1.

Introduction - Seed and its importance

INTRODUCTION
The history of agricultural progress from the early days of man has been the history of seeds of new crops and
crop varieties brought under cultivation. In the early days it was achieved through the cultivation of indigenous but
useful plants and those taken through introductions. Later through the well-known techniques of selection,
hybridization, mutation, polyploidization and plant biotechnology the scientists made available many new and
better varieties. However, the pace of progress remained slow for long time. It was the only during the mid sixties
that a revolution took place in our concept of yield potential of major cereals and millets due to introduction of
dwarfing varieties and later exploitation of hybrid vigour in cross pollinated crops became the basis for making
significant advances in yield.

However, to the farmer all this scientific research would be of little value unless he gets seeds, which are
genetically pure, high germination percentage and vigour, high purity, sound health etc. When the farmers do not
get seeds possessing these qualities the yields they obtain may not be as expected. The pace of progress in
production therefore, will largely depend upon the speed with which we are able to multiply and market good
quality seeds of high yielding varieties.

The use of high quality seed thus plays a pivotal role in the production of all vegetables. The use of poor quality
seeds nullifies the utility of all agronomic practices and every other input applied to the crop no matter how lavishly
they are applied. The statement “Good seed on good land yields abundant produce” in Manusmruti – an ancient
Hindu Scripture, provides proof of age-old recognition to importance of good quality seed in crop production.
Economically, the cost of seed is a very small component of the total cost of production. Sindhur Sen (1974)
summarizes the importance of seed quality thus “What are known as the seeds of hope may turn into seeds of
frustration” if they are not of high quality. It is therefore, important to use the seed confirming to the prescribed
standards in terms of high genetic purity, physical purity, physiological quality and health quality.

SEED AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Seed is defined as fertilized, matured ovule consisting of an embryonic plant together with a store of food, all
surrounded by a protective coat. In seed production, seed stands for any of the following classes of seed used for
sowing or planting:
1. Seeds of food crops including edible oil seeds and seeds of fruits and vegetables
2. Cotton seeds
3. Seeds of cattle fodder
4. Jute seeds
5. As per Indian Seed Act (1966), seed also include vegetative propagules like tubers (potato), bulbs (onion),
rhizomes (turmeric), roots, cuttings (sugarcane), all types of grafts and other vegetative propagules of food
crops or cattle fodder.

Importance of seed
 Seed is the vital input in crop production because through seed only the investment made on other inputs
like pesticide, fertilizer, irrigation and crop maintenance can be realized.
 Good quality seeds of improved varieties ensures higher yield atleast 10-12%
 Seed acts as a vehicle for the superior genes to reach farmers.
 Carrier of bio technological innovations
 The seed required for raising the crop is quite small and its cost is also less compared to other inputs, but
the greater income farmer gets depends upon the quality of the small quantity of seed he uses.
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  Hence utmost care must be given upon the use of quality seed and thus use of certified seeds guarantees
quality and ensures high and assured yield under different environmental stress seed conditions.
 This emphasizes the need for increasing the area under quality seed production. So one has to take efforts to
produce quality seed and boost the yield by seed to seed seedling concept.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SEED AND GRAIN

The distinction between seed and grain is vital, being of seminal importance to agriculture. A seed, strictly
speaking, is an “embryo” a living organism embedded in the supporting or the food storage tissue. The seed
pertains to material (seed, fruit or vegetatively propagating material) meant for sowing or planting purposes, the
essential function being the reproduction. The seed when scientifically produced (such as under seed
certification) is distinctly superior in terms of seed quality, namely, the improved variety, varietal purity,
freedom from admixtures of weeds and other crop seeds, seed health, high germination and vigour, seed
treatment and safe moisture content etc. A grain on the other hand, includes cereals and pulses meant for human
consumption.

Table 1. Difference between seed and grain.

Sl. No. Seed Grain
1 It should be a viable and vigorous one Need not be a viable one
2 It should be physically and genetically pure Not so
3 Should satisfy minimum seed certification standards No such requirements
4 It can be treated with pesticide /fungicide to protect seed Since its used for consumption, it
against storage pests and fungi should never be treated
5 Respiration rate and other physiological and biological No such specifications
processes should be kept at low level during storage
6 Should be compulsorily labeled and certified No such condition
7 It should satisfy all the quality norms Not considered
8 Seed can utilized as grain provided if it is not treated Grain never can be converted into
with poisonous chemicals seed.
9. Planned programme –start with demand forecasting Need not required well planning
ends with marketing
10. Authenticated source is required to raise a seed crop Need not be
11. Specific land and field requirements Not so
12. Should be monitored for certification standards and Not so
certified by the Agency
13 To be harvested at physiological maturity Harvestable maturity
14 Proper post-harvest technology should be followed Not so

Table 2. Difference between seed production and grain production

Sl. No. Seed production Grain production
1 Planned program-start with demand forecasting ends with Well planning not required
marketing
2 Authenticated source is required to raise a seed crop Need not be
3 Specific land and field requirements Not so
4 Should be monitored for certification standards and Not so
certified by the agency
5 To be harvested at physiological maturity Harvestable maturity
6 Proper post-harvest technology should be followed Not so

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CONCEPT AND GOALS OF SEED TECHNOLOGY

Definitions of Seed Technology

Cowan (1973) identified seed technology as “that discipline of study having todo with seed production,
maintenance, quality and preservation”.
Feistritzer (1975) defined seed technology as the methods through which thegenetic and physical characteristics of
seeds could be improved. It involves such activities as variety development, evaluation and release, seed
production, processing, storage and certification.
Thus seed technology is essentially an inter disciplinary science whichencompasses broad range of subjects.
In its broadest sense,” seed technology includesthe development of superior crop plant varieties, their evaluation
and release, seedproduction, seed processing, seed storage, seed testing, seed certification, seed qualitycontrol, seed
marketing and distribution and research on seed physiology, seedproduction and seed handling based upon modern
botanical and agricultural sciences”.
In a narrow sense “seed technology comprises techniques of seed production,seed processing, seed storage,
seed testing and certification, seed marketing anddistribution and the related research on these aspects”.

Relationship of seed technology to the other sciences

1. Genetics and plant breeding: development of new crop varieties, maintenance of nucleus and breeder’s
seed, GOT etc.
2. Agronomy: The agronomists provide suitable seed production package of practices to get higher yield of
good quality seeds.
3. Horticulture: Provide suitable package of practices for vegetables, flowers and other horticulture crops.
4. Plant pathology and entomology: provide the packages for management of pest and diseases and
development of seed health testing techniques.
5. Taxonomy: Identification and cataloguing of germplasm, varieties etc.
6. Plant physiology: Seed development and maturation studies. Development of seed germination, vigour and
viability testing techniques.
7. Agricultural Economics: Provide the necessary information regarding seed marketing distribution,
economics of seed production, seed price fixation etc.
8. Agricultural engineering: Associated with development technologies for seed crop planting, harvesting,
seed processing, seed drying, seed treatment, seed handling and testing equipments
9. Agricultural extension: involved in popularizing the use of high quality seeds of high yielding varieties
amongst the farming community.

Role of seed technology:

Feistritzer (1975) outlined the following roles of improved seed.

1. Improved seed – a carrier of new technologies: The introduction of quality seeds of new varieties wisely
combined with other inputs significantly increase yield levels. In India, the cultivation of high yielding varieties
have helped to increase food production from 52 million tonnes to more than 200 million tonnes over a period of 50
years.
2. Improved seed – a basic tool for secured food supply: The successful implementation of the high yielding
varieties programme in India has led to a remarkable increase in production and food imports from other counters
have been brought down inspite of rapid increase in population.
3. Improved seed – the principal means to secure crop yields in less favourable

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areas of production: The supply of good quality seeds of improved varieties suitable to these areas is one of the
important contributions to secure higher crop yields.
4. Improved seed – a medium for rapid rehabilitation of agriculture in cases of natural disaster: In case of
floods and drought affected areas the Govt. will provide the improved seeds from national seed stocks to rehabilate
the agricultural production of foods grains in the country.

Goals of Seed Technology:

The major goal of seed technology is to increase agricultural production through the spread of good quality seeds of
high yielding varieties. It aims at the following:
1. Rapid multiplication: Increase in agricultural production through quickest possible spread of new varieties
developed by the plant breeders. The time taken to make available thedesired quantities of seeds of improved
varieties to farmers should be considered as ameasure of efficiency and adequacy in the development of seed
technology in the country
2. Timely supply: The improved seeds of new varieties must be made available well in time, sothat the planting
schedule of farmer is not disturbed and they are able to use good seedfor planting purposes.
3. Assured high quality of seeds: This is necessary to obtain the expected dividends from the use of seeds
ofimproved varieties.
4. Reasonable price: The cost of high quality seed should be within reach of the average farmer.
In brief the role of seed technology in agriculture sector is to timely supply of quality seeds for reasonable
price.
Characteristics of good quality seed
 It must be genetically pure (Breeder seed-100%, Foundation seed-99% and Certified seed-98%).
 It should be viable with higher germination percentage for certification.
 It should have the required level of physical purity for certification (All crops-98%, carrot-95%).
 It should be free from other crop seeds and objectionable weed seeds (berseem, wild cucurbits, wild lettuce
and wild bhendi)
 It should be free from designated diseases.
 It should be physically sound, good in shape, size, colour etc.
 It should possess physiological vigour, high longevity and shelf life.
 It should have optimum moisture content for storage -long term storage - 8 % & below -short term storage -
10-13%.
 It should have high market value.

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 2. Concept of seed quality and its components

SEED QUALITY:
During multiplication of variety for use as a seed, it is essential that genetic purity of the variety must be
maintained. If the genetic purity is not maintained, superiority of the variety is likely to be lost. In addition for best
results the farmers should use new pure seed every few years in case of self-pollinated crops and every year for
hybrid varieties for maintenance of quality of seed. Some of the important organizations involved in production,
certification and marketing of seeds. In India NSC (National Seed Corporation), SSC (State Seed Corporation)
SFCI (State Farm Corporation of India), SA/HU’s (State Agriculture/Horticulture Universities), SSCA (State Seed
Certifying Agency) and private companies are involved in the production certification and marketing of seeds.

Seed certification began in Sweden during the last quarter of 19 th century, in 1886, the Swedish Seed
Association was formed. Towards the end of 19th century Dr. E. Helvo established a Seed Testing Laboratory in
Denmark in order to conduct seed tests for certification. In 1917 Dr. J.W. Robortson, a Canadian scientist, proposed
the production of foundation seed, which is now a crucial stage in quality seed production.

In 1919, the International Crop Improvement Association (ICIA) was (renamed as Association of Official
Seed certification Agency -AOSCA in 1969) formed. This association has been crucial in the development of the
procedures and standards for quality defined the 4 classes (B.S, F.S, R.S and C.S) of quality seed in relation to
forage crops. Latter in 1968 the association proposed that the same 4 classes be adopted for grain crops. The
procedure and the minimum quality standards for seed production were published by the association in 1946 in
India.

Definitions of seed quality:

Thompson (1979) defined seed quality as a multiple concept comprising several components and their relative
importance in different circumstances and laid much emphasis on analytical purity / physical purity, species purity /
genetic purity, freedom from weeds, germination percentage, seed vigour and health, seed moisture content and
seed size, weight and specific gravity.
Nema (1985) defined as “a complex one refers to it is genetical quality, physical and physiological quality of
independently and interaction with one another.

Characteristics of Good Quality Seed / Seed Lot: Components of Seed Quality

1) It must be an improved variety- The variety must be a superior than existing one. It should be a HYV, short
duration, resistance to pests and diseases etc.

2) It should have maximum genetic purity (GP): Genetic purity means, the absence of contaminants in the field
/ seed, may be other varieties of same crop species as well as other crop species. The standard of genetic purity
is very high. (The amount of contamination permitted rages from 0 to 0.1)
a. Nucleus & Breeder class of seeds having 100% GP
b. Foundation class of seeds 99% GP
c. Certified class of seeds 98% GP
d. Hybrid class of seeds 95% GP
e. Cotton hybrid class of seeds 90% GP
f. Castor hybrid class of seeds 85% GP

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3) Physical purity: Physical purity implies freedom of seeds from weed seed, other crop seeds and inert matter.
Inert matter consists of sand, soil particles, straw, chaffy seeds, diseased, insect infested, shriveled, unfit for
germination and broken seeds, in some cases if more than half of the normal seed is not considered as defective,
provided the embryo is not damaged.

