Lesson 7

The Inca Create a

Mountain Empire
Setting the Stage
The Big Idea While the Aztecs ruled in the Valley of Mexico, another
The Inca built a vast empire people—the Inca—created an equally powerful state
supported by taxes, governed in South America. From Cuzco, their capital in southern
by a bureaucracy, and linked by Peru, the Inca spread outward in all directions. They
extensive road systems.
brought various Andean peoples under their control
Why It Matters Now and built an empire that stretched from Ecuador in the
The Incan system of government north to Chile in the south. It was the largest empire
was similar to some socialist ever seen in the Americas.
governments in the 20th century.

Key Terms and People

Pachacuti
ayllu
mita
quipu

Incan textiles such as this one were a common form of art among early cultures
in South America.

The Inca Build an Empire

Like the Aztecs, the Inca built their empire on cultural foun-
dations thousands of years old. Ancient civilizations such as
the Chavín, Moche, and Nazca had established a tradition of
high culture in Peru. They were followed by the Huari and
Tiahuanaco cultures of southern Peru and Bolivia. The Chimú,
an impressive civilization of the 1300s based in the north-
ern coastal region once controlled by the Moche, came next.
The Inca would create an even more powerful state, however,
extending their rule over the entire Andean region.

People and Empires in the Americas 525

 Incan Beginnings The Inca originally lived in a high plateau of the Andes.
After wandering the highlands for years, the Inca finally settled on fertile
lands in the Valley of Cuzco. By the 1200s, they had established their own
small kingdom in the valley.
During this early period, the Inca developed traditions and beliefs that
helped launch and unify their empire. One of these traditions was the
belief that the Incan ruler was descended from the sun god, Inti, who
would bring prosperity and greatness to the Incan state. Only men from
one of 11 noble lineages believed to be descendants of the sun god could be
selected as Incan leaders.
Pachacuti Builds an Empire At first the Incan kingdom grew
slowly. In 1438, however, a powerful and ambitious ruler, Pachacuti
(pah•chah•KOO •tee), took the throne. Under his leadership, the Inca
­conquered all of Peru and then moved into neighboring lands. By 1500,
the Inca ruled an empire that stretched 2,500 miles along the western
coast of South America. The Inca called this empire “Land of the Four
Quarters.” It included about 80 provinces and was home to as many as
16 million people.
Pachacuti and his successors accomplished this feat of conquest through
a combination of diplomacy and military force. The Inca had a powerful
military but used force only when necessary. They were also clever diplo-
mats. Before attacking, they typically offered enemy states an honorable
Reading Check
Evaluate surrender. They would allow them to keep their own customs and rulers
Do you think in exchange for loyalty to the Incan state. Because of this treatment, many
that Pachacuti’s states gave up without resisting. Even when force was used, the Inca took
methods for unifying
conquered lands were a similar approach. Once an area was defeated, they made every effort to
effective? Explain. gain the loyalty of the newly conquered people.

BIOGRAPHY

Pachacuti
(c. 1391–c. 1473)
As the second son of the Incan ruler Viracocha,
Pachacuti did not expect to succeed to the
throne. However, when Cuzco was attacked in
1438, Viracocha and Pachacuti’s older brother
fled the city. Pachacuti stayed and drove off the
attackers. He then proclaimed himself the new
Incan ruler.
Pachacuti, whose name means “World
Transformer” or “Earthshaker,” ruled for 33 years.
During that time, he drew up the plans for the
rebuilding of Cuzco and established the Incan
system of government.

