Hold into the gas, a glass rod or a capillary tube dipped
into a solution of silver trioxonitrate(V), AgNO₃, (or pass the
gas into a test-tube containing AgNO₃ solution). A white
precipitate of silver chloride, AgCl, will be formed. HCl +
AgNO₃(aq) → HNO₃ + AgCl(s) (white)
Note: The reactions of HBr and HI with AgNO₃ solution are
similar to that of HCl.
6) Chlorine Gas, Cl₂ Cl₂ gas is evolved when conc. H₂SO₄ is
added to a mixture of a chloride salt and MnO₂ powder, and
heated.
Test: Put some NaCl crystals in a test tube, add a little MnO₂
(black) powder, and a few drops of conc. H₂SO₄. Warm.
Observation: There is effervescence, gas evolved is
greenish-yellow, irritating, turns blue litmus paper red - then
bleaches it.
To confirm Cl₂: Introduce into the gas, a strip of starch
paper soaked in potassium iodide solution (starch-iodide
paper). The paper turns blue-black due to the liberation of
iodine from potassium iodide. Cl₂ is an oxidising agent. (The
liberated iodine turns starch blue-black). Cl₂ + 2KI → KCl +
I₂
7) Bromine Gas, Br₂ Test: Put some KBr crystals in a test-
tube, add a little MnO₂ powder and few drops of conc. H₂SO₄,
warm. Observation: A reddish-brown vapour with irritating
smell and acidic to litmus is evolved.