Crop Designated inseparable other crop seeds

Barley Wheat, Oats, Gram, Triticale
Oats Wheat, Barely, Gram, Triticale
Wheat Barley, Oats, Gram, Triticale

In the seed lot, higher the content of pure seed, the better would be the seed quality that means seeds should
have higher germination percentage. All classes of seeds should have minimum 98% physical purity.

4) It should have maximum Seed germination and vigour: Seed germination refers to the ability of a seed to
give rise to a normal seedling, when planted under normal sowing conditions (Provide optimum moisture,
temperature, light etc.). The seed vigour refers to the sum total of all the attributes that gives effective plant
stand in the field. High germination percentage and vigour results in to raising of an excellent crop having
adequate plant population and uniform growth.

5) Planting value: is the real worth of seed lot for raising the crop. It is determined by calculating the Pure Live
Seed percentage as follows:
Pure Seed% Germination%
Pure Live Seed (PLS) = ----------------- X -------------------- X 100
100 100

6) It should be free from weeds and other crop seeds: There are certain species of weeds which are very
harmful in general. The seed lot should be free from weed seeds and other crops seeds.
Crop Designated Objectionable Weed Seeds
Berseem Chicory
Cucurbits Wild cucurbita sp.
Kasuri Methi Meliotus sp.
Lettuce Wild Lettuce
Bhendi Wild Abelmoschus sp.

7) It should have good seed health: The health of seed refers to the presence or absence of diseases organism /
insect pests on seeds. The quality of a seed lot very much depends on it is health. The seed lots are free from
disease organism / insect pests, those seeds lots are having good seeds health. It should have the required level
of physical purity for certification. The seed lot should be free from other crop seeds, weed seeds, inert matter,
sclerotia, nematode galls etc.,
Crop Designated diseases Causal organism
Brinjal Little leaf Datura virus
Chillies Anthracnose leaf blight Gleosporiumpiperatum
Leaf blight Alternariasolani
Tomato Early blight Alternariasolani
Cucurbits Mosaic Cucumis virus
Bhendi Yellow vein mosaic Hibiscus virus
Potato Root knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita
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8) It should have optimum seed moisture content (MC) at the time of storage: The seed moisture is the most
critical factor in the maintenance of seed viability during storage. The seed are dried to safe M.C. If the M.C is
high in the seeds the attacking of pests and diseases are more and that seed quickly reduces it is viability. It
should have optimum moisture content. For long term storage - 8% & below, short term storage 10-13%.
9) Other character like seed size, weight & specific gravity: Seed size, weight & specific gravity have been
found to have positive correlation with seed germination and vigour in many crops. The seed lots having
smaller seeds, lower specific gravity or 100 seed weight (test weight) may perform poorly when compared with
lots having higher specific gravity and 100 seed weight.
10) Seed colour: The colour of the seed often reflects the condition during seed maturation. The farmers from
ancient times have regarded good normal shine as invariable quality guides. The colour and shine deteriorates
only when the weather conditions are adverse during maturation or when insects infest the crop or when it is
handled badly.

FACTOR AFFECTING THE SEED QUALITY:

1) Ecological factors –
(a) Adoptability (b) Light (c) Temperature (d) Wind and Rain- RH-70-80% (e) Edhapic factors of soil
(f) Insect activity

2) Production technological factors:

1) Source of seed.
2) Agronomic factors – Seed rate, Fertilizer recommend, spacing, irrigation, weed control.
3) Isolation
4) Roguing
5) Control of pests and diseases
6) Methods of harvesting and stages

3) Post harvest technological factors:

1) Threshing techniques or extraction of seeds
2) Cleaning – Removal of inert matter OCS, WS
3) Drying and grading
4) Seed treatment
5) Storage and transport (Storage/packing material, Storage temperature, RH, Rodents etc.)

4) Biotic factors: effect of living organisms like weeds, bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes and insects on any
ecosystem on each other.

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 3. History and development of seed industry in India, New Seed Policy, National Seed Projects.

India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables only next to China. The country has diverse
topography and climate, which ensures availability of fruits and vegetable in every season. During 2o21-22, India
produced 204.61 million metric tons of vegetables. The area under vegetable cultivation is 11.28 m ha. In addition,
India leads the world in production of ginger and okra. We are required to intensify our efforts to increase vegetable
production to meet minimum needs as well as ensure the nutritional security of the fast growing population. Low
productivity of vegetables before aegis of green revolution was grossly due to poor availability of quality vegetables
seeds because of production of quality seeds in India has been inadequate and insufficient and so, seeds were to be
imported. Use of quality seeds of improved varieties/hybrids of different crops has witnessed tremendous growth in
productivity and total production.

Since ages Indian farmers have been mostly dependent on local varieties and farm saved seed, whose
quality is not assured, this affected the vegetable production drastically. After Independence, greater emphasis was
placed on the development of seed programmes during all the five year and annual plans by GOI.

History of seed industry development in India

Year Events
Pre-Independence Era
1800 Most of the European vegetables introduced to India by Portuguese and English
1867 Potato breeder seed scheme was initiated at CPRI, Shimla.
1876 A hand book on seed testing was published and seed testing station was established. The
world’s first seed testing station established by Prof. F. Nobbe in Tharandt, Saxony,
Germany.
1916 M/s. Sutton and Sons established office at Calcutta to supply seeds in India
1924 International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) was born in Norway (Zurich, Switzerland).
1925 The Royal Commission on Agriculture analysed (for the first time) seed production
needs and problems in India. The following recommendations were made for introduction
and spread of improved varieties;
1. Separate organization should be there within agriculture to deal with seed testing
and distribution.
2. The seed distribution should be made through co-operative societies, dept. of
agriculture and seed growers.
3. Private seed growers should be given encouragement.
Following the suggestions of Royal commission the Govt. of India established several
Research Institutes, however the seed multiplication and distribution was not encouraging.
Later on several committees were made, notable among them are;
Sir John Russell Committee in 1937, ICAR committee in 1940
Dr. Burns committee in 1944, Famine enquiry committee in 1944 and
Food Grain Policy committee in 1944.
1928 On the basis of report (by RCA), a complete organization for the supply of quality seeds to
the farmers and private sector were encouraged.
1939 Association of Official Seed Analysts (AOSA) for standardization of seed testing method
was established.
1939-1945 Till 1939 vegetable seeds were imported from other countries and due to II nd world war in
1939, the supply of vegetable seeds was stopped. By 1945 private vegetable seed
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 companies had developed facilities for producing vegetable seed at Quetta in Pakistan and
Kashmir valley.
1942-1943 Seed production programme started at Katrain (H.P) and Kashmir Valley. Vegetable seed
industry made a rapid progress.
1946 The All India Seed Growers, Merchants and Nurserymen’s Association was formed with
the objective of rapid development of Vegetable Seed Industry.
Seed Industry after Independence
1948 17 Agricultural colleges were formed under the Department of Agriculture
1948-49 Dr S. Radha Krishnan recommended the formation of agricultural universities and he
called them rural universities.
1949 Seed production programme was started at Central Vegetable Breeding Station, Katrain,
Kullu Valley by GOI. Central Potato Research Institute was established at Shimla to do
research on development of varieties and production technology of potato.
First Five Year Plan (1951-56)
During this period major emphasis was given for the use of improved seed. The improved varieties were
developed and the breeder seed was produced on govt. farms. It was then multiplied in 2 or 3 stages through
2 or 3 classes of cultivators termed as A, B and C. Larger the number of intermediate stags less pure was
the seed.
In 1952 - Grow More Food Enquiry Committee was constituted they recommended seed multiplication
and distribution schemes. However the progress made during the FFYP was poor and seed was mainly
distributed with subsidy.
Second five year Plan (1956-61)
Generally this period is regarded as Golden period for Agricultural Development and Research. In 1957
All India Coordinated Maize Improvement Project was started in collaboration with Rockfeller foundation
of USA with multidisciplinary approach. Within four years of its establishment four maize hybrids were
released. 1961-Deccan Hybrid, Ranjit, Ganga -1 and Ganga -101. By seeing the progress made the Govt. of
India started similar projects on sorghum and bajra in 1961 and the first sorghum hybrid CSH -1 was
released from New Delhi in 1964 and first bajra hybrid HB -1 from Punjab in 1965. Later on the Govt. of
India extended it to all crops of economic importance. During this period importance was given for
multiplication of foundation seed from breeder seed at block level. For this a policy was made that each
National Extension Service Block should have a seed farm and a seed store. Based on these 4328 seed
farms of 10 hectares each were proposed. However by the end of second plan period only 2551 seed farms
could be commenced. In 1959 first Indo- American Agriculture Production Team was constituted to
examine India's food production problems.
1956 The first Vegetable Seed Testing Station was established in IARI, New Delhi.
Third Five Year Plan (1961-66)
1961 Seed Multiplication Review Team stressed the need for intensive seed multiplication
programme for agriculture crops.
1963 The release of first four maize hybrids in 1961 necessitated the creation of separate
organization for seed production to exploit the full production potential of these hybrids
and this gave birth to Central Seeds Corporation in 1963. The main aim of establishing
CSC was:
1. To establish foundation and certified seed production
2. To assist in the development of seed production and marketing of seeds
3. To encourage and assist in development of seed certification programs, seed law
and seed law enforcement programs.
4. To train personnel involved in seed programs and
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 5. Co-ordinate the improved seed programs
1963-64 NSC was made responsible for making available foundation seeds of crops including
vegetables. The most significant achievements of NSC in development of seed industry
are:
1. Establishment of a scientific seed industry in the country.
2. Encouragement of Indian manufacturers for seed processing equipment.
3. Development of field inspection methods and seed standards for seed certification
and labeling.
4. Multiplication of pre-released varieties of all India importance
5. FSP of varieties of all India Importance
6. NSC provided expert services to FAO for designing high capacity processing
plants in Iran and seed storage structures in Malaysia.
Annual Plans (1966-69)
1966 HYVP-extensive coverage area with HYV of bajra, maize, paddy, sorghum and wheat.
1966 Indian Seed Act was passed by GOI with a view to regulate quality of seeds on 29 th
December.
1967 Seed Plot Technique in potato was developed for raising healthy seed stocks. Govt.
appointed Seed Review Team to study in depth the seed industry in India.
1968 Seed review team was constituted by govt. of India, The team dealt on wide range of
topics and 101 recommendations. Some of the important recommendations of the team
are;
1. Compulsory registration of varieties marketed as seeds.
2. Elimination of varieties of doubtful value
3. Pre-release publicity to be avoided and arrangement should be made for pre-release
multiplication of promising varieties
4. Persons/institutions in plant breeding research are required to register with ICAR
5. NSC should continue as national agency for foundation seed production and Agril.
Univ. also should be developed for this purpose.
6. Co-operative and private seed growers should be encouraged in seed production,
processing and marketing. Govt. agencies should concentrate on planning, research
and extension.
7. NSC should assist state govt. in setting up of seed certification agencies and
transfer its certification work to them.
8. ICAR should lay down the standards to improve the quality of breeder seed.
1968 The Seed Rules were framed in India in consultation with ISTA. NSC came into full
existence and established its own Seed Testing Laboratory (STL).
Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74)
1969 Tarai Development Corporation was established in 1969 with the assistance from World
Bank. The project aimed at integrated agriculture development of Tarai area with the
production of quality seed as primary objective. Later on it has been renamed as U.P.
Seeds and Tarai Development Corporation Ltd., w.e.f. 1st July 1978. The unique
features of this corporation were;
1. Involvement of [Link] Univ. of Agril. & Tech. The staff were involved in the
project to provide technical guidance and supervision to seed growers so that
theycan produce large quantities of F/s and C/s required for entire project area.
2. Integrated development approach, main emphasis was given for landleveling, farm
mechanization, irrigation development, electrification andadequate availability of
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 other inputs necessary for raising excellent crop and creditfacilities.
3. Participation of seed growers as shareholders of the corporation in contrast to
thecontact system of seed production followed by NSC.
4. Compact Area Approach: Technical supervision, guidance and certificationare
time consuming and important tasks.
5. Strict quality control: in addition to inspections made by SCA and certification
done by them with assistance of [Link] University.
6. Money Back Guarantee: Corporation gives the money back if any seed lot is found
to be substandard by the corporation.
7. Integrated approach for marketing seeds: the corporation appointed its dealers only
those who are simultaneously marketing fertilizers, pesticides etc.
1970-71 All India Co-ordinated Vegetable Improvement Project (AICVIP) was established at IARI,
New Delhi (Katain)
1971 Indian Society of Seed Technology (ISST) was established to serve an educational link
among seed technologists. (Seed Research & Seed Tech News)
1971 The CSC was framed by GOI to fix genetic purity standards of seeds.
Fifth five-year Plan (1974-77)
1974 India decided to launch National Seeds Programme with the assistance of World Bank.
1975-76 NSP -I was implemented.
1976 National Commission on Agriculture carried out a review of seed industry and it gave its
recommendations.
1976 International Seed Testing Rules were developed.
Sixth five-year Plan (1980-85)
1983 Enactment of Seed Control Order-Seeds was declared an essential commodity
1984 GOI started national Agricultural Project (NARP) due to which the entire country was
divided into 127 agro climatic zones.
Seventh Five year Plan (1985-90)
During this period emphasis was given for infrastructure development and facilities for enhancing seed
production both in public and private sector. Under the NSP-III, SSC were established in another four states
namely, Assam, West Bengal, M.P. and Gujarat. Strengthening of Seed Technology research and training
facilities.
1988 Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards (IMSCS )published by the Central Seed
Certification Board (CSCB), Department of Agriculture and Co-op., Ministry of
Agriculture, GOI, New Delhi during July.
1988 New Policy on seed development was passed on 16th Sept. 1988, which came into effect on
1st Oct, 1988. The policy was directed to assure the Indian farmers access to the best seeds
available anywhere in the world with a view to maximize the yields of various crops. It laid
emphasis on
1. Import of High quality seeds
2. A time bound program to strengthen Plant Quarantine facilities.
3. Effective observance of procedures for quarantine/post quarantine.
4. Incentives to encourage the domestic seed industry.
Eighth five -year Plan (1992-97)
Increased seed production targets have been fixed for the 8th plan period.
1994 A separate NSP on vegetables approved and was initiated by IIVR, Varanasi.
2001 The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights (PPV&FR) bill-to provide for the
establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties, the rights of farmers
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 and plant breeders and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants.
2002 National Seed Policy-to provide appropriate climate for seed industry, safeguarding the
interest of Indian farmers and conservation of agro biodiversity.
2003 The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights (PPV&FR) Authority established at
New Delhi.
2004 The New Seed Act Bill- An Act to address all seed related issue which will replace all
other existing acts regarding seeds. To provide for regulating the quality of seeds for sale,
import and export and to facilitate production and supply of seeds of quality and for
matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

