Astronomy 102 Lecture 01

Astronomy 102:
Relativity, Black Holes, and the Big Bang.
What do black holes, wormholes,
time warps, space-time curvature,
hyperspace and the Big Bang have in
common?
q Explanations with their origins in
Einstein’s theories: the special
theory of relativity (1905) and
the general theory of relativity
(1915).
This semester we will discuss all of
these exotic phenomena, mostly
quantitatively, in the context of
Einstein’s theories.
Artist’s conception of the quasar 3C273,
from Thorne, Black holes and time warps.

Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 1

Our primary goals in teaching Astronomy 102

q To demystify black holes,

the Big Bang, and
relativity, so you can
evaluate critically the
things you find about
them in the media.
q To show you how
scientific theories are
conceived and advanced
in general.
In doing so we aim primarily
at non-science majors.

This semester’s AST 102 class, plotted by concentration.

Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 2

Our primary goals in teaching Astronomy 102

(continued)

We hope that by the end

of the course you will
understand and retain
enough to be able to
offer correct
explanations of black
holes and such to your
friends and family, and
that you will retain a
permanent, basic
understanding of how
science works.
This semester’s AST 102 class, plotted by class.

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Astronomy 102 Lecture 01

Human and printed features of Astronomy 102

People:
q Frank Wolfs, professor
q Tanveer Karim, teaching assistant
q Ryan Rubenzahl, teaching assistant

Textbooks (one required, two recommended):

q Kip S. Thorne, Black holes and time warps (1994).
q Michael A. Seeds, Foundations of astronomy (2008). Also
used in AST 104, 105, and 106.
q Stephen Hawking, A brief history of time (1988).

Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 4

Electronic features of Astronomy 102

q Computer-projected lectures, for greater ease in
presentation of diagrams, astronomical images and
computer simulations, and for on-line accessibility on
our...
q Web site, including all lecture presentations, schedule,
and much more.
• Primary reference for course.
q Personal response system, for in-lecture problem-solving.
(Required; available at the UR Bookstore.)
q WeBWorK , a computer-assisted
personalized homework and
exam generator.

Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 5

Onerous features of Astronomy 102

q The minimum of
mathematics required
to tell our story (but no
less than the minimum).
q Six homework problem
sets, all using
WeBWorK.
q Three exams, also all
using WeBWorK (but
no comprehensive final
exam).
q Grades (but on a
straight scale, not a
curve).
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90% of success is showing up.

All members of the class are

expected to attend all of the
lectures, and encouraged to A
attend one recitation per
week.
C
q This is for your own good.
You will very probably
get a better grade if you
go to class, as is demonstrated
by these average test score
and average attendance data from past AST 102 classes.

Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 7

Mid-Lecture Break
This will be a regular
feature of Astronomy 102
lectures.
During the break, please
turn on your transmitter.
Select the “Wrench”. You
will see “Find Channels”.
Press “Enter” to search
until you find Channel 41.
When it is found, press
“Enter” again.
Note: I assume you have
entered your student id # Image: wide-field view of the Orion Nebula,
into your transmitter. by David Malin (Anglo-Australian Observatory).
Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 8

Test PRS Question 1: Numerical Answer

What is your student ID # ?

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Test PRS question 2

What is the best baseball team in the US?

A. Red Sox B. Yankees C. Buffalo Bills

D. I do not know E. I do not care
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Today in Astronomy 102: How big is that?

Before discussing black holes, the Big Bang, and other

celestial objects and phenomena, we need to become
q familiar with distances, time scales, masses, luminosities
and speeds of astronomical importance, and
q proficient at unit conversion.

1 2 3 4 5
Million light years

Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 11

Sizes and distances in astronomy

centimeters kilometers miles light years

Diameter of a hydrogen atom 1.1×10-8

Diameter of a human hair 8.0×10-3
Diameter of a penny 1.9
Diameter of Rochester 2.0×106 20 12
Diameter of the Earth 1.3×109 1.3×104 7.9×103
Diameter of the Moon 3.5×108 3.5×103 2.1×103
Diameter of Jupiter 1.4×1010 1.4×105 8.8×104
Diameter of the Sun 1.4×1011 1.4×106 8.6×105
Diameter of the Milky Way galaxy 1.6×1023 1.7×105

