BASIC GENETICS

 Genetics is the study of heredity

 Heredity is the transfer of characteristic from parents to their offspring
 Gene is a section of DNA that contain the information for a particular genetic characteristic,
such as colour. Gene is found inside the chromosomes in the nucleus
 Chromosome is threadlike structures that are made up of long molecules of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) that are wound up tightly.
 Locus is the position of a gene on a chromosome
 Allele different form of genes which occur at the same locus (position) on homologous
chromosomes.
 Meiosis is a cell division that forms four haploid cell from one diploid cell.
 Haploid is a cell with only a single set of unpaired chromosomes
 Diploid is the number of chromosomes in the cells of an organisms
 Homologous pairs chromosomes having the same sequence if genes along their length.
 Homozygous/homozygote having the same allele for a particular gene on both homologous
chromosomes.
 Heterozygous/heterozygote having different alleles for a particular gene on each homologous
chromosome.
 Genotype is the genetic composition (make-up) of an individual.
 Phenotype is the physical appearance of an individual e.g tall
 Recessive allele that is masked by the presence of a dominant allele and can only appear
phenotypically if homozygous.
 Dominant allele that masks or overrides the characteristics of a recessive allele
 Dominance is a pattern of inheritance in individuals that have two different alleles for a certain
gene, one dominant and the other recessive.
 Gametes are sex cells(male or female)

MONOHYBRID CROSS

 Only one characteristic is being shown in the genetic cross.

 Genetic cross between parents that differ by the alleles they have for one particular gene.
 Cross can be illustrated with genetic diagram or punnet square.
 Genetic diagram is the diagram used to represent genetic crosses.
 Punnet square diagram used to work out how gametes can combine in a genetic cross.

Mendel’s first law: the law of segregation: state that the characteristic of an organism are controlled by
pair of alleles which separate randomly into different gametes during meiosis, so that each gamete
receive only one allele.

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DIHYBRID CROSS

 Dihybrid cross genetic cross between parents that differ in two characteristics controlled by two
genes.

Mendel’s second law: the law of independent assortment: state that during gamete formation,
segregating pairs of alleles assort independently of each

PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE

TYPES OF DOMINANCE

 Complete dominance- a genetic cross where the dominant allele masks the expression of a
recessive allele in the heterozygous condition.

 Incomplete dominance- is a mechanism of inheritance that produces a heterozygous with a

phenotype which is intermediate or in between the phenotype of the homozygous parents.
Incomplete dominance- a genetic cross between two phenotypically different parents produces
offspring different from both parents but with an intermediate phenotype.

 Co-dominance- is a mechanism of inheritance, whereby one pair of alleles is responsible for the
production of two distinct.
Co-dominance is a genetic cross in which both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype.

 Multiple alleles is a mechanism of inheritance that involves more than two alleles for one gene.
Multiple alleles- more than two alternative forms of a gene at the same locus

 Sex-linked characteristics- mechanism of inheritance resulting from genes located on a sex

chromosome of the parents.
Sex-linked characteristics- characteristics or trait that are carried on the sex chromosomes.

 Epistasis- is a mechanism of inheritance in which the expression of one gene is controlled by

another gene.
 Polygenic inheritance-is a mechanism of inheritance in which a genetic characteristic is
controlled by many pair of genes, instead of only a single pair of genes.
 Prepotency is the ability of one parent to pass its genetic characteristics onto its offspring.
 Atavism is the re-appearance of an ancestral characteristics in an organisms after the
characteristic has been absent for many generation.

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Monohybrid crosses

Schematic representation of genetic crosses

The cross between tall and short pea plants can also be shown by a schematic representation. This method
shows the genotypes of the parents. This allows us to predict the genotypes of the offspring by
representing the possible combination of alleles which result from the gametes. There are four possible
outcomes of this cross for F1 genetration.

Mendel’s first law: The law of segregation

State that the characteristics of an organism are controlled by pairs of alleles which separent randomly
into different gametes during meiosis, so that each gamete recieves only one allele.