With ever increasing demand for good quality seed to increase the vegetable production, there is shift
towards development of hybrids and hybrid seeds. At present, there are very less public sector vegetable hybrids are
available but certain private seed companies viz., Namadhari seeds, Syngenta, BejoSheetal, Mahyco, Ankur, Indo-
American seeds company etc. have contributed tremendously in developing promising F1 hybrids. Hybrid seeds of
private seed companies are most common and popular with vegetable growers despite the cost factor because of
assured seed availability and enhanced productivity. Most of the private seed companies are concentrated in
southern India especially Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh due to favourable weather conditions for
production of quality F1 hybrid seeds of tomato, brinjal, chilli, cauliflower, cabbage, okra, melons, cucumber and
gourds. All F1 hybrid seeds of temperate vegetables viz., late cauliflower, cabbage, garden beet, temperate carrot,
radish and turnip are produced in the states of H.P. and J&K.

Current status
Indian seed industry has been growing awfully in quantity and value over the past 50 years. Both public and
private sector corporations / companies are actively involving in quality seed production. The public sector
component comprises National Seeds Corporation (NSC), State Farm Corporation of India (SFCI) and State Seeds
Corporations (SSCs), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) institutions and State Agricultural
Universities. ICAR launched All India Coordinated Research Improvement project (AICRP) on seed production
called National Seed Project in 1979 with 14 centres in different Agricultural Universities. AICRP on production
of breeder seed in vegetable crops is started under National Seed Project in 1994. Twenty two State Seed
Certification Agencies and 107 State Seed Testing Laboratories are involving in quality control and certification.
The private sector comprises around 500 seed companies of national and foreign origin but only few companies like
M/S BejoSheetal, Indo-American Hybrid Seeds and Namdhari Seeds working exclusively on vegetable hybrids.
The Indian public sector seed industry used to dominate the private sector in the very beginning. The order of
type of seeds dominating the market in terms of quantity and value has been open-pollinated varieties followed by
public hybrids and private hybrids. Currently, the situation is quite reversed. Seeds of the private hybrids are
forming a significant portion of the total vegetable seed market. The availability of vegetable seeds with NSC as on
30.09.2013 is 133.43 t. of which 131.68 t. of varietal seeds and only 1.75 t. of hybrid seeds. Due to advent of private
seed companies with the liberalization of seed trade in 1988, the public sector seed corporations have started
declining and becoming inept. Now a day the public sector is mostly confined to certified seeds of high volume, low
value segment of high yielding varieties of cereals, pulses and cotton with a limited presence in the high value
hybrid sectors of cotton and cereals.

In vegetables most of the public sector varieties and hybrids are replaced by private sector varieties and
hybrids, seed production of which is solely done by the particular manufacturers. Corporate seed firms are mainly
concentrating on vegetables like tomato, cabbage, brinjal, chilli, okra and cucurbits where the seed production of
OPVs and hybrids is comparatively easy and more profitable. The doable explanation for moribund of public sector
can be incapability to generate huge funds on research and development (R&D) when compared to private seed

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companies and lack of proper advertisement and market for public sector bred varieties and hybrids. Private seed
corporations are spending 10-12% of their turnover in R&D. Medium sized seed companies annual investment in
R&D is growing 20% annually.

At present Indian seed industry is the fifth largest seed market in the world accounting for 4.4% global seed
market after US, China, France and Brazil. Indian seed market has grown at 12% rate where the growth rate of
global seed market is 5% while the Indian vegetable seed market is growing at a rate of 10-15% in a year. There has
been an increase of 194% in Indian vegetable hybrid seed market during 1998-2008. The estimated turnover of
Indian seed industry (50000 million INR) is four percent of the global seed turnover (1250000 m. INR). The
vegetable seed business in India, at present, amounts for 9000 m. INR accounting for 18% value wise share of
different crops in Indian seed business. In future, according to National Seed Association of India (NSAI), the size
of Indian seed market is expected to grow at a rate of 11% p.a. to $3.2bn till FY16 on account of favourable global
grain supply demand fundamentals, grain productivity well below world’s major grain producing regions and
government’s continued focus on improving seed replacement rate.

New Seed Policy

A National Seeds Policy (2001) has been formulated to facilitate development, production and distribution
of improved varieties of seeds and planting materials, strengthening and expansion of seed certification system with
increased private sector participation and liberalized setup for import and export of seed and planting material. The
policy will also outline the role of biotechnology in the development of agriculture sector, clearly defining the
regulatory framework for transgenic plant varieties. The seeds division of Department of Agriculture and
Cooperation will supervise the overall implementation of the national seeds policy including PPVFR bill, seeds act,
Registration of plant varieties and import and export of seeds.

National Seed Projects (NSP -1974)

The National Seed Project funded by World Bank will be the first phase (1975-76) in the development of
India’s National Seed Program to increase the availability of high quality seeds. Project components will include:
reorganization of the National Seeds Corporation (NSC) to carry out its major responsibilities for overall
coordination and development of India’s seed industry and interstate seed marketing; provision of equipment for
NSCs vegetable seed operation; expansion of seed storage capacity and establishment of reserve stock;
establishment of State Seed Corporations (SSC, during NSP Phase-I: Punjab Haryana, Maharashtra and Andhra
Pradesh, NSP Phase-II: Karnataka, Rajasthan, U.P., Bihar and Orissa and NSP Phase-III: Assam, West Bengal,
M.P. and Gujarat); development of large scale farms for certified seed production; development of facilities to state
agricultural universities for foundation seed production, processing and storage; improvement of breeder seed
production facilities at agricultural universities and ICAR institutes; development of seed technological research
programs at agricultural universities; provision of equipment and other facilities for private seed processing
corporations; expansion of quality control and certification facilities; and provision of training and technical
assistance.

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 4. Classes of seeds, Generation system of seed multiplication

CLASSES OF SEEDS
The four generally recognized classes of seeds are: Breeder's seed, foundation seed, registered seed and
certified seed. The Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies (AOSCA) has defined these seed classes as
follows:

Nucleus seed (NS)

The handful of original seed obtained from selected individual plants of a particular variety for maintenance
and purification by the originating breeder. It is further multiplied and maintained under the supervision of qualified
plant breeder to provide breeder seed. This forms the basis for all further seed production. It has the highest genetic
purity and physical purity.

Breeder’s seed (BS)

This is the progeny of the nucleus seed multiplied in large area under the supervision of plant breeder and
monitored by a committee. It provides cent per cent physical and genetic pure seed for production of foundation
class. Golden yellow coloured tag or certificate (ISI No.356 IS: 5-1978, tag size is 12x6 cm) is issued for this
category by the producing agency. It’s should have 100 per cent genetic purity.

Foundation seed (FS)

Progeny of breeder’s seed in handled by recognized seed producing agencies in public and private sector
under the supervision of Seed Certification Agency in such a way that its quality is maintained according to the
prescribed standard. Seed Certification agency issues a white colour tag or certification (size, 15x7.5 cm) for
foundation class seed. Foundation seed is purchased by Seed Corporation from seed growers. Foundation seed can
again be multiplied by Seed Corporation in the events of its shortage with similar seed certification standard. It’s
should have minimum 99 per cent genetic purity.

Registered seed (RS)

The progeny of the foundation seed so handled as to maintain its genetic identity and purity and approved
and certified by a certifying agency. It should be of quality suitable to produce certified seed. Labeled with a purple
certification tag.

Certified seed (CS)

Progeny of foundation seed produced by registered seed growers under the supervision of Seed
Certification Agency by maintaining the seed quality as per minimum seed certification standards. Seed
Certification Agency issues a blue colour tag or certificate (Shade ISI No. 104, azure blue, tag size, 15x7.5 cm). It’s
should have minimum 98 per cent genetic purity.

Truthfully labeled seed (TLS)

If the seeds are not certified, seed which are above the minimum limits of germination and purity are
truthfully labeled. Truthfully labeling should confirm to the limit of minimum standards prescribed for the variety.
Such seed lot should have label with the details of the standards maintained for the varieties. Truthfully labeled
seed is not field certified to assure genetic purity but the seed standards are not lower than the certified class of seed.
The tag (ISC No.275 of IS 5, tag size 15x7.5) colour of the truthful label class seed is opal green.

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Differences between certified seed and truthful labeled seed
Certified seed Truthful labelled seed
Certification is voluntary Truthful labelling is compulsory for notified kind
of varieties
Applicable to notified kinds only Applicable to both notified and released varieties
It should satisfy both minimum field and seed Tested for physical purity and germination
standards
Seed certification officer, seed inspectors can take Seed inspectors alone can take samples for
samples for inspection checking the seed quality.