Distance to Buffalo 1.0×107 100 62

Distance to the Moon 3.8×1010 3.8×105 2.4×105
Distance to the Sun 1.5×1013 1.5×108 9.2×107
Distance to the next nearest star, α 3.8×1018 4
Centauri
Distance to the center of the Milky Way 2.6×1022 2.7×104
Distance to the nearest galaxy 1.6×1023 1.7×105

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Typical lengths and important conversions

q Diameter of normal stars: millions of kilometers (km)

q Distance between stars in a galaxy: a few light-years (ly)
q Diameter of normal galaxies: tens of kilo-light-years (kLy)
q Distances between galaxies: a million light-years (Mly)
q 1 ly = 9.46052961 × 1017 cm = 9.46052961 × 1012 km
q 1 km = 105 cm; 1 kly = 103 ly; 1 Mly = 103 kly = 106 ly.
Example: The Andromeda nebula (a galaxy a lot like our
Milky Way) lies at a distance D = 2.5 Mly. How many
centimeters is that?
106 ly 9.46 × 1017 cm
D = 2.5 Mly × × = 2.4 × 1024 cm
1 Mly 1 ly
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More details on numerical answers

Note that the last answer was written as 2.4 × 1024 cm.
q Not just 2.4 × 1024. Numerical answers in the physical
sciences and engineering are incomplete without units.
q And not 2.36513240 × 1024 cm, even though that’s how
your calculator would put it. Numerical answers should
be rounded off: display no more than one more
significant figure than the least precise input number.
• If we had been told that the distance to the
Andromeda galaxy is 2.5000000 Mly, then the
conversion factor would have to have been put in with
more significant figures, and the right answer would
have been 2.36513240 × 1024 cm.

Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 14

More details on Unit Conversion

Previous example: repeated multiplication by 1. One may

always multiply anything by 1 without changing its real
value.
The unit conversions always give a couple of useful forms of
1. Take, for example, the conversion 1 ly = 9.46x1017 cm:
9.46 × 1017 cm 1 ly
=1=
1 ly 9.46 × 1017 cm
Choose forms of 1 that cancel out the units you want to get
rid of, and that insert the units to which you wish to convert.
This sometimes takes repeated multiplication by 1, as in the
previous example:
106 ly 9.46 × 1017 cm
D = 2.5 Mly × × = 2.4 × 1024 cm
1 Mly 1 ly
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There is nothing sacred about centimeters, grams

and seconds.
Units are generally chosen to be convenient amounts of
whatever is being measured. Examples:
q The light-year (ly) is far more
convenient than the centimeter
for expression of length in
astronomy; on large scales we
?
even use millions of ly (Mly).
q The convenient unit of mass in
astronomy is the solar mass:
the mass of the Sun.
Values of physical quantities are ratios to the values of the
unit quantities.

Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 16

How is that so far?

How comfortable are you, with these concepts, and doing

these calculations?

A. Pretty uncomfortable B. OK but need reminders

C. Perfectly comfortable D. Expert
Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 17

Masses in astronomy
Grams Pounds Solar
masses
( M⊙e )

Hydrogen atom 1.67×10-24

Penny (uncirculated) 3.2 0.0071
Ton 1.02×106 2240
Earth 6.0×1027 1.3×1025 3.0×10-6
Moon 7.4×1025 3.7×10-8
Jupiter 1.9×1030 1.0×10-3
Sun 2.0×1033 1
Milky Way galaxy 6×1045 3×1012

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Typical masses and important conversions

q Smallest stars: 0.08 solar masses (M⊙)

q Normal stars: around one M⊙
q Giant stars: tens of M⊙
q Normal galaxies: 1011 - 1012 M⊙
q Clusters of galaxies: 1014 - 1015 M⊙
q 1 M⊙ = 2.0×1033 grams = solar mass = mass of the Sun
q 1 pound = 454 grams
Example: Vega, the brightest star in the Northern sky, has a
mass of about 2.5 M⊙. What is its mass in grams?
2 × 1033 gm
M = 2.5 M⊙ × = 5.0 × 1033 gm
1 M⊙
Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 19

How many Earths in the Sun?

By what factor is the Sun (2.0×1033 g) more massive than the

Earth (6.0×1027 g)?

Work it out and send the answer on your clicker.

Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 20

Times and ages in astronomy

seconds hours days years

Earth’s rotation period 8.64×104 24 1

Moon’s revolution period 2.3606×106 655.73 27.322
Earth’s revolution period 3.1558×10 8.7661×10 365.25
7 3 1
Century 3.16×109 100
Recorded human history 1.6×1011 5000
Milky Way Galaxy’s 7.5×1015 2.4×108
rotation period (at Sun’s
orbit)
Age of the Sun and Earth 1.44×1017 4.56×109
Total lifetime of the Sun 4.7×1017 1.5×1010
Age of the Universe 4.4×1017 1.4×1010

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Typical timespans and important conversions

q Planetary revolution period: around 1 year

q Life expectancy, normal stars: around 1010 years
q Life expectancy, giant stars: 106 - 108 years
q Rotation period of normal galaxies: 107 - 109 years
q 1 year = 3.16×107 seconds
q 1 hour = 3600 seconds

Example: How many seconds is a normal human lifespan

(US)?
3.16 × 107 seconds
t = 75 years × = 2.37 × 10 9 seconds
1 year

Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 22

The fundamental dimensions

Distance, time and mass are fundamental dimensions.

q Distances along each of the three different perpendicular
directions of space determine the location of a given body
with respect to others.
q Time determines the instant in the given body has that
location.
q A given body’s mass determines how strongly the force of
gravity influences it.
q Each given body has an additional fundamental
dimension like mass, corresponding to each of the forces
of nature. Electric charge, for example, dictates how
strongly the electrostatic force influences a given body.

Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 23

The fundamental dimensions (continued)

The dimensions of all other physical quantities are

combinations of these fundamental dimensions.
q For instance: the dimension of velocity, and velocity’s
magnitude speed, is distance divided by time, as you
know.
q The dimension of energy is mass times distance squared,
divided by time squared.
• i.e. mass times the square of the dimension of speed
q Units are the scales of the quantities that go with the
qualities that are dimensions.
Thus: four fundamental dimensions for location (three space,
one time), and in principle four for response to forces
(gravity, electricity, and the strong and weak nuclear forces).

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Speeds in astronomy

cm per km per miles per

second second hour

NYS Thruway speed limit 3.0×103 3.0×10-2 65

Earth’s rotational speed at the 4.7×104 0.47 1050
equator
Speed of Earth in orbit 3×106 30
Speed of Sun in orbit around 2.5×107 250
center of Milky Way
Speed of Milky Way with 5.5×107 550
respect to local Universe
Speed of light 2.9979×1010 2.9979×105
Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 25

Typical speeds and important conversions

q Planetary orbits in a solar system: tens of km/s

q Stellar orbits in a normal galaxy: hundreds of km/s
q Speed between nearby galaxies: hundreds of km/s
q Speed of light: 2.99792458×1010 cm per second
q Conversion factors: use those given for distance and time.

Example: One mile is equal to 1.61 kilometers. What is the

speed of light in miles per hour?
cm km mile 3600 sec
c = 2.9979 × 1010 × × ×
sec 10 5 cm 1.61 km hour
8 mile
= 6.70 × 10 (670 million miles per hour)
hour
Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 26

Work, heat and energy in astronomy

Hydrogen atom binding energy 1.6×10-12 erg

Dietary calorie 4.2×1010 erg
Burn 1 kg anthracite coal 4.3×1014 erg
Detonate H bomb (1 megaton) 4.2×1022 erg
Earth-Sun binding energy 5.3×1040 erg
Sun’s fuel supply at birth 2×1051 erg
Supernova (exploding star) 1053 erg

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Units of energy

In AST 102 our usual unit of energy will be the erg:

1 gram × (1 cm)2
1 erg = = gm cm 2 sec-2
(1 second)2
which is the unit of energy in the CGS (centimeter-gram-
second) system of units.
Possibly you are more familiar with the International System
(SI, a.k.a. MKS for meter-kilogram-second) unit of energy, the
joule:
1 kg × (1 m)2
1 joule = = kg m 2 sec-2 = 107 erg
(1 second)2
The others we have listed will find some uses too.
Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 28

Luminosity (total power output) in astronomy

ergs per watts Solar
second (joules per luminosities
second) ( )
( LLe⊙)