526 Module 13
Incan Government Creates Unity
To control the huge empire, the rulers divided their territory and its people
into manageable units governed by a central bureaucracy. The Inca cre-
ated an efficient economic system to support the empire and an extensive
road system to tie it together. They also imposed a single official language,
Quechua (KEHCH•wuh), and founded schools to teach Incan ways. Certain
social groups were identified by officially dictated patterns on clothing. All
of these actions were calculated to unify the variety of people controlled by
the Inca.
Incan Cities Show Government Presence To exercise control over their
empire, the Inca built many cities in conquered areas. The architecture of
government buildings was the same all over the empire, making the pres-
ence of the government apparent. As in Rome, all roads led to the capital,
Cuzco. The heart of the Incan empire, Cuzco was a splendid city of temples,
plazas, and palaces. “Cuzco was grand and stately,” wrote Cieza de León.
“It had fine streets, . . . and the houses were built of solid stones, beauti-
fully joined.” Like the Romans, the Inca were masterful engineers and
stonemasons. Though they had no iron tools and did not use the wheel,
Incan builders carved and transported huge blocks of stone, fitting them
together perfectly without mortar. Many Incan walls still stand in Cuzco
today, undisturbed by the region’s frequent earthquakes.
Incan Government The Incan state exercised almost total control over
economic and social life. It controlled most economic activity, regulating
the production and distribution of goods. Unlike the Maya and the Aztecs,
the Inca allowed little private commerce or trade. Yet the Inca network of
internal trade routes helped unite and strengthen the vast empire.
The Incan social system was based on an age-old form of community
cooperation—the ayllu (EYE•loo). The ayllu, or extended family group,
undertook tasks too big for a single family. These tasks included building
irrigation canals or cutting agricultural terraces into steep hillsides. The
ayllu also stored food and other supplies to distribute among members
during hard times.
The Inca incorporated the ayllu structure into a governing system based
on the decimal system. They divided families into groups of 10, 100,
1,000, and 10,000. A chief led each group. He was part of a chain of com-
mand. That chain stretched from the community and regional levels all
the way to Cuzco, where the Incan ruler and his council of state held court.
In general, local administration was left in the hands of local rulers, and
villages were allowed to continue their traditional ways. If a community
resisted Incan control, however, the Inca might relocate the whole group
to a different territory. The resisters would be placed under the control of
rulers appointed by the government in Cuzco.
The main demand the Incan state placed on its subjects was for trib-
ute, usually in the form of labor. The labor tribute was known as mita
(MEE•tuh). It required all able-bodied citizens to work for the state a
certain number of days every year. Mita workers might labor on state

People and Empires in the Americas 527

 farmlands, produce craft goods for state warehouses, or help with public
works projects. Later, the Spanish adopted the mita labor practice but
changed it to a system of forced labor.
Historians have compared the Incan system
Explore ONLINE! to a type of socialism or a modern welfare state.
South American Citizens were expected to work for the state and
Culture Areas, 100–1535 were cared for in return. For example, the aged
and disabled were often supported by the state.
The state also made sure that the people did not
go hungry when there were bad harvests. Freeze-
dried potatoes, called chuño, were stored in huge
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70°W

government warehouses for distribution in times

of food shortages.

0° Equator Public Works Projects The Inca had an ambi-

R. tious public works program. The most spectacular
a zon
project was the Incan road system. A marvel of
A

Am
engineering, this road system symbolized the
N

power of the Incan state. The 14,000-mile-long

D

Chan Chan network of roads and bridges spanned the empire,

traversing rugged mountains and harsh deserts.
E

10°S
Machu The roads ranged from paved stone to simple
S

Picchu
M
Cuzco paths. Along the roads, the Inca built guesthouses
O Lake
to provide shelter for weary travelers. A system of
Titicaca runners, known as chasquis (SHAH•skeys), traveled
these roads as a kind of postal service, carrying
U

messages from one end of the empire to the other.

N

20°S
The road system also allowed the easy movement
T

of troops to bring control to areas of the empire

A

Tropic of Caprico
rn where trouble might be brewing.
I

Government Record-Keeping Despite the

P ACI FI C
N

sophistication of many aspects of Incan life, the

OCEAN Inca never developed a writing system. History
S

30°S
and literature were memorized as part of an oral
Moche, 100–700 tradition. For numerical information, the Inca
Chimú, 1000–1470
Inca, 1438–1535
created an accounting device known as quipu, a
Incan Roads set of knotted strings that could be used to record
N data. The knots and their position on the string
E

W
40°S indicated numbers. They also used a device that
S functioned almost like a calculator that may
0 250 500 mi
have made division and using fractions possible.
0 500 1,000 km
Additionally, the colors of the strings represented
different categories of information
Interpret Maps
1. Place The lands of which earlier South American cultures were included
important to the government. For
in the Incan Empire? example, red strings were used to
2. Human–Environment Interaction Look at the shape and terrain of the Incan
count warriors; yellow strings
Empire. What problems related to geography might occur in controlling the land?