GENERATION SYSTEM OF SEED MULTIPLICATION

Generation system of seed multiplication is nothing but the production of a particular class of seed from
specific class of seed up to certified seed stage. The choice of a proper seed multiplication model is the key to
further success of a seed programme. This basically depends upon,
a. The rate of genetic deterioration
b. Seed multiplication ratio and
c. Total seed demand

Based on these factors different seed multiplication models may be derived for each crop and the seed
multiplication agency should decide how quickly the farmers can be supplied with the seed of newly released
varieties, after the nucleus seed stock has been handed over to the concerned agency, so that it may replace the old
varieties. In view of the basic factors, the chain of seed multiplication models could be.

a. THREE - Generation model => Breeder seed - Foundation seed - Certified seed
b. FOUR - Generation model => Breeder seed - Foundation seed (I) -Foundation seed (II)-Certified seed or
BS-FS-CS (I)-CS (II)
c. FIVE - Generation model => Breeder seed - Foundation seed (I)- Foundation seed (II) – Certified seed (I)
- Certified seed (II)

The chain of these models has been easily explained in the fig. 1. For most of the often cross pollinated and
cross pollinated crops 3 &4 generation models is usually suggested for seed multiplication. [Link], Red gram,
Jute, Rape, Mustard, Sesame, Sunflower & most of the vegetable crops.

Generation system of seed multiplication and quality control (notified varieties and hybrids)
Class of seed Agency Quality control system
Nucleus seed Concerned breeder or sponsoring Maintenance
institution of breeding
Breeder seed Breeder or sponsoring institution Breeder seed monitoring team
Foundation seed State Department of Agriculture State and National Seed
Corporation, SCA, Cooperative
and private sector
Certified seed Farmer -Do-

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3-Generation Model 4-Generation Model 5-Generation Model
Breeder Seed Breeder Seed Breeder Seed

Foundation Seed Foundation Seed Foundation Seed

Stage-I Stage-I

Certified Seed
Foundation Seed Foundation Seed
Stage-II Stage-II

Certified Seed Certified Seed

Stage-I

Fig. [Link] system of seed multiplication. Certified Seed

Stage-II

Five generation system is followed only when multiplication is very poor, there is heavy demand and
should be of self-pollinated crop.

SEED REPALCEMENT RATE (SRR)

Seed replacement rate is the rate at which farmers replace the seeds instead of using their own seeds.
Expert Group on Seed (1989) computed the SRR for major crops for the Seventh plan. It shows that all crops the
SRR was not at all close to the recommended. The lower SRR indicates the usage of farmers own saved seed. This
has resulted in low demand for quality seed. The problem was more acute in the case of public sector organization
as their production portfolio mainly constitutes on high volume low value non hybrid seeds.
Methodology of computing SRR:
SRR is computed by dividing the quantity of quality seed sown in a particular year (X) by the quantity of
seed required for the entire area under a variety / crop (Y).
SRR = X/Y x 100
Where SRR is 100% for hybrids and for pulses and cereals it is low to moderate.

Factors influencing SRR:

1. Price of seed
2. Availability of certified seed
3. Limited choice of varieties
4. Lack of awareness among farmers about the use of quality certified seeds

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How to improve SRR:
1. Adequate production and supply
2. Affordable price
3. Availability of seeds in correct time / sowing season
4. Network of marketing
5. Creating awareness among farmers about the benefits of using good quality seeds
6. Good storage
7. Release of needy varieties and its popularization
8. More frequent release of varieties resulted in moderate improvement.

Seed replacement ratio of major vegetables:

Crop SRR (%) Crop SRR (%) Crop SRR (%) Crop SRR (%)
Brinjal 64.3 Chilli 83.7 Okra 92.4 Onion 87.3
Cabbage 100 Gourds 73.5 Tomato 99.3 Peas 93.5
Cauliflower 86.4 Melons 89.2 Beans 62.2 Others 72.6

SEED MULTIPLICATION RATIO (SMR)

It is nothing but the number of seeds to be produced from a single seed when it is sown and harvested. The
SMR is calculated by using below formula.
Seed Yield (kg/ha)
SMR=
Seed Rate (kg/ha)
According to expert group on seeds (1989), the seed rate and multiplication ratios for different crops are as
follows.
Crop Seed rate SMR Crop Seed rate SMR
(kg/ha) (kg/ha)
Maize hybrid 20 1:100 Brinjal 0.40 1:420-450
Paddy 50 1:80 Bhendi 8 1:95-100
Sorghum 12 1:100 Bitter gourd 4.5 1:41
Wheat 100 1:20 Carrot 4 1:60-85
Oats 62.5 1:15 Chillies 1 1:240
Bengal gram 15 1:10 Cole crops 0.35-0.65 1:340-430
Horse gram 12.5 1:40 Cucumber 2.5 1:200
Peas 60 1:10 French bean 50 1:9
Red gram 20 1:100 Onion 10 1:171
Castor 12.5 1:60 Potato 3000 1:40
Groundnut 150 1:8 Pumpkin 1 1:160
Rape/mustard 5 1:100 Radish 10 1:100
Soybean 62.5 1:16 Ridge gourd 1.5 1:83
Cotton hybrid 1.5 1:250-300 Tomato 0.40 1:400
Mesta 15 1:40 Watermelon 3.50 1:100

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 5. Principles of Seed Production
GENETIC PRINCIPLES
Causes for Deterioration of Genetic Purity or Varietal Purity and their Maintenance
The main aim of seed production is to produce genetically pure and good quality seed. But why/how the
genetic purity of a variety is lost or deteriorated during seed multiplication. The several factors that are
responsible for loss of genetic purity during seed production as listed by Kadam (1942) are:
1. Developmental Variation
2. Mechanical Mixtures
3. Mutations
4. Natural Crossing
5. Genetic drift
6. Minor Genetic Variation
7. Selective influence of Diseases
8. Techniques of the Breeder
9. Breakdown of male sterility
10. Improper / defective seed certification System

1. Developmental Variation:When a seed crop is grown in difficult environmental conditions such as different soil
and fertility conditions, under saline or alkaline conditions or under different photo-periods or different
elevations or different stress conditions for several consecutive generations the developmental variations may
arise as differential growth response. To avoid or minimize such developmental variations the variety should
always be grown in adaptable area or in the area for which it has been released. If due to some reasons (for lack
of isolation or to avoid soil born diseases) it is grown in non-adaptable areas it should be restricted to one or two
seasons and the basic seed i.e. nucleus and breeder seed should be multiplied in adaptable areas.
2. Mechanical Mixtures:This is the major source of contamination of the variety during seed production.
Mechanical mixtures, the most important reason for varietal deterioration, often take place at the time of sowing
if more than one variety is sown with the same seed drill, through volunteer plants of the same crop in the seed
field, or through different varieties grown in adjacent fields. Two varieties growing next to each other field is
usually mixed during harvesting and threshing operations. The threshing equipment is often contaminated with
seeds of other varieties. Similarly, the gunny bags, seed bins and elevators are also often contaminate, adding to
the mechanical mixtures of varieties. Roguing the seed fields critically and using utmost care during seed
production and processing are necessary to avoid such mechanical contamination.
3. Mutations:This is not a serious factor of varietal deterioration. In the majority of the cases it is difficult to
identify or detect minor mutations. The mutants such as ‘rabbit ear’in peas should however, be removed by
roguing from seed plots to purify the seeds. In the case of vegetatively propagated crops, periodic increase of
true to type stock would eliminate the deteriorating effects of mutations.
4. Natural Crossing: In sexually propagated crops, natural crossing is another most important source of varietal
deterioration. The extent of varietal contamination, however, depends upon the amount of natural cross-
fertilization. The deterioration in varieties due to natural crossing occurs due to the following three reasons:
 Natural crossing with undesirable types.
 Natural crossing with diseased plants.
 Natural crossing with off-type plants.
In predominantly self-fertilized crops, natural crossing, is not a serious source of contamination and variety
deterioration unless the variety is male sterile and is grown in close proximity to other varieties. On the other
hand, natural crossing is the major source of genetic contamination and variety deterioration in cross-fertilized or

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 often cross-fertilized crop species. The extent of genetic contamination in seed fields due to natural crossing
depends upon the following factors:
 The breeding system of species.
 Isolation distance.
 Varietal mass.
 Pollinating agent.
As the isolation between varieties is increased the contamination generally decreases. Isolation of seed
crops, therefore is a primary factor in the seed production of crop plants cross-fertilized by wind or insects. The
extent of contamination depends upon the direction of prevailing winds, number of insects present and their
activity, humidity and temperature at the time of anthesis etc. In addition to these the mass of varieties involved
is also important in the amount of contaminating influence.
5. Genetic drift:When seed is multiplied in large areas only small quantities of seed is taken and preserved for the
next years sowing. Because of such sub-sampling all the genotypes will not be represented in the next generation
and leads to change in genetic composition. This is called as genetic drift.
6. Minor Genetic variation:It is not of much importance; however some minor genetic changes may occur during
production cycles due to difference in environment. Due to these changes the yields may be affected. To avoid
such minor genetic variations periodic testing of the varieties must be done from breeder’s seed and nucleus seed
in self-pollinated crops Minor genetic variation is a common feature in often cross-pollinated species; therefore
care should be taken during maintenance of nucleus and breeder seed.
7. Selective influence of Disease:The selective influence of disease in varietal deterioration is also a considerable
importance. New crop varieties often become susceptible to new races of diseases often caused by obligate
parasites and are out of seed programmes. Similarly the vegetatively propagated stocks deteriorate fast if
infected by viral, fungal and bacterial diseases. During seed production it is, therefore, very important to produce
disease-free seeds / stocks.
8. Techniques of the Breeder:In certain instances, instabilities may occur in varieties due to cytogenetical
irregularities not properly assessed in the new varieties prior to their release. Premature release of varieties, still
segregating for resistance and susceptibility to disease or other factors may also be important in the deterioration
of varieties.
9. Breakdown of male sterility: Generally in hybrid seed production if there is any breakdown of male sterility in
may lead to a mixture of F1 hybrids and self pollinated crops.
10. Improper Seed Certification: It is not a factor that deteriorates the crops varieties, but is there is any lacuna in
any of the above factors and if it has not been checked it may lead to deterioration of crop varieties.
Maintenance of Genetic Purity during Seed Production
Horne (1953) had suggested the following methods for maintenance of genetic purity;
1. Use of approved seed in seed multiplication
2. Inspection of seed fields prior to planting
3. Field inspection and approval of the crop at critical stages for verification of Genetic purity, detection of
mixtures, weeds and seed borne diseases.
4. Sampling and sealing of cleaned lots
5. Growing of samples with authentic stocks or Grow -out test
Various steps suggested by Hartman and Kestar (1968) for maintaining genetic purity are as follows;
1. Providing isolation to prevent cross fertilization or mechanical mixtures
2. Rouging of seed fields prior and after planting
3. Periodic testing of varieties for genetic purity
4. Grow in adapted areas only to avoid genetic shifts in the variety
5. Certification of seed crops to maintain genetic purity and quality
6. Adopting generation system
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Safe guards for maintenance of genetic purity
The important safe guards for maintaining genetic purity during seed production are;
a. Control of Seed Source: The seed used should be of appropriate class from the approved source for raising
a seed crop.
b. Preceding Crop requirement: This has been fixed to avoid contamination through volunteer plants and
also the soil borne diseases.
c. Isolation: Isolation is required to avoid natural crossing with other undesirable types, off types in the fields
and mechanical mixtures at the time of sowing, threshing, processing and contamination due to seed borne
diseases from nearby fields. Protection from these sources of contamination is necessary for maintaining
genetic purity and good quality of seed.
d. Rouging of Seed Fields: The existence of off type plants is another source of genetic contamination. The
plants differing in their characteristics from that of the seed crop are called as off types. Removal of off
types is referred to as roughing. The main sources of off types are; segregation of plants for certain
characters or mutations, volunteer plants from previous crops or accidentally planted seeds of other variety
and diseased plants. Off type plants should be rouged out from the seed plots before they shed pollen. To
accomplish this regular supervision of trained personnel is required.
e. Seed Certification: Genetic purity in seed productions maintained through a system of seed certification.
The main objective of seed certification is to make available seeds of good quality to farmers. To achieve
this qualified and trained personnel from SCA carry out field inspections at appropriate stages of crop
growth. They also make seed inspection by drawing samples from seed lots after processing. The SCA
verifies for both filed and seed standards and the seed lot must confirm to get approval as certified seed.
f. Grow-out Test: Varieties being grown for seed production should periodically be tested for genetic purity
by GOT to make sure that they are being maintained in their true form.

