CHAPTER TWO

Computer Cases and the Motherboard

2.1. The Definition of computer case
Computer case contains the major components of the computer. It helps protect them.
Provides protection and support for internal components. Should be durable, easy to service, and
have enough room for. The case is what holds everything together in a compact and

organized fashion. The computer case is also called system unit, box, tower, housing and

other names. Most of computer cases made of metal. It also made up of steel or aluminum,
and sometimes it’s made up of plastic.

The case has lights and switches on the front panel that can be used to control and monitor the
PC. These large cases allow for the extra space and power needed for a larger number of
devices, such as multiple hard drives needed in a server.

2.2. Computer case’s Functions

a. Protection: The primary function of a computer case is to protect and shield the critical
computer hardware from external factors like dust, moisture, physical impact,
electromagnetic interference, electrical interference and other forms of environmental
hazards.
b. Cooling: As computers generate a lot of heat, computer cases come with built-in fans or
ventilation systems to ensure proper airflow and heat dissipation. It helps to prevent
overheating, which can damage the system components, and ensures optimal
performance and longevity.
c. Cable Management: Computer cases also play a vital role in proper cable management.
They provide sufficient space and organization options for the cables, which help to
eliminate clutter, optimize and improve airflow and cooling, and make upgrades and
maintenance more accessible.
d. Aesthetics: Computer cases come in a range of designs and colors, which helps in the
customization and aesthetics of your computer system. They are available in various

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 shapes and sizes, including mid-tower, full-tower, and mini-tower, allowing the user to
choose the one that suits their needs and preferences.

Aesthetics wise, you might want to consider investing in a transformer computer case
with a unique design layout that sets it apart from other more common PC cases.

e. Noise Reduction: Many computer chassis come with thick, sound-dampening materials
that help in reducing the overall noise generated by the system hardware components.
It provides a quieter computing experience, especially for users working in shared
environments like offices or homes.

2.3. Computer Cases Form Factors

Form factors are the physical dimensions and layout of a computer case. The system units
come in various size and shape that depend in the form factors. Different form factors are
designed to accommodate different types and sizes of motherboards, power supplies, and
other internal components. Here are some common form factors of computer cases:

1. ATX (Advanced Technology eXtended): This is the most common form factor for
desktop computers. It measures 305mm x 244mm and provides space for up to seven
expansion slots.

2. Micro-ATX: This smaller form factor measures 244mm x 244mm and is designed to fit in
more compact cases. It typically has four expansion slots.

3. Mini-ITX: This is the smallest form factor and measures only 170mm x 170mm. It is
designed for compact and low-power systems, such as home theater PCs.

4. E-ATX (Extended ATX): This larger form factor measures 305mm x 330mm and can
accommodate up to nine expansion slots. It is designed for high-end gaming and
workstation systems.

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5. BTX (Balanced Technology eXtended): This form factor was developed by Intel as a
replacement for ATX, but it never gained widespread adoption. It features a rotated
motherboard, which improves air flow and reduces heat build-up.

Overall, choosing the right form factor for your computer case model is important in
ensuring that all the components fit properly and that your system runs smoothly.

2.4. Types of Computer Cases

a. Mid towers are the cases with which most people would be familiar; PCs in workplaces
and schools tend to be housed in this size of case. Mid tower cases are approximately
eighteen inches high, with between two and four external bays (which can be used to
use DVD, CD and Blu-Ray drives).
b. Full towers are much larger, typically around 22 inches high, and can have anywhere
up to sixteen drive bays - these tend to have much better cooling ability than smaller
cases, and allow the installation of high-end components which are generally quite
large. Full towers are enthusiast cases, highly popular among the overclocking crowd,
which have lots of room for cable management (hiding the cable bundles from the
power supply to the components, which otherwise hang down in the middle of the case
impeding airflow). Along with server cases, full tower cases tend to be geared towards
easy upgrading and maintenance and are therefore large, accessible, and have lots of
room for expansion.
c. minitower cases, which have space for only one or two bays, and are generally
between thirteen and sixteen inches tall. These are some of the least imposing cases,

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 though their small size makes maintenance more difficult and their cooling
performance is usually a secondary consideration to their size.
d. Desktop computer cases are typically smaller and designed to sit flat on a desk. They
are often used for home and office PCs and have limited expansion options. They are
also typically less expensive than tower cases. The first personal computers used a desktop
case that sat flat on a desktop doing double duty as a monitor stand.

2.5. What Is a Motherboard?

 A computer’s motherboard is typically the largest printed circuit board in a machine’s
chassis. It distributes electricity and facilitates communication between and to the
central processing unit (CPU), random access memory (RAM), and any other
component of the computer’s hardware. There is a broad range of motherboards, each
of which is intended to be compatible with a specific model and size of the computer.
 A motherboard is a circuit board inside general-purpose computing systems, including
personal computers, smart televisions, smart monitors, and other similar devices,
which supports communication between different electrical components and houses
components such as the CPU, memory, etc.
 A computer motherboard may be found inside a computer casing, which is the point of
connection for most of the computer’s elements and peripherals.
 The motherboard is a printed circuit board and foundation of a computer that is the biggest
board in a computer chassis. It allocates power and allows communication to and between
the CPU (central processing unit), RAM (random-access memory), and all other
computer hardware components.
 A motherboard provides connectivity between the hardware components of a
computer, like the processor (CPU), memory (RAM), hard drive, and video card. There
are multiple types of motherboards, designed to fit different types and sizes of
computers. A computer motherboard is located inside the computer case and is where
most of the parts and computer peripherals connect.
 A motherboard is the main circuit board inside a computer that connects the different
parts of a computer together. It has sockets for the CPU, RAM and expansion cards and
it also hooks up to hard drives, disc drives and front panel ports with cables and wires.

