CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Water is a very important natural resource which is essential for life and good health. Water

covers 70% of the Earth's surface, but only 3% of this is fresh water, of this a contributing

element to the body; the body system cannot survive for more than a few days without it. The

body demands safe fresh water for survival. Water scarcity refers to the volumetric abundance or

lack/inadequate water supply; it is calculated as a ratio of human water consumption to available

water supply in a given area (Orr, Pegram 2014). Lack of water to meet daily needs is a reality

today for one in three people around the world (Muta’ahellandendu 2012). Water is not only a

vital environmental element for all forms of life, but has a great role its plays in socio-economic

development of human populace. Globally, as the population grows, the need for water in both

cities and rural areas get worse. The scarcity of water does not only affect the households but

also the agricultural and industrial activities. The water scarcity requires urgent attention and

incessant actions to tackle the problem. World Health Organisation reported that over 80

countries of the world now have a water shortage and this is reflecting through their health and

economies (WHO 2013). It is also said that an estimate of about 1.2 billion people lacks access

to safe and affordable water for their domestic use (GRANT et al. 2012). Water scarcity affects

all spheres of life and threatens the sustainability of the natural resources base. In addressing

water scarcity, an intersectional and multidisciplinary approach is required to manage water

resources in a sustainable manner that will not affect the ecosystems, economic and social

wellbeing of the people. Also, enhancing water productivity (the volume of production per unit

1
of water) in all sectors is paramount to successful programs of water scarcity alleviation (Steduto

et al. 2012). Nigeria is the eighth most populous countries in the world and has begun grappling

with issues of water scarcity across a number of her states forcing infrastructure and long term

sustainability problem (Muta’ahellandendu 2012). The water scarcity issue is considerably

daunting, given that Nigeria has a total population of over 152 million people and less than 30%

have access to adequate drinking water (Krebs 2010). Shortage of water contributes to poverty,

cause social hardship and impede development. According to Integrated Regional Information

Networks, 62% of the population of Nigeria has access to improved water sources (Irin 2007).

Nevertheless, it is having access to the available water that creates the water-related impact on

human well-being. The three main dimensions that characterize water scarcity are a physical lack

of water availability to satisfy demand; the level of infrastructure development that controls

storage, distribution and access; and the institutional capacity to provide the necessary water

services (FAO 2012b). Mafinisebi (2002) opined that convenient sources of safe water are of

enormous importance to improve human health, agricultural labour productivity, hence income

generation by rural households. Gholamrezai and Sepahvand (2017) opined that one of the main

challenges of water scarcity is the water consumption in the agriculture sector, it is necessary to

optimize water consumption and apply optimal management of water in the agriculture sector.

People, especially in the rural communities, seek water needed for their livelihoods and domestic

use from far only 1% is usable in rivers, lakes and subsoil aquifers (Bharucha 2005). According

to Barreto (2008), the world contains an estimate of 1400 mln km3 of water, but only 0.003%

which is not easily accessible can be utilized for drinking, hygiene, agriculture and industry.

Water is sources and the quality trekking time spent to the distant water sources could have been

used in other activities for the benefit of the households. Inadequate access to improve water

2
supply made the rural households to be vulnerable and it exposes them to certain challenges

which could be that of health, economic, social and cultural issues. In Nigeria, many of the rural

areas are faced with water scarcity and the households in the communities rely on self-water

supply for both domestic, irrigation and livelihood purposes. The water scarcity does not only

affect the households’ domestic use but it also has an impact on their livelihoods. The output of

the livelihoods can be affected directly or indirectly, even the cost of water as an input can

increase the running cost of the livelihoods enterprise due to the water scarcity.

The quest for clean and safe water has become enormous more than ever. Indeed, no part of the

world is immune to the problem of water scarcity. In many parts of the world, easily accessible

water sources have already been tapped, supplies are approaching their physical limits, and new

supplies for growing populations and rising consumption are available only at increasing cost. As

a result, the depletion of freshwater supply for domestic, industrial and agricultural purposes is

likely to become the single most important environmental issue facing many societies globally,

especially urban dwellers. Even countries not yet facing water crises are likely to experience

significant increases in the cost of providing water to meet ever-growing demands. Indeed,

improving the planning, management and conservation of water is now more critical than ever

before to achieve economic development.

Water is one of life's necessities with no substitute; it is the biosphere's lifeblood (Falkenmark

and

Rockstrom, 2004). Water supports socioeconomic activities such as agriculture, mining, food

production, and maintaining healthy ecosystems. Water scarcity is an imbalance between

demand and availability and exists when the demand exceeds the supply (Molle and Molinga,

3
2003). This scarcity may result from a range of phenomena, including natural causes, human

activities, or may result from the interaction of both (Vlachos and James, 1983).