Phenotype Parent 1(TALL) Parent 2(SHORT)

TT tt
Genotype

Meiosis

Gametes T T t t

Fertilization

Tt Tt Tt Tt
F1 generation

Phenotype
red flowers red flowers red flowers red flowers

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 Phenotype Parent 2(TALL)
Parent 1(TALL)

Tt Tt

Genotype

Meiosis
Gametes T t T t

Fertilization

TT Tt Tt tt
F1 generation

Phenotype Red flowers Red flowers Red flowers White flowers

Punnett Square
The Punnett Square is a grid or box which is used to predict the outcome of a particular genetic cross. It
shows all the possible allelic combinations in a cross of parents with known genotypes. This allows the
Shortprobability of offspring possessing certain sets of alleles to be predicted. The Punnett square is
useful for crosses which involve more than one characteristic.

Tall

Gametes T
T
T Tt
Tt
T Tt
Tt

Genotype: 4 Tt

Genotype: 100% Tt

Phenotype: 4Tt

Phenotype: 100% Tt

Punnett Square

The Punnett Square is a grid or box which is used to predict the outcome of a particular genetic cross. It
shows all the possible allelic combinations in a cross of parents with known genotypes. This allows the
probability of offspring possessing certain sets of alleles to be predicted. The Punnett square is useful for
crosses which involve more than one characteristic.

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 Short

Tall
Gametes T t

T TT Tt

T Tt Tt

Genotype ratio 1TT: 2Tt: 1tt

Genotype ration 25%: 50%: 25 %

Phenotype ratio 3 Tall: 1 Short

Phenotype 75%: 25%

Dihybrid cross

P= Purple flowering dominant allele

p= white flowering recessive allele

R = Round seed dominant allele

r= wrinkled seed recessive allele

mendel’s second law: the law of independent assortment:

State that during gamete formation, segregating pairs of alleles assort independently of each other.

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 PARENT (P)
Phenotype: Purple, Round X White, Wrinkled

Genotype : PPRR X pprr

Meiosis

PR pr
Gamete:

F1 PpRr

Genotype : 16 PpRr
Phenotype: 16 Purple flower and Round seeds
PARENT TWO
Phenotype: Purple, Round X Purple, Round

Genotype : PpRr X PpRr

Meiosis
PR Pr pR pr PR Pr pR pr
Gamete:

PR Pr pR pr
PPRR PPRr PpRR PpRr
PR
PPRr PPrr PpRr Pprr
Pr
PpRR PpRr ppRR ppRr
pR
PpRr Pprr ppRr pprr
pr
Genotype F2:

PPRR = 1/16

PPRr= 2/16

PpRR= 2/16

PpRr =4/16

PpRR = 1/16

ppRr = 2/16

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 Pprr = 2/16

PPrr = 1/16

ppRR = 1/16

ppRr = 2/16

pprr = 1/16

Phenotype F2: 9 Purple, Round: 3 Purple, Wrinkled: 3 White, Round: 1 Purple, Wrinkled

9:3:3:1

PATTERNS IF INHERITANCE

Incomplete dominance

Incomplete dominance- is a mechanism of inheritance that produces a heterozygous with a phenotype

which is intermediate or in between the phenotype of the homozygous parents. Incomplete
dominance- a genetic cross between two phenotypically different parents produces offspring different
from both parents but with an intermediate phenotype.

Example 1 A pure red (R) flower was crossed with another purebred white (W) flower.

Phenotype Red X White

Genotype RR X WW

Meiosis

Gamete R R W W

Fertilization

RW RW RW RW

Genotype 4 RW/all RW

Phenotype 4 Pink /all Pink

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Co-dominance

Co-dominance- is a mechanism of inheritance, whereby one pair of alleles is responsible for the
production of two distinct.

Co-dominance is a genetic cross in which both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype.

Phenotype Black X White

Genotype BB X WW

Meiosis

Gamete B B W W

Fertilization

BW BW BW BW

Genotype 4 BW/all BW

Phenotype 4 Black and white

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Sex-linked characteristics

Sex-linked characteristics- mechanism of inheritance resulting from genes located on a sex chromosome
of the parents.