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 Motherboard is also known as a mainboard, planar board or logic board, system board,
mobo or MB. It links all the individual parts of a computer together and also, allows the
CPU to access and control these separate parts.
 The motherboard provides the foundation for the personal computer. Every piece of
hardware, from the CPU to the lowliest expansion card, directly or indirectly plugs into
the motherboard. The motherboard contains the wires—called traces —that make up
the different buses of the system. It holds the vast majority of the ports used by the
peripherals and it distributes the power from the power supply. Without the
motherboard, you literally have no PC.

2.6. Types of motherboard

a. Non-integrated:
 Assemblies such as I/O port connectors, hard drive connectors, CD drive
connectors etc installed as expansion boards.
 Takes lot of free space inside the case because of expansion slots.
 If something goes wrong such as bend or broken pin or defective controller can be
repaired with minor cost.
 Are cheap and easy to produce.
 Most of the olden motherboards were non-integrated.

b. Integrated:
 Assemblies are integrated or built right onto the board.
 Serial and parallel ports, IDE, CD drive are directly connected to the motherboard.
 This tends to free some space inside case and better accessibility to the
components.
 Cheaper to produce but are expensive to repair.
 Fast, powerful, feature rich motherboard at reasonable price.

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2.7. Motherboard Form Factor:
 Motherboards come in several standardized configurations-called form factors-
that define the size, location of expansion slots, and so on. The term basically
describes the shape and size of the motherboards, as well as the layout of the
components on the board.
 The form factor determines the specifications on how a motherboard is built, from the size,
shape, casing, power supply, mounting holes, and the overall layout.
 Determines general layout, size and feature placement on the motherboard.
 Form factors such as physical size, shape, component placement, power supply
connectors etc.
 Various form factors of motherboards are AT, Baby AT, ATX, Mini-ATX, Micro-ATX, Flex
ATX, LPX and Mini LPX and NLX.
 The most common kinds of form factors are AT and ATX

Difference between AT motherboard and ATX motherboard:

Parameter AT Motherboard ATX Motherboard
Full form AT motherboard stands for Advanced ATX motherboard stands for Advanced
Technology Motherboard. Technology Extended Motherboard.
Introduced by AT motherboard was introduced into the market ATX motherboard was introduced into the
by IBM in August 1984. market by Intel in 1995.
Dimensions AT motherboards are larger in size. The AT ATX motherboards are relatively smaller in size.
motherboard measures 305 mm × 280 mm. The ATX motherboard measures 305 mm x 244
mm.
Power A 12-pin power connector is used in the AT A 20-pin power connector is used in the ATX
connector pins motherboard. motherboard.
Mounting in AT motherboard is mounted at the front of the ATX motherboards are mounted at the back of
CPU CPU case. the CPU case.
Version AT motherboards are the older versions of the ATX motherboards ae the modern and improved
ATX motherboards. versions of the AT motherboards.
Expansion slots AT motherboards have a limited number of ATX motherboards have more number of
expansion slots. Hence, we can connect very expansion slots. Hence, multiple devices can be
few devices at a time. connected at the same time.
Space required AT motherboards have larger surface area and ATX motherboards have smaller surface area and

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 hence they require more space to fit into the hence they require less space to fit into the CPU
CPU cabinet. cabinet.
Cooling AT motherboards have poor cooling. ATX motherboards have enhanced cooling, as
the processor is located nearer to the power
supply fan that provides better air circulation.
Ease of AT motherboards are comparatively complex to ATX motherboards are easier to install.
installation install.
Power AT motherboards do not support advanced ATX motherboards support advanced power
management power management features like standby mode, management features.
etc.
Expansion slot In the AT motherboards, only Industry Standard ATX motherboards have both ISA (Industry
standards Architecture (ISA) expansion slots are provided. Standard Architecture) and PCI (Peripheral
Component Interconnect) expansion slots.
Soft power AT motherboards do not have the feature of soft ATX motherboards have soft power switch. This
switch power switch, which allows computers to turn feature allows the computer to turn on and off
on and off from the operating system. from the operating system.
1. AT Motherboards:
- AT motherboards were introduced in 1984 with size 12x13 inches
- The only integrated port on this motherboard is for the keyboard; all other devices
connect to the motherboard via cards and expansion slots.
- AT power supply connect to AT with one P8 connector and one P9 connector.
- Oldest and biggest form factor and popular until Baby AT.
- 12' inch size and was difficult to install, service and upgrade.
2. Baby AT Motherboards:
- the Baby AT motherboard measures 8.5x13 inches and is laid out exactly same as AT
- AT power supply connect to Baby AT with one P8 connector and one P9 connector.
- Standard in computer industries and still being used in Pentium class products.
- CPU socket is placed in such a way that it can interfere with longer bus cards.
- Limitation over peripheral card installation.
- I/O ports are connected to pin-outs near the floppy drive which results in jumbling
of ribbon cables.