It is instructive to note that public water suppliers in developing countries are routinely criticised

for failing to provide adequate water services to urban dwellers, especially the urban poor. Often,

these institutions are large and inefficient and unable to deliver quality services to the public.

Despite the massive physical development characteristics of most cities, they have not met city

dwellers' needs (Kenneth, 1997). Zane (1973) also noted that various factors account for

governments' deplorable performance in meeting city dwellers' water needs. One of such factors

is rapid population growth. He noted that many urban areas simply find it impossible to keep up

with the expanding needs for light, transportation, sewerage, and water.

According to the Stockholm Environmental Institute (2002), a third of the world's population

already live in areas that suffer moderate to severe water shortage. The water demand has risen at

more than twice the rate of the population increase. Water supply, on the other hand, is fixed.

Deeper wells and new reservoirs may bring temporary relief, but the amount of rain that falls on

the earth and the amount of water stored under the ground essentially remain the same.

Therefore, meteorologists calculated that within 25 years from now, the quantity of water

available to each person on earth might be cut in half (The Green Dove Magazine, 2005). Indeed,

the majority of the world's population struggle to access clean water daily. However, it is

necessary to remember

that only 20 per cent of humankind enjoys such luxuries (Takashi, 1999). According to Oppong

(2004), many women in Africa spend as much as six hours a day fetching water and frequently,

it is polluted.

4
In this view, it is imperative to examine effect of the water scarcity on the livelihoods by the

rural households in the study area. This study was therefore guided by the following objectives:

1. Identify the available water sources in Hotoro Households

2. Examine the accessibility of the water sources and its procurement in Hotoro Households

3. Determine the quality of water sources and the quantity of water used in Hotoro

Households

4. Examine the level of utilization of the available water in Hotoro Households

5. Identify the causes of water scarcity in the study area

6. Ascertain perceived effect of water scarcity on households’ livelihoods.

The study also tested the hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between the level of

water utilization and the perceived effect of water scarcity on the rural household’s livelihoods.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study has enormous significance both nationally and globally. In view of the continuous call

to conserve the world environment against the ever growing demand and supply of wood fuel

with its ascending environmental threats, research of this sort is very crucial in achieving results

that would inform the on-going discourse. The current efforts in combating global climate

change are traceable to environmental shocks/imbalances. The study could contribute to the

identification and formulation of global strategies, plans and programs of action for the

conservation and sustainable utilization of water resource. Secondly, research shows that the

water is one of the natural resources in Nigeria. Problems posed by the scarcity of water are

numerous Adeniyi (2015). Additionally, water scarcity is an important cross cutting issue and is

5
never exhaustive through a single research. Therefore this study is aimed at contributing to

research on the minimization of the negative environmental consequences of water resources..

The entire study could serve as one of the reference materials for future researches this would not

only promote academic successes through a contribution the body of knowledge to academics

and Policy makers, but would also help the rural communities to sustain their livelihood. There

will therefore be the likelihood of maintaining micro-economic stability at local communities.

Such as Hotoro.

1.5 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

Global call for nations to shift to alternative clean development mechanisms or green energy use

is a motivation to sustainable development (UNEP, 2021). Initiatives aimed at sustainable

development and nation’s strategy to build healthier community and creation of wealth will be

realistic with a paradigm shift water sources (Müller et al. 2011).

It is also observed that the increasing use of water is an indication that the general welfare of the

people is yet to improve substantially. However, the use of water resources as explained by

Ogwumike and Ozughalu (2001) may have adverse effects on the environment, as most of the

activities associated with water resources are carried out without the knowledge of its

consequences, which may include its environmental cost, health implications, increase in

evaporation and transpiration, increase use of hydrological cycle, accumulation of greenhouse

gases.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study area is Hotoro Area of Kano state State which covers an area of approximately 101

Km2. Questionnaires were administered to Hotoro households in order to determine the reasons

behind water sacrcity in the study area as well as its impact to environment. The questionnaire

6
survey developed for the study comprised five parts (Appendix 1) each part consist the relating

issue about the charcoal and the operator. The first part consists of personal data of respondent,

the second consist of sources of water resources production, the third consist of economic

question and the forth consist of perception and knowledge on scarcity of the water resource.