HMH— High
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Module 13
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 were used to count gold. However, the meanings of the colors changed
depending on the general purpose of the quipu.
Reading Check
Make Inferences Some historians believe that the Inca also developed an elaborate cal-
Of all of the methods endar system with two types of calendars, one for night and one for day.
used to create unity, They were used primarily for religious purposes. Like the calendars of the
which do you think
would be most Maya and the Aztecs, the two calendars provided information about the
successful? Why? gods whom the Inca believed ruled the day and time.

Religion Supports the State

As with the Aztecs, religion was important to the Inca and helped rein-
force the power of the state. The Inca worshiped fewer gods than the
Aztecs. The Inca focused on key nature spirits such as the moon, the stars,
and thunder. In the balance of nature, the Inca saw patterns for the way
humans should relate to each other and to the earth. The primary Incan
god was a creator god called Viracocha. Next in importance was the sun
god, Inti. Because the Incan ruler was considered a descendant of Inti, sun
worship amounted to worship of the king.

Machu Picchu lies some 8,000 feet above sea level on a ridge between two mountain peaks.

People and Empires in the Americas 529

 Rise and Fall of the Inca
Traits of Civilization Strength Leading to Power Weakness Leading to Decline

Religious beliefs and theocracy  nited culture that is loyal to the

U Many physical and human resources
emperor funneled into religious activities

Major road systems An interconnected empire that is easier Enemy could also use roads to move
to control troops

Type of welfare state with huge Able to care for all people during good People struggled to care for themselves
bureaucracy and bad times with the elimination of the welfare state

Interpret Charts
1. Form and Support Opinions In your opinion, which of the three traits
leading to power was the most valuable? Briefly discuss your reasons.
2. Compare Which trait did you find repeated in the Maya and Aztec empires?

Religious Practices Incan priests led the sun-worship services, assisted by

young women known as mamakuna, or “virgins of the sun.” These women,
all unmarried, were drafted by the Inca for a lifetime of religious service.
The young women were trained in religious activities, as teachers, spin-
ners, weavers, and beer makers. Young men, known as yamacuna, also
served as full-time workers for the state and in religious activities. Sacri-
fice of llamas and exchange of goods were a part of the religious activities.
The goods were distributed by the priests to the people as gifts from the
gods.
Great Cities The Temple of the Sun in Cuzco was the most sacred of all
Incan shrines. It was heavily decorated in gold, a metal the Inca referred
to as “sweat of the sun.” According to some sources, the temple even had
a garden with plants and animals crafted entirely from gold and silver.
In fact, gold was a common sight throughout Cuzco. The walls of several
buildings had a covering of thin gold sheeting.
Although Cuzco was the religious capital of the Incan Empire, other
Incan cities also may have served a ceremonial purpose. For example,
Machu Picchu, excavated by Hiram Bingham in 1912, was isolated and
Reading Check mysterious. Like Cuzco, Machu Picchu also had a sun temple, public build-
Compare and ings, and a central plaza. Some sources suggest it was a religious center.
Contrast How
were the Inca and Others think it was an estate of Pachacuti. Still others believe it was a
Aztecs alike? retreat for Incan rulers or the nobility.

530 Module 13
 Discord in the Empire
The Incan Empire reached the height of its glory in the early 1500s during
the reign of Huayna Capac. Trouble was brewing, however. In the 1520s,
Huayna Capac undertook a tour of Ecuador, a newly conquered area of the
empire. In the city of Quito, he received a gift box. When he opened it, out
flew butterflies and moths, considered an evil omen. A few weeks later,
while still in Quito, Huayna Capac died of disease—probably smallpox.
After his death, the empire was split between his sons, Atahualpa
(ah•tah•WAHL•pah) and Huascar (WAHS•kahr). Atahualpa received Ecuador,
about one-fifth of the empire. The rest went to Huascar. At first, this sys-
Reading Check tem of dual emperors worked. Soon, however, Atahualpa laid claim to the
Evaluate whole of the empire. A bitter civil war followed. Atahualpa eventually won,
Do you think that but the war tore apart the empire. As you will learn, the Spanish arrived in
splitting the Incan
Empire led to its the last days of this war. Taking advantage of Incan weakness, they would
fall? Explain soon divide and conquer the empire.