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3. ATX motherboard:
- Intel created ATX motherboard in 1996, with size 12x9.6 inches
- It has many integrated ports, including two serial ports, a parallel port, USB
ports and mini DIN ports.
- PS/2 connectors provide one of the quickest visual ways to distinguish between
ATX and AT motherboards
- ATX power supply connect to the motherboard via a single P1 connector
- ATX motherboards introduced support for power management controlled by the
BIOS
- Improvement done in easy to use, support for current and future I/O, and also to
current and future technology.
- New mounting configuration for power supply.
- Processor relocated away from expansion slots to allow full length add-in cards.
- Provides air-flow through chassis and across the processor.
4. Mini ATX:
- Commonly same as ATX.
- Just change in size from ATX= 12" x 9.6" to Mini ATX= 11.2" x 8.2".
5. Micro ATX:
- There is really only one difference between them and that is the size.
- In comparison to a 12-by-9.6-inch screen, this monitor measures 9.6×9.6 inches
instead.
- In order to fit into small computer cases, this board was specifically designed.
Unlike an ATX board, this board has fewer expansion slots and memory slots due
to its smaller size.
- A smaller processor does not necessarily mean that it will have less computing
power than a larger processor just because it is smaller.
- Many gaming computers today come with these kinds of boards installed on
them.
- Supports current and new processor technologies.
- AGP (Accelerated graphics port) to have high performance graphics.
- Smaller in size and less power supply.

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6. Flex ATX:
- A subset of micro ATX.
- Gives chance to system developers to create new personal computer design.
- Enhanced flexibility to allow custom case and board design to be manufactured.
- Small motherboard size and supports current processor technology.
7. LPX (Low Profile Extension) and Mini LPX:
- Based on design by western digital.
- Usually found in desktop pc's.
- Case are slim-line, low profile case with riser card arrangement for expansion
cards.
- Riser card arrangement means expansion boards are parallel rather than
perpendicular.
- This makes smaller case but limits number of expansion slots to two or three.
- High quality product at low cost but makes difficult to upgrade and repair.
8. NLX (New Low Profile Extended):
- Supports current and future processor technologies.
- Also supports new AGP and tall memory technology.
- Installing and upgrading the system is easy.

2.8. Functions of the Motherboard

The functions of a computer motherboard are as follows:

i. The motherboard acts as the central backbone of a computer on which other

modular parts are installed such as the CPU, RAM and hard disks.
ii. The motherboard also acts as the platform on which various expansion slots are
available to install other devices / interfaces.
iii. The motherboard is also responsible to distribute power to the various components
of the computer.

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 iv. They are also used in the coordination of the various devices in the computer and
maintain an interface among them.
v. Some of the Sizes in which the motherboards are available are: BTX, ATX, mini-ATX,
micro-ATX, LPX, NLX etc.

The motherboard is the backbone that ties the computer's components together at one
spot and allows them to talk to each other. Without it, none of the computer pieces, such as
the CPU, GPU, or hard drive, could interact. Total motherboard functionality is necessary
for a computer to work well.

2.9. History of Motherboard

o In 1981, the first motherboard was used in the IBM computer that was originally
known as planar.
o In August 1984, IBM introduced the full AT motherboard form factor.

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o In 1985, the Baby AT motherboard form factor was released.
o In 1987, Western Digital developed the LPX motherboard form factor.
o In July 1995, the first version of the ATX specification for motherboards was
released by Intel.
o In March 1997, the NLX form factor developed by Intel (in a joint effort with DEC
and IBM).
o In November 1997, the first motherboard, including AGP support, was released by
FIC, and by Intel in August 1997.
o In December 1997, the microATX motherboard and specification were introduced
by Intel.
o In September 1998, the WTX motherboard form factor was released by Intel
o In 1999, the motherboard form factor, FlexATX, was introduced by Intel.
o In 2000, the ETX motherboard specification was introduced by Kontron.
o In 2001, TQ-Components introduced the UTX motherboard form factor.
o In November 2001, VIA Technologies developed the Mini-ITX form factor and
introduced it to the market.
o In 2003, PCI-SIG introduced the PCI Express standard. Later, the motherboards,
including a PCI Express slot, were also introduced in 2003.
o In March 2003, the Nano-ITX, the motherboard form factor was released.
o In 2004, NVIDIA released its SLI technology that allowed the motherboard to link
two video cards together.
o In February 2004, the BTX form factor and specification for motherboards were
released by Intel. Also, the PicoBTX and microBTX form factors were introduced in
2004.
o In March 2004, the Mobile-ITX form factor for motherboards was released.
o In 2005, the COM Express form factor was introduced by PICMG (a group of over
150 companies).
o In the year 2005, the XTX motherboard form factor and specification were
introduced.

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 o In 2006, a microATX motherboard was released for computer games using two
video cards, and the SWTX motherboard form factor was also introduced by
supermicro in the same year.
o In April 2007, the motherboard form factor, Pico-ITX was introduced.
o In January 2007, the DTX form factor was developed by AMD; it also introduced the
Mini-DTX form factor in 2007.
o In 2010, EVGA introduced the motherboard form factor, HPTX.

2.10. Architecture and Block diagram of motherboard

Motherboard includes peripherals, interface cards, and daughter cards: sound cards, video
cards, network cards, hard drives, or other forms of persistent storage; TV tuner cards,
cards providing extra USB or FireWire slots and a variety of other custom components. It
has no additional expansions or capability, such as controlling boards in laser printers,
televisions, washing machines and other embedded systems with limited expansion
abilities. There is also Front Side Bus and back side bus

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2.11. Motherboard Components and Connectors

A typical Asus P5N32-E SLI motherboard with constituent components is given below:
1. 1PCI SLOT (Peripheral Component Interconnect) : PCI slots are used to Insert or
install Add-on cards, such as LAN cards, Sound cards, Capture cards and TV tuner cards.
There are usually anywhere from 1 to 6 PCI slots available on the motherboard (above
board has 2 PCI slots.), they have decreased in number and are being replaced by the
PCI Express 1x slots.
2. PCI-E 16x Slot : the most common slot for Graphics cards, the PCI Express 16x slots
provides 16 separate lanes or data transfer. These are the 16x speed versions, which
are currently the fastest. PCI-E16x allows up to 4 GB/s of peak bandwidth per direction,
and up to 8 GB/s concurrent bandwidth.
3. PCI-E 1x Slot : Single slot - In the PCIe 1.x generation, each lane (1x) carries 250 MB/s
compared to 133 MB/s for the PCI slots. These can be used for expansion cards such as
Sound Cards, or Ethernet Cards.

