SOLUTIONS
SOLUTION
● It is a homogeneous
mixture of two or more
pure substances
● consists of a solute and
a solvent
SOLUTE
➢It is a substance present in small
amount or quantity.
➢It is the substance that gets dissolve.
SOLVENT
➢ the substance present in the greatest amount
or quantity.
➢ It is the substance that does the dissolving.
30 mL of water mixed with
70 mL of isopropyl alcohol
➢ 70 mL of isopropyl
alcohol -solvent
➢ 30 mL of
water–solute
Tincture of iodine
prepared with 0.20
gram of Iodine and
20.0 mL of ethanol
➢ 0.20 gram of
Iodine–solute
➢ 20.0 mL of
ethanol -solvent
CLASSIFICATIONS OF
SOLUTION
● Phase of the solution
● Saturation
● Concentration of Solution
PHASE OF THE SOLUTION
SATURATION
● It is the condition in which system has reached its
maximum capacity to hold or absorb something under
given conditions.
● It contains the maximum amount of solute that can be
dissolve in a solvent at a specific temperature.
● solubility at a specific temperature must be considered
TYPES OF SATURATION
Unsaturated Solution
➢ The amount of solute is less than the solute’s
solubility at a given volume and temperature.
TYPES OF SATURATION
Saturated Solution
➢ The solution contains the maximum amount of
solute that can dissolve at a given temperature.
TYPES OF SATURATION
Supersaturated Solution
➢ the amount of solute is greater than the solute’s
solubility at a given volume and temperature
➢ done by dissolving a solute at a higher
temperature, and subsequently cooling it down
➢ unstable → agitation causes crystallization
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION
Concentration
➢ the amount of solute relative to the amount of
solution.
➢ It contains excessively large amount of solute.
➢ It is an intensive property as it represents the
proportion of a substance with respect to the whole
solution.
➢ This expressions are often based on the number of
moles of one or more components of a solution.
TYPES OF CONCENTRATION
UNITS
Percent by Mass
➢ The percent by mass also called percent by
weight or weight percent is the ratio of the mass
of a solute to the mass of the solution, multiplied
by 100 percent.
TYPES OF CONCENTRATION
UNITS
Percent by Mass
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝒙 100%
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 + 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
or
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝒙 100%
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A sample of 0.892 g of potassium chloride (KCl) is
dissolved in 54.6 g of water. What is the percent by
mass of KCl in the solution?
𝑮𝑰𝑽𝑬𝑵:
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 of KCl (solute) = 0.892 g
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 of water (solvent ) = 54.6 g
% 𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑲𝑪𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = ?
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A sample of 0.892 g of potassium chloride (KCl) is
dissolved in 54.6 g of water. What is the percent by
mass of KCl in the solution?
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑲𝑪𝒍 = 𝒙 100%
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
0.892 𝑔
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠s of KCl = 𝑥 100%
0.892 𝑔 + 54.6 𝑔
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠s of KCl = 1.61 %
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A solution is prepared by dissolving 2.50 g of sodium
chloride (NaCl) in 47.5 g of water.
What is the percent by mass of NaCl in the solution?
𝑮𝑰𝑽𝑬𝑵:
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 of NaCl (solute) = 2.50 g
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 of water (solvent ) = 54.6 g
% 𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = ?
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A solution is prepared by dissolving 2.50 g of sodium
chloride (NaCl) in 47.5 g of water.
What is the percent by mass of NaCl in the solution?
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 NaCl = 𝒙 100%
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
2.50 𝑔
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠s of NaCl = 𝑥 100%
50 𝑔
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠s of NaCl = 5 %
TYPES OF CONCENTRATION
UNITS
Percent by Volume
➢ The Percent by Volume expresses the volume
parts of a solute in 100 volume parts of solution.
Volume may be expressed in mL, L or any other
volume units.
TYPES OF CONCENTRATION
UNITS
Percent by Volume
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒃𝒚 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝒙 100%
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Proof
➢ is commonly used unit for alcohol concentration.
It is mathematically defined as two times the
percentage by volume of the alcohol in the
solution.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A solution is prepared by mixing 50.00 mL of
𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 in 350.0 mL of distilled water. What is the %
by volume and the proof number of the solution?
𝑮𝑰𝑽𝑬𝑵:
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 of ethyl alcohol (solute) = 50.0 mL
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 of water (solvent ) = 350.0 mL
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A solution is prepared by mixing 50.00 mL of
𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 in 350.0 mL of distilled water. What is the %
by volume and the proof number of the solution?