BREEDING PRINCIPLES

Classification of vegetables according to pollination

It is important to know which vegetable crops are self-pollinated and which are cross-pollinated for
growing vegetables for seed production. The following are the classification of vegetables based on the pollination.
i. Highly cross pollinated: More than 50% cross pollination.
a. Wind-pollinated- Eg. Amaranthus, beet-leaf, spinach, garden beet, sugar beet.
b. Insect-pollinated- Eg. All cucurbits, all cole crops, radish, turnip, carrot, onion.
ii. Often cross pollinated: 5-50% cross pollination, Eg. Limabean, egg plant, okra, chilli, sweet pepper.
iii. Highly self-pollinated: 1-5% cross pollination, Eg. Tomato, cluster bean, frenches bean, cowpea,
dolichos bean, garden pea, lettuce, methi.
Self-pollination occurs by reason of floral structures and any cross-pollination takes place is affected by insect-
pollination is often cross-pollinated crops. The frequency of such cross pollination is higher in second group. It
should be noted that cabbage, cauliflower, knol-khol, sprouting broccoli and brussel’s sprout are cultivars of
Brassica oleraceae which can freely cross with each other. Similarly both garden beet and palak, beet leaf, sugar
beet, swiss chard cultivars of Beta vulagris also crossing with each other. Hot pepper (chilli) and sweet pepper
(capsicum) are cultivars of Capsicum annum. The following are the breeding systems, sex form and growth habit of
the cross-pollinated vegetable crops.

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 Breeding system Sex form Growth habit Vegetable crops
Highly cross pollinating Hermaphrodite Annual Amaranth, spinach, palak,
chenapodium
Biennial
i. Self-incompatible Cabbage, cauliflower, knoll-
khol, brussels sprout, sprouting
broccoli, kale, radish, turnip,
garden beet, carrot, onion

ii. Self-fertile
Monoecious Annual All cucurbits, sweet corn,
spinach, asparagus
Dioecious Annual, perennial
Often cross-pollinating Hermaphrodite Annual Bhendi, lima bean, chillies

Broadly speaking, the breeding methods for all the cross pollinated vegetable crops are the same since they have
similar breeding system. However, the breeding methods differ in some respects in these vegetables, particularly
those which have self-incompatibility, dioecious or monoecious sex form and biennial or perennial growth habit.
The extent of loss of vigour due to inbreeding, a general characteristics feature of cross pollinated vegetables, will
also modification of breeding procedure to some extent.
The breeding procedure for cole crops is not much different from other cross-pollinated vegetables,
however, the varying degrees of self-incompatibility plays a great role in breeding programmes.

AGRONOMIC PRINCIPLES
Standardized seed production, besides genetic principles involves the application of the following
agronomic principles to preserve good seed quality and abundant seed yield. The following factors which are affect
the seed production if these are not practiced critically.

1. Selection of suitable agro-climatic region: The seed production of vegetable varieties and hybrids should
be carried out carefully in the region where these are well adopted. For example, seed production of
cabbage is only possible in dry temperate areas where chilling requirements are met. The climatic factors
have direct bearing on the quality seed production. These includes-light (duration, intensity and
photoperiod), temperature (low, moderate, high and very high), rainfall / snowfall (total as well as
distribution), wind (direction and velocity). Regions of moderate rainfall and humidity are much more
suited to seed production than the regions of high rainfall and humidity. Most crops require dry sunny
period and moderate temperature for flowering and pollination. Excessive dew and rains causes hindrance
in normal pollination resulting in poor seed set. Similarly too high temperature causes desiccation of
pollens.
It is therefore, clearly evident that ample sunshine, relatively moderate RF and absence of strong
winds have decided advantages for production of high quality seeds.
2. Selection of seed plots: The plot selected for seed production must have good texture and high fertility,
free from volunteer plants, weeds plants, other crop plants and free from soil borne diseases and insect
pests. Seed plot must be leveled and preceding season the same crop should have not been grown in this
land.

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 3. Selection of crop and varieties: Select the variety which should be adapted to that agro-climatic region,
high yielding and popular one and should possess other desirable characteristics like resistance to drought,
pest and diseases, earliness, grain quality etc.
4. Seed source: The seed used for raising a seed crop should be of known purity, appropriate class and
invariably obtained from an authorized official agency. Breeder seed can be produced only by the university
and foundation seed by state seed farm/and invariably obtained from an authorized official agency while
purchases of seed the following should be carefully examined.

 For BS-NS, FS-BS, CS-FS and Commercial-CS are the basic material for seed production.
 Other details on the tag-agency, purity, germination.
 Validity period
 Verify that the bags of the same variety.
5. Seed treatment: the seeds may require seed treatment before planting, if they are not already appropriately
treated.
6. Land preparation: The land for the seed production must be prepared well. Good land preparation helps to
improve germination, good stand establishment and destruction of potential weeds. It also aids in water
management and good uniform irrigation.
7. Isolation of seed crops: Is act of keeping the seed production plot away from the possible contaminants
both genetic and physical contaminants. The seed crop must be isolated from other nearby fields of the
same crops and other contaminating crops as per requirements. The isolation of a seed crop is usually done
by providing distance between seed fields and contaminating fields to produce good quality seeds.
Types of Isolation:
a. Physical or distance isolation expression is in meters.
b. Time isolation-taking of sowing in different dates.
c. Barrier isolation-if above said pollination is not possible we can go for barrier isolation by erecting tall
shelter trees.
Factors influencing isolation distance:
a. Pollination behavior of crop- Self, often cross pollinated or cross pollinated crop.
b. Pollinating agent whether wind or insect- direction of flow of wind, wind velocity, flight capacity of
insects, stickiness of pollen to insect legs.
c. Pollen characters-viability of pollen, pollen production capacity, pollen weight, time of anthesis.
d. Presence of wild pollinators.
e. Designated disease.
f. Type of seed production- Varietal or hybrid seed production
g. Breeding mechanism of plant.
h. Stages of seed production-BS, FS, CS.
8. Time of planting and seed rate: The seed crops should invariably be sown or transplanted at an optimum
age of seedling at their normal planting time. At the time of planting there should be sufficient soil
moisture for germination to take place. Lower seed rates than usual for raising commercial crops are
desirable because they facilitate roguing operations and inspection of seed crop.
9. Method of planting / sowing: the sowing of seed crops in rows helps in conducting effective plant
protection measures, roguing operation and field inspection rather going for broadcasting.
10. Depth of sowing: Depth of sowing is extremely important in ensuring good plant stands. Small seeds
should usually be planted shallow but large seeds could be planted a little deeper. Seeds would emerge
from greater depths in sandy soils than in clay soils, and also in warm soil as compared to cold. In dry
soils, seeds should be planted slightly deeper so that they come in contact with moisture.

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 11. Roguing: Is process of removal of off types, pollen shedders and other undesirable plants from the seed
plot. Adequate and timely roguing is extremely important in seed production. Roguing in most of the field
crops may be done at vegetative/pre-flowering, flowering and maturity stage.
12. Supplementary pollination: provision of honey bee hives in close proximity to the seed fields of crops of
largely cross pollinated by insects ensures goo seed set.
13. Weed control: Good weed control is basic requirement in producing good quality seed. Weeds may cause
contamination to the seed crop and in addition to reduction in yield. Though intercultural operations, hand
weeding and use of appropriate herbicides at the right time and at right manner should be practiced.
14. Diseases and pest control: The seed crop should be maintained without any pest and disease attack. The
leaf curl virus and yellow vein mosaic infestation drastically reduce the yield and quality in tomato and
bhendi, respectively. The fruit / pod bores infestation causes seed discolouration and result in poor quality
in terms viability and storability. Similarly bruchid attack in lab-lab leads to very poor storability. There is
the heavy damage in flowering and seed set in crucifer vegetables due to diamond black moth incidence.
15. Nutritional factors: Lack of N delay the field emergence, lack of P delay flowering, K is responsible for
filling and lusture the crops. Zn is essential for fertilization. Selenium is responsible for germination in
onion. Cu deficiency leads to poor embryo growth. Mn deficiency causes marsh spot in peas. Boron
deficiency results in poor seed development and hollow heart in peas. Iron deficiency causes sterility,
Molybdenum also contribute bleaching in peas.
16. Irrigation: Optimum and timely irrigation is must. Over irrigation can promote vegetative growth,
lodging, nutrient imbalance while under irrigation delay flowering, stunted growth reduced filling and
immature drying. Hence irrigation at critical stages like sowing, life irrigation, flowering and fruit, pod
formation, seed filling and seed maturation is must. With holding irrigation at harvest promotes earlier and
quicker ripening, irrigation can also be used for staggering and achieving synchronization in hybrid seed
production.
17. Harvesting of seed crop: It is of great importance to harvest a seed crop at the time that will allow both the
maximum yield and quality seed. In India harvesting of crops is done by hand. The first and last one or two
pickings may be taken for vegetables. This may promote further growth of the plant to put for the more
number of fruit/pods. In addition, the seed recovery and quality will be poor in the above pickings. From
the harvested produce the seeds should be extracted following suitable extraction methods viz., wet
extraction method for tomato, brinjal, bitter gourd, snake gourd and dry extraction method for bhendi, chilli,
crucifers, ribbed gourd, pea and beans.
18. Drying and grading: Usually seed lots are having high moisture content at the time of harvesting and
threshing. In order to preserve seed viability and vigour it is necessary to dry seeds to safe moisture content
levels. Direct exposure of the seed to sunlight may affect its quality therefore if necessary seed may be
dried under diffused sunlight in a shed with opening on all sides. Artificial drying is done by blowing dry
air at 70-85F but never exceeding 110F. Grading is done with various types of grader.
19. Movement and storage: Precautions should be taken to avoid seed deterioration while in transit and or in
storage. Ideal storage for long term is dry and cool condition. Ideal condition can be maintained if the sum
of RH and Temperature does not exceed 100F.

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 6. Methods/Tools Employed for Hybrid Seed Production

Hybrid
Hybrid is crossing between two genetically dissimilar parents. It is classified based on the number of
parents involved in hybrid seed production. Normally hybrids are superior to parents because of heterosis.

Heterosis
Heterosis is the superiority of F1 hybrid over both the parents in terms of yield and some other characters.
So heterosis breeding is broadly divided in to three major groups, depending on the number of parents involved in
hybrid seed production. They are as follows.
1. Single/one line breeding
2. Two line breeding
3. Three line breeding

1. Single/one line breeding

For this system only one parent is sufficient to maintain or multiply that particular hybrid. Here the
hybrids are produced first and then it is maintained and multiplied by asexual methods using strips, stolons,
rhizomes, stem cuttings etc. Eg. NB 21 grass
It is a cross between Napier grass and Bajra. In sugarcane this method is used for multiplication of the
hybrids. Recently single line breeding system is followed through tissue culture particularly in many plantation
crops and in some spice crop like turmeric, pepper etc.

[Link] line breeding

Here two parental lines are involved for production of hybrids. Based on the techniques adopted to avoid
self pollination in female parents, it is again grouped into
 Physical (or) manual method.
 Use of Cytoplasmic Male Sterility (CMS)
 Use of genic or Genetic Male Sterility (GMS)
 Use of Environmental sensitive Genic Male Sterility (EGMS)
 Use of Self-incompatibility system (SI)
 Use of Chemical Hybridizing Agents (CHA’s)
 Use of Transgenic Male Sterility system

Physical / Manual method

This method is otherwise called as hand emasculation and pollination method. Here the male reproductive
part (androecium) in a bisexual flower of the female parent (seed parent) is removed before opening of flower
thereby self-pollination is avoided. It requires a lot of labour and is costlier. There are three different methods
involved.
 Hand emasculation and hand [Link], Tomato, Brinjal, etc.
 Hand emasculation and natural/wind pollination-Eg. Sweet corn
 Hand emasculation and insect pollination- Eg. Cucurbits
In cotton and tomato pollen production is very less, sticky and it is not easily carried by wind and it should
be dusted. In corn the emasculation is called Detasseling i.e. male inflorescence called tassel is removed before
anthesis.