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4. North Bridge: The northbridge typically handles communications among the CPU, in
some cases RAM, and PCI Express (or AGP) video cards, and the southbridge.
Northbridge is directly connected to AGP video, thus providing higher transfer rates.
5. South Bridge: The southbridge is one of the two chips in the core logic chipset on a
personal computer (PC) motherboard, the other being the northbridge. The
southbridge typically implements the slower capabilities of the motherboard in a
northbridge/southbridge chipset computer architecture. A southbridge chipset handles
all of a computer's I/O functions, such as USB, audio, serial, the system BIOS, the ISA
bus, the interrupt controller and the IDE channels.
6. ATX 12V 2X and 4 Pin Power Connection: This is one of two power connections that
supply power to the motherboard. This connection will come from your Power Supply.
7. Processor Sockets or Slots: the processor socket is the central piece of a motherboard,
usually being located near the center of the motherboard. It’s also the central piece
because it holds the processor – the brain of your computer. Of course, the
motherboard has one or more sockets or slots to hold the processor(s).
8. CPU-Fan Connection: This is where the CPU fan will connect. Using this connection
over one of the power supply will allow the motherboard to control the speed of the fan,
based on the CPU temperature.
9. CPU slot: To install the CPU, just slide it straight down into the slot. Special notches in
the slot make it impossible to install them incorrectly. So remember if it does not go
easily, it is probably not correct. Be sure to plug in the CPU fan's power.
10. Socket: This is where the CPU will plug in. The orange bracket that is surrounding it is
used for high end heat sinks. It helps to support the weight of the heat sink.
11. Memory Sockets or Slots: the memory slots are used to populate the computer’s
memory modules. Most motherboards today come with between 2 and 8 sockets for the
insertion of memory. These are usually SIMMs (single inline memory modules) or
DIMMs (dual inline memory modules) or the recent RIMMs (Rambus inline memory
modules) these can come in different sizes.
12. DIMM slots: DIMM's are by far and away the most used memory types in today's
computers. They vary in speeds and standards however and they need to match up to
what your motherboard has been designed to take. The four standards of DIMM's being

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 used at the moment are SDR (Single Data Rate), DDR (Double Data Rate), DDR2 and
DDR3. The speeds of memory can vary between 66Mhz to 1600Mhz.
13. Power supply plug in: The Power supply, as its name implies, provides the necessary
electrical power to make the pc operate. the power supply takes standard 110-V AC
power and converts into 12-Volt, 5-Volt, and 3.3-Volt DC power.
14. ATX Power Connector: This is the second of two power connections. This is the main
power connection for the motherboard, and comes from the Power Supply.
15. IDE connectors or PATA connectors: IDE full form is Integrated Device Electronics. it
supports IDE devices, such as Hard disks and CD and DVD drives. Most drives today
come with SATA connections.
16. SATA Connections: SATA full form is Serial Advanced Technology Attachment. These
are connecting with serial ATA devices, such as Hard disk drives and CD or DVD drives.
17. Front Panel Connections: this is where we will hook in the connections from the case.
These are mostly the different lights on the case, such as power on, hard drive activity
etc.
18. Floppy controller: The floppy drive connects to the computer via a 34-pin ribbon
cable, which in turn connects to the motherboard. A floppy controller is one that is used
to control the floppy drive.
19. FDD Connection: The FDD is the Floppy Disk controller. Floppy Drive Connector is
used to connect floppy drives. It supports two floppy drives.
20. External USB Connections: There are usually a couple of these ports located on each
motherboard used for connecting pen drives and external hard drives, like Ipods or
Mp3 players.
21. CMOS battery: This is the motherboard's battery, which is used to power the south
bridge and the BIOS to save the setting, data and time.

BIOS chip (Basic Input/Output System): a chip holding the start-up routine for the
computer system. It runs a program to test the hardware of the system. Its test is
successful, a single beep is sounded. If not, a series of beeps are sounded and these beep
patterns can be used to identify the failing component. Built into Read Only Memory
(ROM) of computer. POST is the test conducted by BIOS.

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2.12. Different Types of Motherboard Ports and Their Functions Explained
The below figure shows the connector side of the Motherboard:

1. RJ-45 (Registered Jack 45) LAN port: This port allows connection to a Local Area
Network (LAN) through a network hub using a RJ-45 cable.
2. Analog Audio port: This port connects a tape, CD, DVD player or other audio soures.
3. VGA Port (Video Graphics Array) :VGA cables carry an analog signal as opposed to a
digital signal (ones and zeroes). Using higher frequencies, it's possible to reach a
relatively high range of video resolutions. However, video quality directly responds to
cable quality, and doubly so on higher resolutions. Due to this, the quality of a VGA
image cans variate notable across different makes of cables.

4. USB (Universal Serial Bus) 2.0 Ports: There are usually a couple of these ports
located on each motherboard used for connecting pen drives and external hard drives,
like Ipods or Mp3 players.