100 W light bulb 1.0×109 100

150 horsepower car engine 1.2×1012 1.2×105
Large city 1015 108
H bomb (1 megaton, 0.01 4.2×1021 4.2×1014 1.1×10-12
second)
Sun 3.8×1033 3.8×1026 1
Largest stars 4×1038 4×1031 105
Milky Way galaxy 8×1043 2×1010
3C 273 (a typical quasar) 4×1045 1012
For the astronomical objects, the power is emitted mostly in
the form of light; hence the name.
Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 29

Typical luminosities and important conversions

q Normal stars: around one solar luminosity (L⊙)

q Giant stars: thousands to hundreds of thousands of L⊙
q Normal galaxies: 109 - 1010 L⊙
q Quasars: 1012 - 1013 L⊙
q 1 L⊙ = 3.8x1033 erg/s = luminosity of the Sun
q 1 watt = 107 erg/s
Example: Vega, the brightest star in the Northern summer
sky, has a luminosity of about 1.9x1035 erg/s. What’s that in
solar luminosities?
1 L⊙
L = 1.9 × 1035 erg/s × = 50 L⊙
3.8 × 1033 erg/s
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Rates

Speed and luminosity are examples of rates.

q Speed v is the rate of change of position x with time t:
Δx
v= ⇒ Δx = vΔt if v is constant.
Δt

position interval time

(distance) interval

q Luminosity L is the rate of change of energy E with time t:

ΔE
L= ⇒ ΔE = LΔt if L is constant.
Δt
Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 31

Speed as a rate

Example: The radius of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun is

1.5x1013 cm. What is its orbital speed (assumed constant)?

Δx 2π r 2 × 3.14159 × (1.5 × 10 cm ) ⎛
13
1 year ⎞
v= = = ×⎜
Δt Δt 1 year ⎝ 3.16 × 10 7 seconds ⎟⎠
cm ⎛ km 1 mile 3600 sec ⎞
= 3.0 × 10 6 ×⎜ × × ⎟ = 66,800 mph.
sec ⎝ 10 5 cm 1.61 km hour ⎠

Example: How long should it take to get to Buffalo from here,

at the Thruway speed limit?
Δx 60 miles ⎛ 60 minutes ⎞
Δt = = = 0.92 hour × ⎜ = 55 minutes.
v 65 miles ⎝ hour ⎟⎠
hour

Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 32

Now you try, with PRSs

There are eight furlongs in a mile, and two weeks in a

fortnight. Suppose we take the furlong to be our unit of
length, and a fortnight to be our unit of time.

Then, what are the units of speed?

A. Furlong fortnights B. Fortnights per furlong
C. Furlongs per fortnight D. Furlongs per second.
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Astronomy 102 Lecture 01

And again.

There are eight furlongs in a mile, and two weeks in a

fortnight. Suppose we take the furlong to be our unit of
length, and a fortnight to be our unit of time.

What is the NYS Thruway speed limit in this new system of

units?
A. 1.5 furlongs per fortnight B. 1.5×105 furlongs per fortnight
C. 8×10-4 furlong fortnights D. 42 fortnights per furlong
Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 34

Luminosity as a rate

Example: How long could the Sun live at its current

luminosity, considering the fuel supply with which it was
born?
ΔE 2 × 10 51 erg ⎛ year ⎞
Δt = = = 5.3 × 1017 sec × ⎜
L erg ⎝ 3.16 × 10 7 sec ⎟⎠
3.8 × 10 33
sec
= 1.7 × 1010 years (17 billion years).

It has already lived 4.56 billion years.

Example: What is your “luminosity” in erg/sec, if you eat
3000 calories a day and don’t gain or lose weight?

ΔE 3000 Cal ⎛ 1 day 4.2 × 1010 erg ⎞ 9 erg

L= = ×⎜ × ⎟⎠ = 1.5 × 10 sec .
Δt 1 day ⎝ 86400 sec Cal

Lecture 01 Astronomy 102 35

Remember the How Big Is That sheet

Many important physical quantities that we will use

frequently are collected on the The How Big Is That sheet,
found under the “Other Links”, “Download/Links” tab on
the Astronomy 102 Web site.
q You will always have access to this page while you’re
doing homework or exams. Thus you don’t have to
memorize all the numbers.
q However, to use the sheet effectively, and to understand
our astronomical discussions, you must become familiar
enough with them to know about how big most of them
are.
• It would do you good to memorize at least the
“typical” values of things, on the previous pages.

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Astronomy 102 Lecture 01

Done for today!

Picture: Milky Way Over Spain's Bardenas Reales.

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