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Use of Genetic or Genetic male sterility
Here, the fertility is controlled by dominant gene MSMS and sterility is controlled by recessive gene msms,
these plants are introduced as female parents in the hybrid seed production. The genetic male sterility is used for
commercial cultivation of red gram, castor, groundnut, sugar beet, watermelon, muskmelon, pumpkin, tomato etc.
Disadvantage:
100 per cent male sterility cannot be maintained in the case of GMS system. So, we have to maintain high
density population in the seed field by sowing 2-3 seeds / hill, and all the fertile plants are removed during
flowering.
 More labour required
 More fertilizer required
Use of Environmental sensitive Genic Male sterility (EGMS)
It is the production of male sterility in different environmental conditions. It comprises of three types.
 Temperature sensitive genic male sterility (TGMS)
 Photoperiod sensitive genic male sterility (PGMS)
 Photo thermo sensitive genic male sterility

Temperature sensitive genic male sterility

Here, the plant posses the thermo sensitive gene that produces sterility at high temperature that means when
the day and night temperature exceeds 32ºC & 24ºC, respectively. It will produce sterility. The same gene will
maintain the fertility of the pollen when the temperature falls below 24ºC and 18ºC at day and night temperature,
respectively. It can be utilized in tropical countries like India.
TGMS is reported in crops like paddy, cabbage, broccoli, carrot, tomato, cucurbits etc.
Photo period sensitive genic male sterility
Plant posses the photo sensitive gene, if the day length exceeds 14 hr then it becomes sterile. The same one
becomes fertile, when the day length is less than 13hr. In Tamil Nadu the long and short day are narrow so it is not
used. PGMS is reported in crops like paddy, cabbage etc.
Photo thermo sensitive genic male sterility
Here the male sterility is controlled by the interaction of photo period and temperature. It is used both in
tropical and temperate regions. Eg: Pepper, soybean etc.
Advantages of the EGMS system
• There is no need for a maintainer line for seed multiplication, thus making seed production simpler and
more cost-effective.
• Any fertile line can be used as a pollen parent (PP); therefore, the frequency of heterotic hybrids is higher
among two-line hybrids than among three-line hybrids, thereby increasing hybrid breeding efficiency.
• Negative effects of sterility-inducing cytoplasm are not encountered.
• The EGMS trait is governed by major genes, thus enabling their easy transfer to any genetic background
and thus increasing diversity among the female (EGMS) parents, which helps in reducing potential genetic
vulnerability among the hybrids.
• Since there is no need for restorer genes in the male parents of two-line hybrids, this system is ideal for
developing lines do not possess restorer genes.

Disadvantages of the EGMS system

• Since the sterility trait is conditioned by environmental factors, any sudden change such as temperature
fluctuation because of a thunderstorm, typhoon, etc., will influence the sterility of EGMS lines.
• The multiplication of EGMS lines and hybrid seed production are restricted by space and season. This
means that an EGMS line is used in a given region and season.

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Use of Self-incompatibility system
Which prevent self-fertilization and thus encourage out crossing. Self-incompatibility means where both
male and female parts are capable of producing normal gametes but fails to set seed. The advantages of self-
incompatibility have been utilized in the production of hybrid seed in vegetable crops. Also it is important to know
the mechanism of self-incompatibility if the various vegetables are to be maintained selfing and crossing.
Advantages of using self-incompatibility
1. There is no need for maintainer lines.
2. The seed set takes place on both the parents.
Disadvantages
1. The incompatibility mechanisms are complex.
2. The incompatibility mechanisms are influenced by environment.
Types of Self-incompatibility mechanisms
Homomorphic: There is no morphological difference in the male and female organs which hinders their
compatibility, within the same flower/plant. This system is prevalent in vegetable crops.
a. Gametophytic: Genetic constitution of gametes Ex: Rape, potato, tomato etc.
b. Sporophytic: When self-incompatibility is governed by the genotype of pollen producing plant
(Sporophyte) Ex: Radish, cabbage, cauliflower, sunflower etc.
Heteromorphic: SI is associated with difference in floral morphology. In this system SI results due to difference in
the length of style and stamens. The system is again two type’s a. Distyle (small style and high anthers-Thrum, long
style and low anthers-Pin ex. Primula) and b. Tristyle (anthers and style have the different positions in the flower
viz. short, medium and long ex. Lythrus).

Use of Chemical Hybridizing Agents (CHA’s)

It is a chemical used to create male sterility. The physiological male sterility is created by artificial spray of
certain chemicals. Such chemicals are called as chemical hybridizing agent. Otherwise called as gametocides or
chemical pollen suppressant. Some of the chemicals used for this method are: Malic hydrazide (MH), Ethrel,
Sodium methyl arsenate (SMA), Zinc methyl arsenate (ZMA), FW450, NAA, GA3etc.
The important properties of ideal CHAs are:
1. Wide-spectrum action to induce sterility in successively.
2. Selective and total sterilization of stamens without affecting ovular fertility.
3. Be less phytotoxic, non-carcinogenic, and without residual toxicity that could not harm human beings and
animals.
4. Be easy to apply and economical.
Advantages of the two-line approach via CHA
1. A wide range of varieties can be used for making superior hybrid combinations.
2. The method of seed production is simpler than that of three-line breeding as it does not require development
of three lines (A, B, and R).
3. If the CHA is not effective because of nonsynchronization of flowering or continuous rain during the
critical stage
4. Heavy crop losses can still be averted because the yield of the sprayed unaffected female would still be
good enough.
5. Partial CMS lines and EGMS lines can be made completely sterile with a spray of an ideal CHA.
Disadvantages of CHAs
1. Production of impure hybrid seeds if the CHA is not effective because of unfavorable weather conditions or
non-synchronized tillering and growth.
2. Health hazards of some CHAs (such as zinc methyl arsenate or sodium methyl arsenate).

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3. High cost of the chemicals.

Use of Transgenic Male Sterility system

The foreign gene (transgene) is also used for induction of male sterility. The male sterility which is induced
by the technique of genetic engineering is called transgenic male sterility. The gene responsible for inducing male
sterility is generally used from mico-organisms. This type of male sterility comes under genetic male sterility and is
heritable. TMS has been induced in tobacco and rapeseed by transferring a gene from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens. In
this system two types of transgenes are used. One gene (barnase) causes male sterility, hence this gene is integrated
in A line. Another gene (barstar) suppresses male sterility gene (barnase) and leads to restoration of fertility. This
gene is transferred to restorer line. When a cross is made between A and R line the F1 is fertile. This is an expensive
method of obtaining male sterility. Moreover, maintenance of the male sterility is a problem. This method is likely
to be used for commercial hybrid seed production of various crops is the near future.

3. Three line breeding

It is the most widely used system for hybrid seed production. In this system, three parental lines are used.
The technique involved is Cytoplasmic genic male sterility(CGMS) system. 100 percent male sterility can be
maintained in this three line breeding system. Eg: Rice, sorghum, bajra, tomato, carrot, onion, sugar beet etc.
The three parents involved in this system are:
 A line – Female parental line/ seed parent
 B line – maintainer line
 R line – male parent / restorer line.
Advantages
 Highly stable and reliable
 Not affected by environmental factors
Disadvantages
 Limit germplasm source (CMS, Restorer)
 Dominant CMS cytoplasm in large area (WA)
 One more step for parental seed production
 Time consuming of CMS breeding
 Requires more area and labour for maintenance
of A, B, and R line.
 Inferior to agronomic performance.

‘A’ line: It is the female parent in a hybrid seed production programme. It has sterility inducing cytoplasm and
nucleus contains the recessive genes. Hence the line is male sterile.
‘B’ line: It is the fertile counter part of A line. It has fertile cytoplasm and the nucleus contain recessive gene,
hence this line is fertile. It is used as male parent to maintain the A line. It differs from A line only in the
cytoplasmic content. It is also called as Non-restorer male line.
‘R’ line:It is called as pollen parent or male parent. It has either fertile or sterile cytoplasm, however the nucleus
contains dominant gene (MSMS). Hence it is male fertile. Since this is used to restore the fertility of A line, it is
called as restorer line.

4. Sex modification in plants

Sex expression can be modified hormonal spray, foliar spray and nutrition. Treatment of an
andromonoecious cultivar of muskmelon with N-dimethyl-amino-succinamic acid (B-995) induced shift male
flowers towards femaleness. Application sufficient amount of fertilizer and moisture cucurbits have tendency to

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increase number of female flowers as compare to the male flowers
Eg. Ridge gourd and bitter gourd.
The existing constraints for hybrid technology
Inspite of well-established hybrid technology is often felt that benefits of hybrid technology have not
reached the farming community because of
1. Lack of appropriate policy on hybrid at National level including processing marketing
2. Insufficient R & D support
3. Poor coverage under hybrids due to non-availability of quality seed and required infrastructure for
marketing.
4. Lack of information and material exchange.
5. Lack of participation of private sectors.
6. Non-availability of trained man power in some countries.
7. Absence of required regional co-operation.
TYPES OF HYBRID
1. Intraspecific Hybrid
A hybrid between genetically different genotype of the same spp. It is also known as intervarietal hybrid.
These hybrids are always fertile. Based on type of cross these classified as below.
a. Single cross hybrid: The hybrid progeny from cross between two inbred lines or varieties.
A x B F1 (SCH)
b. Three way cross hybrids: The hybrid progeny between a single cross and an inbred line.
(AxB) x C F1 (TCH)
c. Double cross hybrid: The hybrid progeny from a cross between two single crosses.
(AxB) x (CxD) F1 (DCH)
d. Top cross hybrid: The hybrid progeny from a cross between inbred line and OPV
A x OPV F1 (TCH)
e. Double top cross: The hybrid progeny between a single cross and open pollinated variety.
(AxB) x OPV F1 (DTCH)
e. Multiple cross: A cross involving more than four inbred lines. Such crosses are lesser productive than the best
double cross combination. These are known as composite cross.
f. Polycross: Open pollination of a group of selected genotypes in isolation from other compatible genotype to
promote random mating among selected genotypes.

2. Interspecific Hybrid
The F1 progeny between two different spp. of the same genus. This also referred as intrageneric hybrid.
These are rarely used for commercial cultivation, because such hybrids are fertile only in few cases. Eg: In cotton
Tetraploid cultivated spp.
([Link]. barbadense)
(Varalaxmi, DCH 32, DHB 105, Sruthi, HB 224, NHB 12, TCHB 213)
Diploid cultivated spp.
([Link])
(DH 7, DH 9, Pha 46, and DDH 2)
3. Composites: A composite is developed by intermating for at least 3 to 4 generation of selected open pollinated
parents or lines having known diversity. The parents are selected based on their per se performance / GCA. They
are used in recurrent breeding programmes.
4. Synthetics: Advanced generation random mating of the population derived from a few selected inbred lines (not
less than 5-8) for GCA and the variety is being maintained by open pollination.

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 7. Seed Certification

Seed certification is a legally sanctioned, scientifically and systematically designed process to secure,
maintain, multiply and make available to farmers, seeds of superior plant varieties, so grown to ensure genetic
purity, physical quality, high germinability and freedom from pest and diseases.

As per Indian Seed Act, 1966 seed certification is voluntary but labeling is compulsory. The seed that is
sold in the market is of two types certified seed or truthfully labeled seed. The seed, which is being certified by seed
certification agency, is called as certified seed. The certification agency is a separate organization meant for
certifying the quality of the seed and it has nothing to do with seed production. The seed certification agency
maintains certain strict standards before issuing the certification tag or label. Whereas truthfully labeled seed
is one which is being produced and marketed by the producing company by maintaining the labeling standards. The
farmer or the user of the seed does not know the pedigree of the truthfully labeled seed and he has to relay on the
seed producing company. Whereas the certified seed has to maintain both field and seed standards and if the seed
lot meets both the field and seed standards then only the certification tag or label is issued. The certification
agencies are registered as autonomous bodies under the Societies Registration Act. The Seed Certification Agency
of Karnataka was established in the year 1974.