5. Parallel port: largely obsolete. Used to connect printers and scanners.

6. Serial port: largely obsolete. Used to connect external modem etc.

7. Audio chip: controls the onboard audio system

8. Video Cards: your video card performs the function of displaying the screen you see on
the monitor

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9. PS/2 Keyboard Port (purple) :This port is for a PS/2 keyboard

10. PS/2 mouse port (green): This port is for a PS/2 mouse.

11. 1394a Port : this port is used to connect to any firewire device. FireWire has largely
been supplanted by USB. Some professional audio hardware still uses FireWire, though;
you may also occasionally find higher-speed IEEE 1394b headers, but they are even
rarer.

12. Optical S/PDIF Used for sound connections to home audio recievers or powered PC
speakers with optical connections.

13. eSATA port(External Serial Advanced Technology Attachment): It is an external

interface for SATA technologies. It competes with FireWire 400 and universal serial bus
(USB) 2.0 to provide fast data transfer speeds for external storage devices.

14. HDMI Connector(High-Definition Multimedia Interface):HDMI is a digital interface

for transmitting audio and video data in a single cable. It is supported by most HDTVs
and related components, such as DVD and Blu-ray players, cable boxes, and video game
systems.

15. DVI (Digital Visual Interface) connector : It is used to send digital information from a
computer to a digital display, such as a flat-panel LCD monitor.

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2.13. Other motherboard components and its related devices
1) System chipset and controllers: the chipset and other motherboard circuitry are the
"smarts" of the motherboard. Their job is to direct traffic and control the flow of
information inside the computer. These circuits control the processor's access to
memory, the flow of data to and from peripheral devices and communications lines,
and much more. The chipset is a critical part of any computer, because it plays a big
role in determining what sorts of features the computer can support. For example,
which processors you can use, which types of memory, how fast you can run the
machine, and what kind of system buses your PC can use, are all tied in to the type of
chipset the motherboard uses?
2) System Buses: the system buses are the electrical channels through which various
parts of the computer communicate. The physical part of these buses, the part you
see, is the set of slots in the back of the machine into which you put your video card,
sound card and other cards. It is over the system buses that your video card gets
information from the processor; the processor saves data to your hard disk, etc. The
architecture chosen for each of the system buses has a great impact on the
performance of your PC, as well as dictating your choices for video cards and other
devices.
3) BIOS: the system BIOS (which stands for Basic Input/Output System) is a computer
program that is built into the PC's hardware. It is the lowest-level program that runs
on your computer. Its job is to act as an intermediary between your system hardware
(the chipset, motherboard, processor and peripherals) and your system software (the
operating system). The BIOS is what runs when you turn on your computer, and what
loads your operating system (for example, DOS). The BIOS also allows you to set or
change many different parameters that control how your computer will function. For
example, you tell the BIOS what sort of hard drives you have so it knows how to
access them.
4) Cache and/or Cache Sockets: the system cache is a small, high-speed memory area
that is placed between the processor and the system memory. The value of the cache

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 is that it is much faster than normal system memory. Each time the processor
requests a piece of data from the memory, the system first checks the cache to see if
the information is there. If it is, then the value is read from cache instead of memory,
and the processor can get back to work that much sooner. If it isn't, then the data is
read from memory and given to the processor, but it is also placed into the cache in
case the processor needs it again in the near future.
Virtually, all newer 486 or Pentium class motherboards come with integrated
secondary cache or sockets for secondary cache to be inserted. Also called "Level 2"
or "L2" cache, secondary cache is high-speed memory that is used to buffer
processor requests to the regular system memory. Either 256 KB or 512 KB of
cache is most common, with larger sizes such as 1 MB and higher now coming onto
the market. Motherboards for Pentium Pro and Pentium II PCs don't have level 2
cache on them; it is already integrated into the processor itself for the Pentium Pro,
and into the processor package for the Pentium II. Motherboards, typically have either
cache chips soldered directly into the board, sockets for cache chips, or a socket for
COASt, or "cache on a stick". It takes a module with cache chips on it that looks
something like a memory SIMM (except it is usually inserted differently into the
motherboard). There are also motherboards that have both: they come with 256 KB of
built-in cache and a COASt module for the addition of 256 KB more.
These are now becoming less common with many companies deciding it is cheaper to
just put 512 KB on the motherboard to begin with. Having level 2 cache on the
motherboard may eventually be a thing of the past. The trend is toward putting the L2
cache either on the chip itself (a la Pentium Pro) or on a daughterboard (Pentium II
and future Intel processors)
5) System Resources: system resources are not actual physical devices; they are nothing
you can reach into the machine and touch. But they are very important for two
reasons. First, they dictate how your PC organizes its access to various memory areas
and devices. Second, they are one of the most common areas where people have
problems with the setupof their PCs: so-called resource conflicts. These are the four
types of resources that various parts of your computer can sometimes decide to fight
over:

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 a. Interrupts (IRQs): a device requests time from the processor using these
interrupt requests. Under traditional designs, each device has a different IRQ
number. If two try to use the same one, a conflict can result. Newer technologies
can allow multipledevices to share an IRQ channel.
b. Direct Memory Access (DMA) Channels: some devices have the ability to read
and write directly from the system memory, instead of asking the processor to do
it for them. Cutting the "middle man" out in this manner improves the efficiency of
the system. Each device that does this needs its own DMA channel.
c. Input/output (I/O) Addresses: devices exchange information with the system by
putting data into certain specific memory addresses. For example, when we
pressed the letter "M" in the example mentioned above, the key press was stored
in a certain memory address until it was time for the processor to deal with it. Any
time information goes into or out of the machine, to your modem or hard drive or
printer for example, it uses these I/O addresses. Again, each device needs its own
memory area.
d. Memory Addresses: similar to I/O addresses, many devices use blocks of
memory as part of their normal functioning. For example, they may map hardware
programs (BIOS code) into memory, or use a memory area to hold temporary data
they are using.

