Course code : PRMS706L

Course Name : Research Methodology for Sciences

Module-2: Literature Sources

Dr. Ramesh G, [Link], PhD.,

School of Health Sciences and Engineering (SHINE)
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore

02-03-2026 SHINE, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 1

 Information Literacy
• Information literacy was first used in print by Paul G. Zurkowski in 1974 in a report
written on behalf of the National Commission on Libraries and Information Science.
• “for utilizing the wide range of information tools as well as primary sources in molding
information solutions to their problems".
• Along with other educational goals, including traditional literacy, computer literacy,
library skills, and critical thinking skills, are related to information literacy and important
foundations for its development.
• Information literacy itself has emerged as a distinct skill set and a necessary key to one's
social and economic well-being in an increasingly complex information society".
• Complete information environment is changing rapidly, be it the form, format or
resources.
 Data Vs Information Vs Knowledge
• Data Collection
• Gathering raw data from various sources,
such as weather stations, satellites, or
sensors.
• Data Cleaning
• Ensuring the data is accurate, consistent,
and free from errors or outliers.
• Data Analysis
• Applying statistical methods and
computational algorithms to identify
patterns, correlations, and trends within the
data.
• Data Interpretation
• Making sense of the analyzed data by
providing context and explaining what the
data signifies.
• Data Presentation
• Organizing the data in a coherent and
visually appealing manner, such as charts,
graphs, or reports, to effectively
communicate the information.
 Process of transforming information
Critical Analysis: into knowledge
Evaluate and interpret information to understand its implications
and relevance.
Synthesis:
Combining different pieces of information to form a comprehensive
understanding or new concepts.
Refinement:
Continuously updating and improving knowledge based on new data,
insights, and experiences.
Application:
Using knowledge to address real-world problems, innovate, and create
value
 Difference Between Data vs
Information vs Knowledge
. Aspect Data Information Knowledge
Processed, organized and contextualized Application of experience, context, and
Definition Raw facts and figures
data insights to information
Summarized, analyzed, and structured Awareness gained from information
Form Numbers, text, images, videos, etc.
data processing
Understanding of a process or system
Meaningful and relevant for decision- and applying that to solve problems,
Meaning Little or no meaning
making create new things, or make better
decisions
Individual data points, lacks Structured and interconnected data for Synthesized understanding and
Focus
meaningful interpretation informed analysis expertise for effective application
Data can guide decisions but requires Information enables informed decision- Knowledge drives sound decision-
Decision-making
interpretation making making based on experience
Application of insights through
Requires structuring and processing Transformed data for meaningful
Transformation experience and underpinning
for meaningful analysis interpretation and decision-making
principles
Source Primary Secondary and created from data Experience and education

Graph showing temperature trends over Insight gained from the graph that
Example Temperature readings recorded
time temperature increases in the summer
 Need of Information Literacy
1. Maximum utilization of these resources in teaching learning and research, the
Information Literacy is the need of the hour.
2. It makes the end users competent enough for retrieving precise and relevant
information as per their need.
3. In addition to the traditional library resources and services, today, information
literacy is essential to educate the users as to
1. how to determine his/her information need;
2. what are the different information sources, their coverage and features;
3. how to find out relevant and precise information from various electronic information
sources;
4. what are the web searching techniques;
5. how to evaluate and establish the authenticity and reliability of information retrieved
from public domain;
6. what are the ethics and legalities in using electronic information sources;
7. how to make proper bibliographic citations etc...
 Definition of Information Literacy
1. The American Library Association's (ALA) Presidential Committee on
Information Literacy, Final Report states, "To be information literate, a person
must be able to recognize when information is needed and have the ability
to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information“
2.
Jeremy Shapiro & Shelley Hughes (1996) define information literacy as "A new
liberal art that extends from knowing how to use computers and access
information to critical reflection on the nature of information itself, its
technical infrastructure and its social, cultural, and philosophical context and
impact.“