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
% 𝒃𝒚 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝒙 100
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
50.0 𝒎𝑳
% 𝒃𝒚 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝒙 100 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 %
400.0 𝒎𝑳
proof no. = 2 (12.5) = 25.0
PARTS PER MILLION (PPM) AND
PARTS PER BILLION (PPB)
➢ Ppm and Ppb are both convenient units for reporting the
concentration of pollutants and other trace contaminants in
water.
➢ Very low solute are often expressed using appropriately small
units like parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb).
➢ Similar to percentage (“part per hundred”) units, ppm and
ppb may be defined in terms of masses, volumes, or mixed
mass-volume units.
PARTS PER MILLION (PPM) AND
PARTS PER BILLION (PPB)
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝒑𝒑𝒎 = × 106
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝒑𝒑𝒃 = × 109
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
PARTS PER MILLION (PPM) AND
PARTS PER BILLION (PPB)
A ppm may also be expressed in other ways. For instance, 1
mg/kg is the same as 1 ppm. This is because a milligram is
equivalent to 0.001 g while a kilogram is equivalent to 1000 g.
Other ways of expressing 1 ppm are as follows: 1 𝜇g/g, 1
𝜇g/mL, 1 mg/L 26
PARTS PER MILLION (PPM) AND
PARTS PER BILLION (PPB)
Another way of expressing 1 ppb is 1 𝜇g/kg or 1 𝜇g/L.
27
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the concentration of a solution, in parts per
million, if 0.01 gram of NaCl is dissolved in 1000
grams of solution?
𝑮𝑰𝑽𝑬𝑵:
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍 (solute) = 0.01 g
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 1000g
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝒑𝒑𝒎 = × 106
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the concentration of a solution, in parts per
million, if 0.01 gram of NaCl is dissolved in 1000
grams of solution?
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝒑𝒑𝒎 = × 106
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
0.01 g
𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 𝒙106
1000 g
𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 10
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the concentration of a solution, in parts per
billion, if 2.5 ✕ 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 g of KCl is dissolved to make
1000 grams of solution?
𝑮𝑰𝑽𝑬𝑵:
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑲𝑪𝒍 (solute) = 2.5× 10−4 𝑔
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 1𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒈
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝒑𝒑𝒃 = × 109
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the concentration of a solution, in parts per
billion, if 2.5 ✕ 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 g of KCl is dissolved to make
1000 grams of solution?
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝒑𝒑𝒃 = × 109
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
2.5× 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐠
𝒑𝒑𝒃 = 𝒙109
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒈
𝒑𝒑𝒃 = 250
MOLE FRACTION
➢ It is a way of describing solution composition.
➢ It is the ration of the number of moles of one
component of a mixture to the total number of
moles of all components.
➢ This is symbolized by the Greek lowercase letter
chi, 𝜒
➢ Unitless
MOLE FRACTION
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
Mole of substance (component)=
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the mole fraction of the solute in a 40% by
mass ethanol (C2H6O) solution in water?
𝑮𝑰𝑽𝑬𝑵:
𝟒𝟎% 𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒍 = 𝟒𝟔 𝒈/𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏𝟖 𝒈/𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the mole fraction of the solute in a 40% by
mass ethanol (C2H6O) solution in water?
𝑮𝑰𝑽𝑬𝑵:
𝟒𝟎% 𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒍 = 𝟒𝟔 𝒈/𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏𝟖 𝒈/𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the mole fraction of the solute in a 40% by
mass ethanol (C2H6O) solution in water?
Step 1: Convert mass to moles
Ethanol:
40 𝑔
moles ethanol = = 0.868 mol
46.07g/mol
Water:
60 𝑔
moles water = = 3.33 mol
18.02 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the mole fraction of the solute in a 40% by
mass ethanol (C2H6O) solution in water?
Step 2: Find the total moles
0.868 mol +3.33 mol = 4.20 mol
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the mole fraction of the solute in a 40% by
mass ethanol (C2H6O) solution in water?
Step 3: Calculate the mole fraction of ethanol (solute)
0.868 mol
𝑋ethanol =
4.20 mol
𝑋ethanol = 0.21
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the mole fraction of the solute in a 40% by
mass ethanol (C2H6O) solution in water?
Mole fraction of water
3.33 mol
𝑋water =
4.20 mol
𝑋wat𝑒𝑟 = 0.79