6) System Memory: the system memory holds all of the "active" information that the
computer is using. When you turn the computer on the memory is empty. Each
program or data file you load uses part of the system memory. When you close a
program the memory is freed up for other uses. Generally, the more memory your
system has, the more things you can do with it simultaneously. Increasing the amount
of memory in the system also improves performance in most cases.
7) Video Cards: your video card performs the function of displaying the screen you see
on the monitor. Inside the video card is a special kind of memory called video memory,
where information is stored that represents what you see on the screen. If you look
closely at the screen you can see that it is made up of many dots, or pixels. Each pixel's
color and brightness is stored in the video memory. When the computer wants to

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 display something, it calculates how it needs to change the color and brightness of the
different pixels, and changes the values in the video memory. The video card then
presents the new pixels to you on the monitor. In modern computers, this calculating
job is shared between the processor and the video card itself. Having the video card
do the calculation can often be much faster, because the video card is specialized to do
these types of calculations. Also, while the video card is doing this work, the processor
can go on to other things.
8) Monitors: in simple terms, the monitor, sometimes also called a CRT after the main
technology used in making them, is a specialized, high-resolution screen, similar to a
high-quality television. Many times per second, your video card sends the contents of
its video memory out to your monitor. The screen is made up of a matrix of red, green
and blue dots. The information your video card sends controls which dots are lit up
and how bright they are, which determines the picture you see.
9) Hard Disk Drives: your hard disk drive is your computer's main "long term
memory"--it holds your operating system, programs and data files. Hard drives are
the fastest form of long-term storage your computer uses. They have currently
increased in size and speed to values unheard of just a few years ago. Hard disks are
(usually) permanent they stay in one place inside your computer and cannot be
removed the way floppy disks or CD-ROMs can.
10)Floppy Disk Drives: floppy disks are your computer's smallest and slowest form of
long-term storage. Floppy disks provide a simple, convenient way to transfer
information, install new software, and back up small amounts of files. Floppy disks are
not as important a part of the computer as they were many years ago. This is largely
because the floppy disk still holds the same amount it did five years ago, while most
users' needs for storage, software installation and backup, have increased ten-fold or
more in that period of time. One great advantage floppy drives have is universality:
virtually 100% of PCs made in the last 10 years use a standard 1.44 MB floppy drive.
11)CD-ROM Drives: CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk - Read Only Memory. As the name
implies, CD-ROM drives use compact disks, similar to the ones that hold music, to hold
computer information. And also as the name implies, they are a read-only medium.
You can read information from them but not write to them (except for some special

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 exceptions). CDROMs are currently the most popular way that computer companies
distribute applications and games, and are ideal for multimedia information like
videos, music and large graphics files.
12)Peripheral I/O: peripherals are external devices that you connect to your PC. (Well,
technically your hard drive and CD-ROM etc. are peripherals too, but often people use
the term to refer to devices outside the main box). There are two main ways that you
can connect peripherals to your machine: through a serial connection, or through a
parallel connection:
 Serial Communications: a serial connection sends information over the line one
bit at a time. It is a simple way to send information in or out of the computer, but is
not as fast as other ways the computer can communicate. Serial connections are
typically used for devices such as mice and modems.
 Parallel Communications: a parallel connection is faster than a serial one
because it sends many bits in parallel. The advantage of this is that it is faster, but
the disadvantage is that it is more complicated to do. Parallel connections are used
most often for printers and removable storage drives, which need more speed
than serial peripherals.
13) Keyboards: the keyboard is the main input device for most computers. It is used to
input textual information to the PC. Keyboards are pretty much standard affairs these
days, although they can vary greatly in quality and appearance, and some have
significant additional features.
14) Mouse: until the invention of graphical operating systems, the keyboard was the
only way that most people input information into their PCs. Mice are used in graphical
environments to let users provide simple "point and click" instructions to the
computer. The main advantage of a mouse over the keyboard is simplicity. There are
also some operations that are much easier to perform with a mouse than a keyboard
(such as picking an item on a screen or choosing from a list of options.

2.14. Motherboard Determines

 Number of CPU slots

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  Types of slots
 Type of case
 Plug and Play compatibility
 CPU type and speed
 Chipset
 Secondary cache type
 Type of memory
 Number of memory sockets and maximum memory
 ROM
 Type of peripherals like keyboard, mouse …

2.15. Motherboard Power

CPUs, RAM, chipsets-everything on your motherboard-need electrical power to run. Every
power supply provides specialized connections to the motherboard to provide DC
electricity in several voltages to feed the needs of the many devices. As mentioned earlier,
different motherboard form factors require different connectors.