Lesson 7 Assessment
1. Organize Information Use the web diagram to show 2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in
how the Inca unified the people they conquered. the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance.
3. Draw Conclusions How were the Inca able to con-
quer such a vast empire, and how did they create unity
among diverse peoples in their empire?
4. Form Generalizations What role did the mita play in
Inca
unify building the Incan Empire?
conquered 5. Analyze Motives Why do you think the Inca used the
people.
ayllu system as the basis for governing in the empire?
6. Compare and Contrast How were Incan and Aztec
religious practices similar? How were they different?

Which of the Inca’s methods were accepted by the
conquered people?

People and Empires in the Americas 531

SOCIAL HISTORY

Incan Mummies
For the Inca, death was an important part of life. The Inca
worshiped the spirits and the bodies of their ancestors. They
believed in an afterlife, and tombs and the mummies they held
were considered holy.
Like the Egyptians, the Inca embalmed their dead to preserve
the body. The mummies were bundled with offerings of food,
tools, and precious items to help them in the afterlife. These
“mummy bundles” were then buried or put in an aboveground
tomb to be worshiped. Mummies have been found from many
different social classes, and, as you will read, not all of them
died natural deaths.

Royal Treatment
▲

The mummies of Incan rulers were among the holiest objects

of Incan religion. The mummies were actually treated as if
they were still alive. They had servants, maintained ownership
of their property, were consulted as oracles, and were taken to
major festivals or to visit other mummies. The mummy shown
at right in a 16th-century Spanish codex is being transported
in the same manner as the living royalty.

Human Sacrifice
▲

Some Incan mummies have been found on high

mountain peaks in the Andes. These mummies were
human sacrifices. Frozen for hundreds of years, the
mummies allow researchers to examine the clothes,
health, and sometimes even the internal organs
of ancient humans. Scientists determined that this
mummy was killed by a sharp blow to the head.

532 Module 13
 SOCIAL HISTORY

MUMMY BUNDLES

▲
At a site known as Puruchuco, just outside of Lima, Peru, archaeologists discovered
a huge Incan cemetery. Some of the mummies unearthed were wrapped in layers
of cotton. The outside of the bundle might have a false head made of cloth like the
one shown on the right. Inside the bundle were the mummy, religious offerings, and
personal items. The illustration shown below re-creates the inside of an actual bundle
that archaeologists unwrapped.
Corn, or maize, was the Inca’s
most important crop and is
often found in Incan burials.

The Inca used gourds as bowls

and containers. The gourds
found in this bundle held food
and cotton.

This man wears a feathered headdress

that indicates high social standing.

AN INCAN GRAVEYARD

The Puruchuco graveyard lies beneath a

shantytown in Peru called Tupac Amaru. In 1999,
when archaeologists discovered the extent of the
site, it was about to be bulldozed. Archaeologists
began an emergency recovery effort.
• The remains of over 2,000 men, women, and children were
recovered.
• The site may contain as many as 10,000 individuals.
• Some bundles contained up to seven bodies and weighed as
much as 400 pounds.
• Between 50,000 and 60,000 artifacts were recovered.
• One of the mummy bundles became known as the “Cotton
King.” The mummy was wrapped in about 300 pounds of
▲ GIFTS FOR THE DEAD raw cotton.
The Inca sometimes placed mummies
• The Cotton King’s bundle contained 70 artifacts, including
in aboveground tombs called chullpas. food, pottery, animal skins, and sandals. Footwear was not
Descendants of the mummy would bring common among the Inca, and sandals were a status symbol.
offerings of food and precious goods to
honor their ancestor. This mummy is shown
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70°W

as it might have appeared in its tomb. 0°

Critical Thinking PERU

1. Make Inferences What do Incan
mummification practices suggest about 10° S
Lima
Incan culture?
PAC I F I C
2. Form and Support Opinions Why do you OCEAN
think mummification is not a common
practice in the United States today?
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World History—2016
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