Purpose of seed certification

To maintain and make available to the farmers, through certification, high quality seeds and propagating
materials of notified kind and varieties. The seeds are so grown as to ensure genetic identity and genetic purity.

Eligibility for certification of crop varieties

Seed of only those varieties which are notified under section 5 of the Seeds Act, 1966 shall be eligible for
certification. Breeder seed is exempted from certification. Foundation and certified class seeds come under
certification. Breeder seed is produced by the plant breeder and seed technologist which is inspected by a
monitoring team consisting of the breeder, representative of seed certification agency (Deputy Director of
Agriculture), representative of National Seed Corporation (NSC, Deputy Manger) and nominee of crop co-
ordinator. The crops shall be inspected at appropriate stage.

PHASES OF SEED CERTIFICATION or SEED CERTIFICATION PROCEDURES

1. Receipt and scrutiny of application
2. Verification of seed source
3. Field inspection
4. Post-harvest supervision of seed crops
5. Seed sampling and testing
6. Labelling, tagging, sealing and grant of certificate etc.

1. Receipt and scrutiny of application

a. Application for registration: Any person, who wants to produce certified seed shall register his name with the
concerned Assistant Director of seed certification by remitting Rs.25/- per crop, per season. There are 3 seasons
under certification viz., kharif (June - September), rabi (October - January) and summer (February - May). The
applicant shall submit two copies of the application to the ADSC 10 days before the commencement of the season
or at least at the time of registration of sowing report. On receipt of the application, the Assistant Director of Seed

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Certification will verify the time limit variety eligibility and its source, the class mentioned, remittance of fee etc.
The original application is retained and the duplicate is returned to the applicant.

b. Sowing report (Application for the registration of seed farm)

The seed producer who wants to produce certified seeds shall apply to the Assistant Director of Seed
Certification in the prescribed sowing report form in quadruplicate with prescribed certification fees along with
other documents such as tags to establish the seed source.
Separate sowing reports are required for different crop varieties, different classes, different stages and if the
seed farm fields are separated by more than 50 meters. Separate sowing reports are also required if sowing or
planting dates differ by more than 7 days and if the seed farm area exceeds 25 acres. The sowing report shall reach
concerned Assistant Director of Seed Certification within 30 days from the date of sowing or 15 days before
flowering whichever is earlier. In the case of transplanted crops the sowing report shall be sent 15 days before
flowering. The producer shall clearly indicate on the reverse of sowing report, the exact location of the seed farm in
a rough sketch with direction, distances marked from a permanent mark like mile stone, building bridge, road, name
of the farm if any, crops grown on all four sides of the seed farm etc., to facilitate easy identification of the seed
farm by the seed certification officer.

2. Verification of seed source

During his first inspection of seed farm the Seed Certification officer will verify whether the seed used to
raise the seed crop is from an approved source.
3. Field inspection
The certification staff conducts field inspections at appropriate stages of crop growth to ensure that
minimum standards of isolation, preceding crop requirement, roguing and other special operations are maintained at
all times. The inspection of seed crop is done at different stages of crop growth such as at the time of sowing (when
new crop is introduced), vegetative stage or pre-flowering stage, flowering stage, post flowering or pre-harvest
stages and at the time of harvest. The contaminants to be observed during field inspections are offtypes, pollen
shedders, shedding tassels, inseparable other crop plants, objectionable weed plants and diseased plants. The field
inspections are designated to ensure that the crop is up to the prescribed field standards. All the seed fields, which
do not meet the required field standards, are eventually rejected.

Table 1. The details of crop stages and factors to be observed in crop stages are as below:
I. Pre flowering stage Verification of seed source
(Vegetative Stage) Confirmation of acreage given in the report.
Land requirement to keep check on genetic purity as well as Planting
ratio, Border rows, Isolation distance
Guide the grower in identification of off types, pollen
shedder, diseased plants, shedding tassels etc.,
II. Flowering Stages Confirm the observation of plants inspection were correct. Confirm
(May be II and III inspections when 50% whether grower had continued thorough rouging, after the previous
of plants begin to flower). inspection.
Verify the removal and occurrence of offtypes, pollen shedders,
shedding tassels, objectionable weed
III. Inspection during post flowering and Confirm the correctness of observations, made in earlier inspections.
pre-harvesting stage Guide the grower on rouging, based on pods, earhead, seed and chaff
characters such as colour, shape and size. Explain to the grower when
and how to harvest the crop and process.
IV. Inspection during harvest Verify that male parent rows have been harvested separately.
(This is the last inspection conducted on a Ensure complete removal of off types, other crops, weeds and
seed crop). diseased plants etc.,

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 Seal properly by the certification agency of the threshed produce after
initial cleaning and drying.
Instruct the seed growers for safe storage and transportation.

Table 2. Minimum number of field inspections required for different crops for certification.
Crop Minimum number of Stages of crop
inspections
Brinjal, Tomato 3 Ist before flowering
Chilli, Bhendi IInd during flowering to fruiting
IIIrd during maturity.
Carrot 3 Ist early (20-30 days after sowing)
IInd when lifted and replanted
IIIrd during flowering
Cabbage 3 Ist before marketable stage
IInd when the heads have formed
IIIrd during flowering
Onion (seed to seed) 3 Ist during early vegetative stage
IInd during bulb formation
IIIrd during flowering
Cauliflower 4 Ist before marketable stage
IInd during curd formation
IIIrd when most plants have
formed curds
IVth during flowering

Number of plants for a count: The number of plants to be counted for each field inspection as based on the plant
spacing and also plant population. Since vegetables are of wide spaced corps the minimum number of plants to be
counted for inspection is [Link] number of counts taken and the method employed in taking counts vary from crop
to crop. It is necessary to take minimum of 5 counts upto 5 acres and an additional count for every 5 acres or part of
as given below.

Table 3. Minimum number of field counts required on the basis of field size.
Area of the field Number of counts
(in acres)
up to 5 5
6-10 6
11-15 7
16-20 8
21-25 9

Unit of Certification: The entire area planted under seed production programme by an individual constitutes an
unit, provided;
a. All the seed production is to produce seed of one category and one variety.
b. Area does not exceed 10 hectares and scattered fields constituting one unit (10 ha) should not be separated
by more than 50 meters distance.

4. Post-harvest supervision of seed crops

The personnel from the seed certification agency should inspect the fields during harvesting or post
harvesting, so that there are no mechanical mixtures and the seed is not handled badly during threshing or
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afterwards. Then the seed is sent to seed processing plant with a threshing certificate. The personnel from the seed
certification agency will be inspecting the seed processing plant to avoid mechanical mixtures and damage caused
to the seed during processing.

Assigning Lot No: The lot number will have four parts. Each part will signify and confirm the following details.
Seed lot No.-MAY 14- 10- 10 - 01
First part -“Month-Year Code” and it will indicate the month and year in which concerned seed crop was
harvested.
Second part -“Production location code” and it will indicate the state or union territory where concerned seed
fields was/were located. The code number for Karnataka state is 10.
Third part -“Processing plant code” and it will indicate the seed processing plant where relevant seed lot is
processed.
Fourth part -“Seed producer code” and it will indicate ultimate serial number of an individual lot.

5. Seed sampling and testing

The representative from seed certification agency draws a representative sample from the seed lot at the
time of processing or after processing and sends the sample to official seed testing laboratory for evaluation. In the
seed testing laboratory the samples will be evaluated for seed standards such as pure seed, inert matter, other crop
seed, weed seeds, germination percentage and moisture percentage etc.

6. Labelling, tagging, sealing and grant of certificate

After receiving a satisfactory report from the seed testing laboratory, tagging and sealing of bags will be
done under the supervision of seed certification agency. Under special circumstances, advance tags will also be
issued to the extent of 75 per cent of the seed lot. Tags and seals should be in accordance with general seed
certification requirements. Affixing of tags and seals on the containers completes the process of certification of
[Link] should be done within 60 days of testing.

Resampling and reprocessing

When a seed lot does not meet the prescribed seed standards in initial test, on request of the producer Seed
Certification Officer may take resample. If the difference in germination analysed and required is within 10, then
straight away resampling can be done. If it is >10, reprocessing and resampling may be done. The producer should
request the Seed Certification Officer concerned in writing within 10 days from the receipt of the result. No charge
is collected for resampling. When a seed lot, fails even after free sampling reprocessing can be taken upon special
permission from Deputy Director Seed Certification. For such reprocessing a fee of Rs.20/- Q and lab charges
Rs.10/- Q is collected.

Grow-out test or Control Plot testing

The seed certification agency should arrange for a post season Grow-out test for all hybrids as prescribed in
the standards. It is a test of genetic purity. Samples are drawn both from the source seed and the seed produced and
grown in the field along with the standard seed samples of respective variety. By comparison, it can be determined
whether varietal purity and health of the seed produced are according to the prescribed standards.
The objective of grow-out-test is to determine the genetic purity of a given seed lot of a released cultivar
and the extent to which the submitted sample conforms to the prescribed standards. Grow out tests are conducted
for foundation classes I and II of variety cotton and tomato, hybrid cotton and its parents and hybrids of redgram,
castor, tomato, brinjal, musk-melon, true potato seed and seedless watermelon. Grow out test will be conducted
under direct supervision of the Director of Seed Certification.

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Validity period
The seed is initially valid for a period of nine months from the date of testing the samples. If the seed is not
sold within the stipulated period, it can be revalidated for a period of six months if the seed lot meets the required
seed standards. Assistant Director of Seed Certification, SCO will inspect the seed lot. He will verify the correctness
of the seed lots and ensure whether all the containers have tags and seals are intact. Later samples will be drawn and
tested, if the lot conforms to the prescribed standards the SCO will extend the validity period by six months by
stamping validation in the existing tags duly signed. The seed can be revalidated as long as it meets the prescribed
seed standards and for each revalidation.

Revocation of certificate
If the certification agency is satisfied that the certificate granted by it has been obtained by
misrepresentation of essential facts, or the holder of the certificate has failed to comply with the conditions subject
to which the certificate has been issued, can revoke the certificate. The certificate can be revoked only after giving a
show cause notice to the holder of the certificate.

Appeal against seed certification agency

If any certified seed grower is not satisfied by the decision taken by the seed certification agency (in
rejecting the seed plot), he can make an appeal to the appellate authority specified by the state government. The
appeal should be made within 30 days from receiving the rejection letter. The appeal should be made in written
along with a copy of the rejection letter and a treasury fee of Rs 100/- (Rupees one hundred only). The application
should be submitted personally or it should be sent through registered post. The decision of the appellate authority
will be final and it is binding on the seed certification agency and the seed grower.

MINIMUM SEED CERTIFICATION STANDARDS

Certification is legally sanctioned system of seed production under specific requirements. The seeds are
produced under the supervision of seed certification officials. The field level supervision is done by seed
certification officer. The seeds produced under seed certification are required to maintain the following standards.
1. Field standards
2. Seed standards

1. Field standards
These are the maximum limit permitted by the Indian Seed Certification Standards to accept the seeds as
the specific class of seed i.e., Foundation or Certified seed. These standards help in maintaining genetic purity of
the seed lot. The limits are specified for,
i. Off type (%)
ii. Designated Disease (%)
iii. Objectionable Weed (%)

The field standards are maintained by checking the crop in field through several inspections. The common
inspection stages are,
i. Vegetative phase
ii. Pre-flowering phase
iii. Flowering phase
iv. Post flowering stage
v. Pre harvest stage
vi. Harvesting stage

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 But the number of inspection varies with crop. Self-pollinated crops require lesser number (2-3) while
cross pollinated crops required more number of inspections (3-5). The maintenance of genetic purity is evaluated
after harvest through Grow-Out Test (GOT). The seed in specified number
(800 – 4000) depending on the required genetic purity percent (98.0 – 99.9 %) is raised in field in closer spacing
and the trueness to type is checked through recommended growth characters described by the breeder.