It is also referred to as switching power supplies, use switcher technology to convert

the AC input to lower DC voltages. The typical voltages produced are:
 3.3 volts
 5 volts
 12 volts
The 3.3-volts and 5-volts are typically used by digital circuits, while the 12-volt is used
to power fans and motors in disk drives. The main specification of a power supply is in
watts.
Most PC power supplies also provide the system's cooling and processor fans that keep
the machine from overheating.
Many newer supplies have a universal input that will accept either 110 VAC (volts
alternating current), 60 Hz (U.S. standard power), or 220 VAC, 50 Hz
(European/Asian/African standard)

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A standard power supply draws power from a local, Alternating Current (AC) source
(usually a wall outlet) and converts it to either 3.3, 5 and 12 volts direct current (DC),
for on-board electronics, and hard drives
When replacing a power supply, there are three things to consider:
 physical size,
 wattage, and
 connectors

a) Power-Supply Sizes
Power supplies are based on the types of case they will be used in and the types of
motherboard connections they will support
The older models are known as AT-style, and the newer ones are known as ATX
Older Pentium-based computers and all 486-based and earlier PCs used AT supplies
Almost all Pentium II and later-based systems use ATX supplies
b) Power-Supply Wattage
Power supplies are rated according to the maximum sustained power (given in
watts) that they can produce. A watt is a unit of electrical power equivalent to one
volt-ampere
A PC requires sufficient wattage for the machine to run properly
Most general-use computers require 130 watts while running
About 200-205 watts when booting, It is safe to buy 230-250/300 watt power
supplies

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 c) Power-Supply Connectors
AT Power Connectors: a pair of connectors-called P8 and P9 link the AT power supply to
the AT motherboard. Each of these connectors has a row of teeth along one side and a small
guide on the opposite side that help hold the connection in place.

P8 and P9 connectors a standard P8 and P9 connection

You might find that installing P8 and P9 requires a little bit of work, because of facing,
keying, and figuring out which one goes where. P8 and P9 are faced (that is, they have a
front and a back), so you cannot install them backwards. Sometimes the small keys on P8
and P9 require that you angle the connectors in before snapping them down all the way.
Although you cannot plug P8 and P9 in backwards, you certainly can reverse them by
putting P8 where P9 should go, and vice versa. When connecting P8 and P9 to the
motherboard, keep the black ground wires next to each other. All AT motherboards and
power supplies follow this rule. Be careful-incorrectly inserting P8 and P9 can damage both
the power supply and other components in the PC.

ATX

ATX uses a single P1 power connector instead of the P8 and P9 commonly found on AT
systems. The P1 connector requires its own special socket on the motherboard. P1

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connectors include a 3.3-volt wire along with the standard 5-volt and 12-volt wires. The
invariably white P1 socket stands out clearly on the motherboard. The P1 has a notched
connector that allows you to insert it one way only-you cannot install the P1 connector
incorrectly.

P1 connector P1 Socket Properly Installed P1 connector

 Connections to Peripherals: a power supply has two or three types of connectors that
plug into components such as hard drives, floppy drives, CD-ROM drives, Zip drives, and
fans. Let's take a look at each of these power connections. Both AT and ATX share these
same types of connectors.
1) Molex Connectors: the most common type of connection is called the Molex. The Molex
connector is used primarily for devices that need both 12 volts and 5 volts of power
such as hard drives and CD media drives. The Molex connector has chamfers (notches),
which make for easy installation. These chamfers can be defeated if you push hard
enough, so always inspect the Molex connection to ensure proper orientation before
you install. Installing a Molex backward will almost certainly destroy the device into
which the Molex is connected.

Standard Molex connector Diagram of Molex connector and socketSATA Connector

2) Mini Connectors: most systems also provide a mini connector. The mini is used
primarily on 3.5-inch floppy drives, because floppy drive makers have adopted the mini

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 connector for that use. It's very easy to install a mini connector incorrectly, which
inevitably results in a smoked floppy drive. The mini connector installs with the 12-volt
yellow wire on the left.

Standard mini connector Connector Diagram of mini connector and

socket

3) Extenders and Splitters

PCs can run out of power connections, and large cases can have drives beyond the
reach of any plug on the supply. A quick solution on hand to both of these common
problems: extenders and splitters
Extenders are wire sets that have a Molex connector on each end; they are used to
extend a power connection to a device beyond the reach of the power supply's own
wiring

Splitters are similar to extenders, with the exception that they provide two power
connections from a single power supply connector

2.16. Factors for selecting a Motherboard

a) Form Factor – Defines size and shape of board. While choosing a motherboard, you
need to consider the different types of slots you require for your system. Choose a
case that is large enough to fit the motherboard of the correct form factor

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b) CPU Support – Should support different types of microprocessor and sockets.
Before purchasing a motherboard, you need to consider the various processors that
it supports. In the future, if you need to upgrade your processor, you may not have
to change the whole motherboard
c) Memory slots – Should have more number of slots. To support new technology
software user can upgrade the system in the future
d) Expansion Slots – A motherboard with more number of expansion slots can easily
be expanded for supporting the various devices
e) SATA support – Allows higher transfer rates of data between hard disk and
motherboard and should have SATA controller on it.
f) Number of Ports – Should have more number of USB and other ports to connect
different devices to the system. Depending on the type of device to be attached to
the system and the port that is required, the board should be purchased.
g) Hard Drive transfer speed and RAID support – Should support Hard drive of
Ultra Direct Memory Access (UDMA) 133 and RAID
h) Bus Speed – Should have higher speed of FSB and BSB which allows faster transfer
rate of data in and out of the processor
i) Chipset – Backbone of system and important part. Should support latest memory
modules e.g. DDR II SDRAM, RDRAM or ECC memory. Also it should support AGP 4x
or faster video and ATA-133 or faster hard drive support.