7
1.7 DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA

1.7.1 Location and Extent of the Area

Nassarawa is a Local Government Area in Kano State, Nigeria. Its headquarters are in the

locality of Bompai, within the city of [Link] has an area of 34 km2 and a population of 678,669

at the 2006 census. The postal code of the area is 700. Nassarawa is one of the serving forty-four

local government areas located in the southern corner of Kano state senatorial zone with its

capital administrative headquarters in the Bompai town. The Nassarawa government councils

heads the public administrations in Nassarawa government area which is made up of eleven

wards represented by eleven councilors inclusive of the chairman who heads the executive arm

of the local government while super seeing the social and economic development and projects in

the towns and thus serving as an intermediary between the state government and the people.

Figure 2: Map of Hotoro

8
1.7.2 Climate

The climate variables in the area include: Rainfall Temperature and Relative humidity According

to Koppen’s climate classification, Hotoro is classified under ‘Aw’ which is mark by distinct wet

and dry seasons. These seasons are controlled by the movement of inter tropical discontinuity

(ITD)which in turn is addicted by movement and dominance of the Air Mass (cT) and Tropical

Maritime Air Mass (mT).

1.7.4 Soil and Vegetation

The soil type in the state consists of red-brown to red-yellow ferruginous tropical soils which are

heavily weathered and markedly laterites. They are mostly formed on granite and gneiss parent

materials, and on Aeolian and many sedimentary deposits. The whole state is covered by the

tropical grassland vegetation with the density of trees and other plants decreasing as one move

northwards (Abaje, 2017).

Soil can be classified generally under the tropical ferruginous soil derived from the crystalline

acid rock. Three main types of soils are found over the study area; the sandy gravels of the hill

slopes, the sandy loam of the upland area of the plains, and the alluvial deposits of the

Magma/hydromorphic on the river valleys. Fadama which are fairly rich in nutrients and have

good excessive water supply that persist in the dry seasons, are of Special importance because of

Jeep suitability). Many parts of it are used or the cultivation of high moisture demanding crops

like Rice, cocoyam, Sugarcane and vegetable. Cereals such as maize, millet and guinea corn

(Fadama-II Report, 2017) are also cultivated in dry seasons in the area. Sandy-loam is more

widespread and forms the main soil type of the upland though It is also found on hillsides and

valleys where slope conditions are more favorable. the soils are characterized by its light-dark

grey color near the hillside settlement where constant cultivation has reduced its humus content

9
to a dark grey variety further away where farming has not made a great impact on natural

vegetable.

The soils have well drained profile with the zonal divisions showing more clearly as one

approaches the dark grey kind. The soil is relatively rich in humus content. Fine grains and

usually well drained. It is more widespread than any other soil types and supports a wider variety

wider variety of crops grown (Fadama-II Report, 2017).

The vegetation here suffers from anthropogenic disturbance through cutting down of trees for

fuel wood, cultivation and construction works. Also animal grazing is very high coupled with

seasonal bush burning which is prominent during the dry season.

The vegetation has been reduced to grasses, shrubs and parkland few tall trees found mostly

along water course. The parkland trees are found in the open cultivated land with shrubs found

almost everywhere except areas where cultivation is being practiced. Exotic trees found in the

study area are cashew, Pear trees, Mango, Guava trees among others.

These trees have umbrella-shape to protect their root from the sun. Clumps of short trees and

scrubs are scattered in this area and are generally not more than 6 meters high on plain land but

along the river valleys they are as high as 20 to 40 meters in some places. Low forests or gallery

forest are found along the river banks where the ground is moist. Grasses occur in tussocks and

the predominant family is the androgeneae. Grasses can reach between 1.5-2m tall, but stiff, dry

and yellow in the long dry season and the tallest variety is the elephant grass. The grasses are

abundant and luxuriant especially during the rainy season ( Emielu 2016). The natural vegetation

has long been disturbed as a result of long history of settlement and man’s activities.

10
1.7.5 People and Occupation

This is one of the foremost variables in a study of any project designed with the sole purpose of

affecting the populace. The size, growth, density distribution and other occupation of the People.

In addition to its culture, are some determinants to adoption of some new ideas introduced by a

project, the 2006 population census put the population figure of the study area at approximately

10,868 people with an estimated growth rate of 2.8% and a population density of 55 per square

kilometer. This population comprised of 5,712 males and 55,156 females (NPC, 2006).

1.7.7 Rainfall and Relative Humidity

The annual average rainfall in the state is about 1323mm. The spatial and temporal distribution

of the rain varies, decreasing from an average of about 1733mm in the Southern part of the study

area Seasonal variation in rainfall is directly influenced by the interaction of two air masses: the

relative warm and moist tropical maritime air mass, which originates from the Atlantic Ocean

associated with southwest winds in Nigeria; and the relatively cool, dry and stable tropical

continental air mass that originates from the Sahara Desert and is associated with the dry, cool

and dusty North-East Trades known as the Harmattan (Sawa, 2012).

11