2. Seed Standards
These are the minimum requirement for acceptance as seed. Below these standards seeds are rejected for
the specified class. These standards assure physical purity and germination. The limits are specified for
i. Physical purity (%)
ii. Inert matter (%)
iii. Other crop / weed seed (%)
iv. Germination (%)
v. Moisture content for storage (%)

The seed standards are evaluated through seed testing conducted at Seed Testing Laboratory (STL). The
tested seeds, if in permissible limits are accepted for tagging and sale as certified seeds.

Prescribed field standards for the production of seeds of vegetables.

Vegetable Min. Off types

isolation (%) max.
Minimum number of field inspection and stages
distance (m) permitted
F C F C
Tomato 50 25 4 Before flowering, during flowering, at immature fruit stage and at mature fruit 0.1 0.2
stage.
Brinjal 200 100 4 Before flowering, at flowering, fruiting and mature fruiting. 0.1 0.2
Capsicum / 400 200 3 Before flowering, at flowering, fruiting and mature fruiting stage 0.1 0.2
chillies
Bhendi 400 200 4 One month after sowing, pre-flowering, at flowering and fruit maturity 0.1 0.2
Onion 1000 500 5 Vegetative phase, at lifting and replanting, bolting, flowering and at seed 0.1 0.2
maturity
Cucurbits 1000 500 3 Before flowering, during flowering and immature fruit stage and during 0.1 0.2
mature fruit stage
Amaranthus 400 200 2 Before and after flowering 0.1 0.2
Corriander 1000 500 4 Pre-flowering at flowering and seed maturity 0.1 0.2
True potato 50 25 4 At pre-flowering, at flowering, fruit ripening and at seed maturity. -- 0.1
seed
Seed potato 5 5 4 At sprouting and seeding, at tuberization, tuber hardening and tuber maturity. 0.05 0.1
French 10 5 3 Before flowering, at flowering seed set and pod formation. Nil 0.2
bean,
cowpea
Beef leaf, 1600 1000 4 Vegetative phase, steckling lifting and replanting, bolting and flowering. 0.1 0.2
garden beet,
sugar beet
Cabbage / 1600 1000 4 Before marketable stage, when majority have formed heads or lifting, bolting, 0.1 0.2
Red at flowering and siliqua / seed formation.
cabbage

SST-211 (1+1)
Cauliflower 1600 100 4 Before marketable stage, at marketable stage, at bolting and flowering. 0.1 0.2
Lettuce 50 25 4 Before heads have formed or before full grown stage in heading types, full 0.1 0.2
grown stage in non-heading type, at flowering and seed maturity.
Radish and 1600 1000 4 Vegetative phase, at lifting and replanting, bolting, flowering and maturity. 0.1 0.2
turnip
Carrot 1000 800 4 Before marketable stage, at lifting stecklings, bolting and flowering. 0.1
0.2
Methi 10 5 3 Before marketable stage, at lifting stecklings, bolting and flowering. 0.1
(Fenugreek) 0.2
Knoll – 1600 1000 4 Before marketable phase, at marketable maturity, lifting / replanting and at 0.1
khol flowering. 0.2
Chicory 1600 1000 4 Vegetative phase, stecklings, lifting / replanting, at bolting and flowering. Nil
0.2
Garden 10 5 3 Before flowering, at flowering and at edible pod stage. 0.1
peas 0.2
Garlic 5 5 3 Vegetative phase, bulb formation and at bulb maturity. 0.1
0.2
Ginger / 10 5 4 At sprouting, vegetative phase, at pre-harvesting and rhizome maturity. Nil
Turmeric 0.5

Prescribed seed standards for the production of seeds of vegetables.

Moisture (%)
Weed Other Germin
Pure Inert OCP Non Vapour
Seed seeds varieties ation
Vegetable Seed matter (Max) vapour proof
Class (Max) (Max) (Min)
(Min) (Max) (Nos.) proof container
(Nos.) (Nos.) (%)
(Max) (Max)
F 98 2 5/kg 5/kg -- 60 8 6
Tomato
C 98 2 10/kg 10/kg -- 60 8 6
F 98 2 5/kg Non -- 70 8 6
Chilli
C 98 2 10/kg None -- 70 8 6
F 98 2 None Nil -- 70 8 6
Brinjal
C 98 2 None None -- 70 8 6
F 99 1 None None 10/kg 65 10 8
Bhendi
C 99 1 5/kg None 20/kg 65 10 8
F 98 2 5/kg 5/kg - 70 8 6
Onion
C 98 2 10/kg 10/kg -- 70 8 6
F 98 2 None None -- 5/kg* 60 7 6
Cucurbits
C 98 2 None None --10/kg* 60 7 6
F 98 2 None None -- 75 9 8
Garden pea
C 98 2 None None 5/kg 75 9 8
F 98 2 None None -- 75 9 8
Cowpea
C 98 2 10/kg None 5/kg 75 9 8
F 98 2 None None 5/kg 75 9 7
French bean
C 98 2 None 10/kg 10/kg 75 9 7
Cabbage, Knol – F 98 2 5/kg 5/kg -- 70 7 5
Khol, Cauliflower C 98 2 10/kg 10/kg -- 70 7 5
Spinach, Garden F 96 2 5/kg 5/kg None 60 9 8
beet and Sugar C 96 4 10/kg 10/kg None 60 9 8
beet
F 95 5 5/kg 5/kg 5/kg 60 8 7
Carrot
C 95 5 10/kg 10/kg 10/kg 60 8 7
Radish and F 98 2 5/kg 10/kg -- 70 6 5
Turnip C 98 2 10/kg 20/kg -- 70 6 5
Amaranthus F 95 5 5/kg 10/kg 10/kg 70 8 6

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 C 95 5 10/kg 20/kg 20/kg 70 8 6

Seed standards for vegetatively propagated crops

Mean length and widths at the middle of the seed tuber size should be 30-60 mm and corresponding weight
should be 20-150g, while for large size it should be above 60mm and weight above 150g.
1. The size of tuber will be divided either on the basis of mean of two widths of a tuber at the middle and that
of length or on the basis of corresponding weight of tube.
2. In a seed lot, tubers not conforming to specific size of seed shall not exceeded more than 50% by number.
3. (a) The seed material shall be reasonably clean, healthy, firm and shall conform to the characteristics of
the variety. The tubers not conforming to the varietal and certified seed classes, respectively.
(b) Cut, bruised, unshapy, cracked tubers or those damaged by insects, slugs or worms shall not exceed
more than 1% (by weight).
(c) Greenish pigmentation on tuber will not be a disqualification for certification.
4. Maximum tolerance limit of tubers showing visible symptoms caused by disease is 1% for each in stage 1
and II of foundation and certified seed.

AGENCIES INVOLVED IN PRODUCTION AND CERTIFICATION

There are three type of agencies involved in seed production are

1. Government sector
2. Public sector
3. Private sector
National seed production agencies:
1. National Seed Corporation (NSC)
2. State Farm Corporation of India (SFCI)
3. Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR)
4. Indian institute of Horticulture Research (IIHR)
5. Indian Agriculture Research Institute (IARI)
State seed production and certification agencies:
1. State Seed Corporation (SSC)
2. State Seed Certification Agency (SSCA)
3. State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) for breeder seed production

National Seed Corporation (NSC)

It was initiated in 1961 under ICAR. Later on 7th march 1963 it was registered as a limited that is NSC
limited and started functioning from July 1963.
Objectives:
1. To promote the development of seed industry in India.
2. To produce and supply the foundation seed of various crops.
3. Now day started production of breeder seed also.
Functions of NSC:
1. Production and supply of foundation seeds.
2. Maintain improved seed stocks of improved varieties.

SST-211 (1+1)
 3. Interstate marketing of seeds.
4. Export and import of seeds.
5. Production of certified seeds was required.
6. Planning and production of breeder seed in consultation with ICAR.
7. Provide technical assistance to SSC and private agencies.
8. Conducting biannual survey on seed demand.
9. Providing training facilities to staff participating in seed industry development.

State Seed Corporation (SSC)

First Tarai Development Corporation was started at Pantanagar (UP). In Karnataka, Karnataka State Seed
Corporation (KSSC) started in 1976.
Functions of KSSC:
1. Production and supply of foundation and certified seed of notified kind/variety.
2. Within state marketing of seeds.

State Seed Certification Agencies

Karnataka State Seed Certification Agency (KSSCA) is only responsible for seed certification but do not
market the seeds. It was started in the year 1974. The KSSCA make field inspections and conduct seed test required
for certification. It was renamed as KSSOCA –Karnataka state seed and organic certification agency, vide G.O No.
AGD 50AAE 2012, Bengaluru dated 04-01-2013.
Functions of KSSCA:
1. They screen the application form of seed growers for seed certification and decide on their fitness.
2. Check and verify appropriate source of seed used for seed production under certification.
3. Carryout field inspection.
4. Conduct Grow-out test (GOT).
5. Seed certification.
6. Guide seed growers on production, processing and distribution of seeds.
7. Conduct short term courses on seed production for seed growers.
8. Participate in other activities help to the seed industry development.
9. Each state has seed certification board which supervises the activity of SSCA.

Private Seed Companies

A number of private seed company are also engaged in seed production, research and development
activities from 1969 onwards. Namadhari seeds, Syngenta, BejoSheetal, Mahyco, Ankur, Indo-American Seeds
Company, Pioneer seed company, Nath seeds etc. are engaged in seed production activities in India.

Service Charges (2024) of KSSOCA

Item (Rs.0000.00/-)
Registration as seed grower (per season in one village) 25.00
Inspection of 0.4 hectare crop area and part thereof
a. Hybrids and parents 250.00
b. Cross-pollinated and often cross-pollinated crops (including 200.00
jute and all vegetable crops)
c. Self pollinated crops (Except jute and vegetable crops) 145.00
d. Hybrid cotton and parents 500.00

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 Supervision of processing of seed (per quintal and part thereof ofcleaned seed)
a. Hybrids and parents (except cotton) 30.00
b. Non-hybrids 25.00
Sampling supervision charges for Hybrid cotton and parents (per lot) 100.00
Testing of sample:
a. Full test (i.e., germination, purity and moisture) 150.00
b. Germination test 120.00
c. Physical purity test 50.00
d. Moisture test 30.00
Supervision of reprocessing / re-cleaning of seed (per quintal & part thereof)
a. Hybrid cotton and parents. 40.00
b. Others 18.00
Supervision of repacking of seed (per quintal & part thereof)
a. Hybrid cotton 150.00
b. Parental seeds of hybrid cotton 300.00
c. Others 12.00
Extension of validity of certificate
a. Hybrid cotton and parents 40.00
b. Others 40.00
c. Late fee for delayed validation (per lot) 120.00
Supervision of delinting of Cotton seeds (per quintal & part thereof)
a. Hybrid Cotton and Parent 100.00
b. Non Hybrids 10.00
Supervision of change of packing from one seed producer to another seed producer 50.00
(per quintal and part thereof)
Supervision of Seed Certification work taken up at places other than seed processing 6.00
units (per quintal and part thereof) at each location
Grow-out-Test (per lot) charges
a. Hybrid Cotton and Parents 600.00
b. Other Hybrid and Parents 600.00
c. Varieties 300.00
Spot sampling and certification of groundnut (per quintal and part thereof) 10.00
Spot sorting & shelling of Maize cobs (per quintal or bag of seed not exceeding one 10.00
quintal)
Spot Sealing charges for movement of seeds from one division to another division 10.00
(per quintal or bag of seed not exceeding one quintal)
Decorticating of Groundnut (per quintal & part thereof) 25.00
Spot grading and certification of potato (per quintal and part thereof) 04.00
Cost of FORM No.1 (in triplicate) 10.00
Cost of certification tag 4.00
Cost of application forms for registration and renewal of registration as Seed 10.00
Processing Unit
Recognition, registration & allotment of seed processing unit number (per year) 5000.00
Annual Renewal fee for Seed Processing Unit 3000.00
Late Renewal fee for Seed Processing Unit (one month after expiry) 1000.00
Annual Registration/Renewal fee for Seed Producing Organization 2000.00
Issue of Duplicate copy of Seed Certification Records 05.00
Cost of Seed Sample Bag (per Bag) 25.00
Cost of Polythene Cover (per Cover) 05.00
Courier charges (per sample) 50.00
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SST-211 (1+1)