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2.17. Removing and replacing motherboard

Step 1: Assess the situation

Before you pull out your toolkit, do a bit of reconnaissance or investigation inside your
PC. Some things to keep in mind: Think of the size of the boards. And if it's a small-form-
factor PC, you won't be able to put a larger ATX motherboard into it. Make sure your
case supports the form factor (AT,ATX, MicroATX, and so on) of your new board. Many
older motherboards require a 20-pin main power cable from your power supply, but
recent boards require both a 24- pin connector and a separate 4-pin one. Your
motherboard won't work if improperly powered, so a new power supply could be in
order. Do your optical and hard drives connect via Integrated Device Electronics)
(usually with ribbon cables) or via newer Serial ATA(Advanced Technology
Attachment) (thinner cables)? Many newer motherboards have only one IDE port
(which supports two drives), whereas older boards have two. If you have more than two
IDE drives, be sure your new board has a second IDE connector. What kind of processor,
RAM, and graphics card will you be using? What was top-of-the-line a few years ago could
be obsolete today. AGP(Advanced Graphics Port) graphics cards certainly are—most newer
motherboards lack slots for them, replacing them with PCIe (peripheral component
interconnect express). Processor socket technology and RAM design have also changed. If
you don't want to buy all new components, make sure yours work with the new motherboard.
Step 2: Cleaning up
Here, you'll have to make a choice: Install your new motherboard and keep your existing
Windows installation in place, or take the opportunity to wipe your boot drive and start from
scratch. If you do the second, have your Windows and application discs handy. Either way,
you'll want to back up your data. Open your case's side and take photos of your PC's rear
panel and interior, or label all the cables. (Sticky notes work well.) Many of today's
connectors are color-coded, but if yours aren't, this precaution could prevent frustration later.
Once you have all the correct equipment (and a screwdriver), it's time to begin. Disconnect
the PC's power cable and everything attached to its rear panel (which is part of the
motherboard). Then, turn the case horizontal to tackle the interior. Ground yourself, either by
using an antistatic wrist strap or by touching the metal chassis. Then remove any cards in
your old motherboard's expansion slots. Remove the screws securing them to the chassis,
then pull the cards straight up and out. (For a PCIe x16 card, you might need to depress a
lever on the slot before doing this.) Place them on a clean, static-free surface. Next, detach all

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cables and wires connecting your motherboard to the PSU (power supply unit) , case front
panel, optical and hard drives, heat sink or other components (such as fans). For the big PSU
power-cable connectors that plug into the motherboard, squeeze a lever on one side to release
the connector; most other cables should pull out easily.
Step 3: The great swap-out
Now for the switch. Locate the screws holding down the motherboard (usually six or nine),
and remove them. Once done, the motherboard will lift out. To protect it, place it in the
antistatic bag your new board came in.

When replacing the system board, ensure that the following components are removed from
the defective system board and installed on the replacement system board:

 Memory module

 Mini PCI communications module

 battery

 Processor

 Modem board

 Fan assembly

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Reasons a motherboard fails

A Motherboard can fail for a number of reasons:

 Electricity and voltage spikes

 Power supply problems
 Dust and Age
 Overheating
 Fan failure or heating issues

 Force or pressure
 If you live in a place with a lot of voltage spikes, I suggest you get a voltage regulator
outlet and will prolong your motherboard life over time.

 Clean your fans at least once a year even if you live in a clean place, dust can play a
significant part in hardware failures, from fans not working to hardware connectors
not working well because of dust.

 Everything powers on but you can't see a live screen

 Computer turns on for just a few seconds then turns off
 Some peripherals work others don't
 Incorrectly installed components
 IDE and floppy ribbon cables and power cables can often go loose
 System shuts off randomly
 If peripherals don't work, don't look if it's connected right, take the peripherals out
clean their connectors and reattach them again, see if there's any change, try
connecting something else to that same connector and see if it works.

How do you diagnose and repair a motherboard failure?

a. Identify the cause of the failure

To identify the cause of a motherboard failure, it's important to consider potential

causes such as power surge or outage, overheating or dust buildup, physical damage or
corrosion, faulty or incompatible components or drivers, and BIOS or firmware errors
or updates. To narrow down the cause, you should check the power supply and power
cord, the cooling system and fans, the motherboard and case for any signs of damage,
burns, or leaks, the components and cables for any loose or broken connections, and the
BIOS settings and firmware version.

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b. Inspect the motherboard

The next step is to inspect the motherboard for any visible signs of damage or malfunction.
You should look for any burnt, swollen, or leaking capacitors, broken or loose slots, pins, or
sockets, or any dust or debris that might interfere with the connections. You should also
check the motherboard standoffs, screws, and spacers to make sure they are properly installed
and not causing any short circuits. If you find any physical defects, you might need to replace
the motherboard or repair the damaged components.

c. Test the components

The next step in diagnosing and repairing a motherboard failure is to test the
components that are connected to the motherboard. You can do this by using a
multimeter, a POST card, or a spare computer. A multimeter measures voltage, current,
and resistance; a POST card displays power-on self-test (POST) codes that indicate the
status of the components; and a spare computer is a working computer that you can use
to swap and test the components.

d. Replace or repair the motherboard

To replace or repair the motherboard, you should find a compatible replacement or a

reputable repair service for your model and brand. Then back up your data and settings
if possible. Disconnect the power cord and remove the battery if applicable. Open the
case and ground yourself to avoid static electricity. Unscrew and lift the motherboard
from the case. Install or send the new or repaired motherboard. Reconnect all
components and cables to the motherboard. Close the case; connect power cord, and
battery if applicable. Finally, turn on the computer and restore your data and settings if
needed.
e. Consult the manual

The manual is a document that provides detailed information and instructions about the
motherboard, such as the specifications, features, layout, installation, configuration, and
troubleshooting. The manual can help you identify and solve common problems, as well
as find the correct settings and compatibility for the motherboard. You can usually find
the manual online or on a CD that comes with the motherboard.

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