Sex-linked characteristics- characteristics or trait that are carried on the sex chromosomes.

Phenotype Female X Male

Genotype XX X XY

Meiosis

Gamete X X X Y

Fertilization

XX XY XX XY

Genotype 2XX: 2XY

Phenotype 2 Female: 2Male

Genotype Phenotype
XBXB Normal female
XBXb Normal female but a carrier
XbXb Colour-blind female
XBy Normal male
XbY Colour-blind male

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Multiple alleles/ blood grouping

Multiple alleles is a mechanism of inheritance that involves more than two alleles for one gene.

Multiple alleles- more than two alternative forms of a gene at the same locus

Genotype Phenotype(blood type)

AA A
AO A
BB B
BO B
AB AB
OO O

Polygenic inheritance

Polygenic inheritance-is a mechanism of inheritance in which a genetic characteristic is controlled by

many pair of genes, instead of only a single pair of genes.

Example: the genotype aabbcc gives a milk yield of 4000 liters. Each dominant gene adds a further 400
liters to the milk.

Genotype Phenotype (milk yield L)

Aabbcc 4000
Aabbcc 4000 + 400 = 4400
AAbbcc 4000 + 2(400) = 4800
AABbcc Fill here
Fill here 5600L

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Variation

Variation is a phenomenon that cause the offspring to be slightly different from their parents.

Variation is the difference between the individual of the same species.

The important of variation

 It’s the foundation of selection and breeding programme

 Choose individuals with the most desirable characteristic to breed future.

 Improve crop variety and livestock breed overtime

 Improve the costs efficiency of their farming practices

Types of variation

 Continues variation- is a type of variation in which there is complete range of variation of

characteristics from one extreme to another.

 Discontinues variation- is the type of variation in which characteristics has clear forms with no
intermediate form in between.

Genetic characteristics

 Qualitative characteristics- genetic characteristics that show discontinuous variation.

Discontinuous, bar graph and pie graph must be drawn to represent discontinuous variation
with the space between the bar.

 Quantitative characteristics- genetic characteristics that give rise to a range of phenotype that
seem to blend continuously from one extreme to the other. The continuous variation is
represented by normal distribution, which is a line graph of continuous variation, with a bell-
shaped curve. Histogram and line graph show

Mutation

Mutation- is a sudden change in the genetic material of a cell. When a gene or an individual affected by
a mutation is called a mutant.

Types of mutations

there are four categories of mutations:

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  Gene mutation: is a change in the nucleotide sequence of the DNA within a single gene.

 Chromosomes mutation: is a change to the structure or number of chromosomes.

 Polyploidy: is a type of mutation in which an individual has more than two whole sets of
homologous chromosomes.

 Aneuploidy: a type of mutation in which there is a change in the number of one or more of the
chromosomes set of an individual.

Gene mutation

The four main types of gene mutations:

 Deletion: one or more nucleotide bases removed from the gene sequence

 Insertion: one or more nucleotide bases are added into the gene sequence

 Substitution: one nucleotide base is replaced with a different nucleotide base

 Inversion: the order of two or more nucleotide bases is reversed

Chromosomes mutation

The four main types of chromosomes mutations:

 Deletion: is a chromosome breaks in n two places, a section drops out and the two broken ends
join up, resulting in a shorter chromosome with a missing or deleted section

 Duplication: is a section of the chromosomes replicates resulting I two copies of the genes in
that section.

 Inversion: is a section of the chromosome is reverse.

 Translocation: a section of chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosomes.

Polyploidy

 Triploid: three set of chromosomes

 Tetraploid: four set of chromosomes

 Pentaploid: five set of chromosomes

 Hexaploid: six set of chromosomes

 Haptaploid: seven set of chromosomes

 Octoploid: eight set of chromosomes

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 Aneuploidy

Aneuploidy this mutation is formed as result of individual to have Down’s Syndrome may be due to an
individual that may have an extra copy of chromosome.

Causes of mutations

Mutations may be natural or induced:

 natural mutations these occur spontaneously in nature and are a result of normal chemical
processes in the cell.

 Induced mutations caused by artificial means. Mutation can be induced by mutagens which are
physical, chemical or biological agents that cause mutation.

Mutagens

Mutagens are physical, chemical or biological agents that cause mutations.

Table below show the types and effect of mutagens

Type of mutagens Effect

Physical mutagens

Ionising radiation such as X-ray, gramma rays and Damage DNA molecule and causes it to work
alpha particles

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation Cause nucleotide based to bond together and cause
errors in the functioning of the DNA molecule

Chemical mutagens

Reactive oxygen molecules such as hydroxylamine Add hydroxyl groups to nucleotide based in the DNA
and hydrogen peroxide. molecule

De-aminating chemicals such as nitrous acid Remove the amine group from the nucleotide bases

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 in the DNA

Alkylating agents such as nitrous amines (found in Transfer methyl or ethyl groups to nucleotide bases
tobacco and smoked foods) mustard gas (chemical or the phosphate backbone of the DNA molecule.
warfare agent)

Base analogues Replace nucleotide bases in the DNA molecule

Intercalating compounds such as aromatic amines Insert themselves between nucleotide base pair in
and amides ( found in certain dyes, pesticides and the DNA molecule.
cooked meat), bromide and proflavine.

Metals, such as chromium, arsenic, nickel and iron. React in many ways with the DNA molecule to
change its chemical structure.

Azide salts such as sodium azide Cause gene or point mutations in DNA molecule by
substituting nucleotide base pairs.

Alkaloids such as colchicine Prevents chromosomes segregation during mitosis,

resulting in polyploidy.

Biological agent

Viruses Insert their own viral DNA into the DNA molecule

Bacteria Cause inflammation that releases oxidative

chemicals which damage the DNA molecule

Transposons Section of DNA that move out the DNA molecule and
insert themselves into a different part of the DNA
molecule.

SELECTION

Selection is the process of choosing individual with desirable characteristics in order to breed offspring
that may inherit their desirable characteristics.

Principles of selection

 Heritability is the degree which characteristic is determined by genetic factors, as opposed to

environmental factors. The characteristic with a heritability is expressed over 50% (0,5) is
determined more by genetic factors than environmental factors. The characteristic with a
heritability value of less than 50% (0,5) is determined more by environmental factors than
genetic factors.

 Biometric is the use of statistics for analysing biological data.

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  Estimated breeding value (EBV) is an estimate of how much better or worse than average the
offspring of an individual will be for a particular characteristic.

Selection methods used by plant breeds

 Mass selection: the seeds from field grown plants that show desirable characteristics

 Pure line selection (progeny selection): the seeds from selected plant is kept separate from
seeds from other plants are is used to perform progeny or offspring test.

 Pedigree: a pedigree is a record of an individual’s ancestors.

Selection methods used by animal breeders

 Mass selection: animal that display the most desirable characteristics are selected to breed the
next generation.

 Pedigree selection: a pedigree is a record of an animal’s ancestors.

 Family selection: animals are selected based on the qualities of the relatives of its own
generation such as full siblings or half-siblings.

 Progeny selection: animals are selected, based on the quality of their progeny or offspring.

Breeding

Breeding: production of offspring by sexual reproduction. Breeding: refer to the improvement of

existing breeding cultivars and creation. Animal breeding involves the mating of a male animal with a
female animal.

Types of breeding

 Inbreeding: mating of animal that are closely related animal e.g father and daughter or mother
and son.

 Line breeding: mating of related animals so that the progeny remains as closely related as
possible.

 Cross breeding: is refer to a mating of two pure breed animal of different breeds e.g Hereford +
afrikaaner = Bonsmare
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  Species crossing is the wildest form of non-related breeds; the progenies are usually sterile e.g
donkey + horse = mules

 Upgrading/ grading-up; is the separated mating up through breed superior mate with inferior
female animals; excellent pure breed male of specific breed is mated with the inferior quality.

Advantages of breeding of line and inbreeding breeding

 it ensures genetic uniformity

 they are uniform in appearance

 bad recessive genes are related

 greater propetency is obtained

 the quickest way to pure breeds

 best characteristics are transferred to the offspring.

Disadvantage of both line and inbreeding

 Decreasing genetic variation

 Undesirable traits found in offspring

 Lower viability of the progeny

 Deformities may be formed

 Fertility productivity and adaptability may decrease in breeds

Advantages of cross breeding

 Faster growing rate

 Greater fertility

 Better adapted

 Development of new breeds

 Greater resistance to diseases

 Utilize food better

Disadvantage of cross breeding

 Expert knowledge is required

 different pure breeding bull are expensive

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  cross breeds are not suitable for breeding purpose.

GENETIC MODIFICATION (GM)

GM: is a technique of changing the characteristics of an organism by inserting gene from another
organism.

Genetic modification of organism is the organism that contains genes from another organism. Genetic
modification involves taking of a gene from one organism (donor) and inserting them into another
organism (recipient).

Aim of genetic modification of plants

 increase production

 improve commercial properties

 increase the nutritional value of crop

 produce pharmaceutical crop that produce protein drugs and vaccines for human.

Aim of Genetic modification of animal

 improving production, such as growth rates, milk production, disease resistance and feed
conversion

 improve food quality such as milk that will be digested more easily

 Producing industrial or consumer produces

 Producing products for human therapeutic use, such as medicines or tissue for implantation

Advantages o f genetic engineering over traditional method

 They are fast

 They are more precisely

 Its limited to species that can interbreed with (it has only one generation)

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The problem with traditional/disadvantages of traditional method

 They are slow

 They are not very precisely

 They are not limited to crossing varieties of the same species at closely related species that can
be interbreed

Current application of the production of generally modified plants include to:

 Improve the shelf life of many fruit plants

 Improve the nutritional value of food

 Improve the resistance to insects and pests

 Increases resistance of plants to negative environment such as drought

Methods used to genetical modify plants

 Electroporation is when the Cell of the recipient plant cells are incubated in the solution
containing the desired genes.

 Gene gun this is an apparatus that fire tiny particles of gene coats into piece of plant tissue.

 Micro injection this is an injection of desired genes injected directly into the nucleus of the cell
of the recipient cell.

 Agro-bacterium (Tumefaciens) Is a bacterium found naturally into the soil, it causes Gali disease
in wounded plants during the infection. Tumefacien transfer pieces of its DNA into the
chromosomes of plants. Tumefacien is a genetic engineering and a vector because it transfers
desired genes into pieces of wounded plant or crop.

Potential benefits of GMOs

 Environmental issues

 Reduce amount of herbicides/pesticides used therefore the soil will be less damaged.

 GM crops can allow no tilling of soil for farmers.

 Food security

 GM: Could provide food with better flavoured colour texture and nutritional value.
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  Lose pesticides on inserts, resistant crop result pesticide free that is healthier for human
reproduction.

 Social economic factor

 GM crop mature and produce quickly.

 GM crops are high yields.

 GM crops reduce need for pesticides and therefore reduce input costs for farmer.

 Increase profit.

Potential risks for GMOs

 Environmental issues

 Herbicides may damage soil and water resources.

 Creation of herbivores resistance ‘super weed’ could not be controlled.

 Beneficial’s insects and pests could be killed when they feed on inserts resultant to GMs.

 Food safety

 People are concerned about the effect of toxin allergens and nutritional change.

 GM crops are subjected to many toxin logical tests social economic effects

 Social economic effects

 Small scale farmers are poor developed, the small-scale farmers can’t afford to develop/grow
their own GM crops.

 Farmers using GM crops must pay a technological free to the suppliers.

 GM are protected by farmers and parents may not retain seed for breeding purpose

 Some GM crops are engineered to be sterile so that farmers will be forced to buy new seeds
from the seed company every month or year instead of being able to keep their own seeds to
plant in the next season.

 Crops have been engineered to be resistant.

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