3. The Western Michigan University Libraries define the term as "Information

Literacy is the ability to identify, retrieve, evaluate, and use information that
is appropriate to a need. Students who develop information literacy skills
will be more successful in their studies and their daily lives. They will find
that these skills are an essential element in becoming a lifelong learner."
 Components of Information Literacy
Tool literacy, or the ability to understand and use the practical and conceptual tools of current information
technology relevant to education and the areas of work and professional life that the individual expects to
inhabit.
Resource literacy, or the ability to understand the form, format, location and access methods of
information resources, especially daily expanding networked information resources.
Social-structural literacy, or understanding how information is socially situated and produced.
Research literacy, or the ability to understand and use the IT-based tools relevant to the work of today's
researcher and scholar.
Publishing literacy, or the ability to format and publish research and ideas electronically, in textual and
multimedia forms... to introduce them into the electronic public realm and the electronic community of
scholars.
Emerging technology literacy, or the ability to continuously adapt to, understand, evaluate and make use
of the continually emerging innovations in information technology so as not to be a prisoner of prior tools
and resources, and to make intelligent decisions about the adoption of new ones.
Critical literacy, or the ability to evaluate critically the intellectual, human and social strengths and
weaknesses, potentials and limits, benefits and costs of information technologies.
 Standards of Information Literacy
1. Recognize the need for information
2. Know how to access information
3. Understand how to evaluate information
4. Know how to synthesize information
5. Be able to communicate information with rest of the world
 Information Literacy Models
1. The Seven Pillars Model
2. Big6 information problem-solving approach
3. Research Cycle (McKenzie)
4. The Alberta Model
5. Stripling and Pitts Research Process Model (1988)
6. Information Search Process
7. Information Literacy & Inquiry Learning model (SAUCE [Link])
8. Pathways to Knowledge Information Skills Model
 The Seven Pillars Model
• a framework for developing information literacy skills (SCONUL).
• It outlines seven key areas: Identify, Scope, Plan, Gather, Evaluate,
Manage, and Present.
• originally developed by SCONUL in 1999 and revised in 2011,
emphasizes not only the skills but also the attitudes and behaviors
needed for effective information use.
• [Link]
_Seven_Pillars_of_Information_Literacy_Core_model/link/00b4952b1
ba1a99044000000/download?_tp=eyJjb250ZXh0Ijp7ImZpcnN0UGFnZ
SI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uIiwicGFnZSI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uIn19
 Big6 information problem-solving approach
• a widely used, six-step approach to
information problem-solving
developed by Mike Eisenberg and
Bob Berkowitz
• provides a framework for
effectively finding, using, and
evaluating information across
various contexts, from schoolwork
to everyday life.
• The six steps are: Task Definition,
Information Seeking Strategies,
Location and Access, Use of
Information, Synthesis, and
Evaluation.
 Research Cycle (McKenzie)
• model that emphasizes questioning and independent judgment in research, especially for students.
• moves beyond simply gathering information to actively producing it, requiring repeated cycles of questioning, planning,
gathering, sorting & sifting, synthesizing, evaluating, and reporting.
Questioning:
• This stage involves formulating research questions that are open-ended and focused on essential understandings.
Planning
• Researchers develop a plan for how to approach the research, including identifying potential sources and methods.
Gathering:
• This stage involves collecting relevant information from various sources.
Sorting & Sifting:
• Researchers organize and evaluate the gathered information, discarding irrelevant or unreliable data.
Synthesizing
• Researchers combine and integrate information from multiple sources to form their own understanding of the
topic.
Evaluating:
• Researchers assess the quality and validity of their findings and conclusions.
Reporting:
• Researchers present their findings in a clear and organized manner, often after multiple iterations of the cycle.
 The Alberta Model
• a framework that guides students through the research process, emphasizing
inquiry-based learning and the development of lifelong learning skills.
• The model focuses on empowering students to effectively and ethically find,
evaluate, and use information to meet their learning needs.
• Inquiry-Based Learning:
• The model centers around the idea that students are active participants in their learning
journey, formulating questions, investigating, and constructing new knowledge.
• Lifelong Learning:
• It aims to equip students with the skills to become independent and continuous learners,
enabling them to adapt to new information and challenges throughout their lives.
• Integration with Curriculum:
• The model is designed to be integrated into various subject areas, ensuring that
information literacy skills are developed in context.
 Key Stages of Alberta Model
1. Planning:
Identifying the information need, defining the research question, and
developing a plan for investigation.
2. Information Retrieval:
Learning effective strategies for locating and accessing information from
various sources.
3. Information Processing:
Critically evaluating the information gathered, synthesizing it, and
organizing it for use.
4. Information Sharing:
Communicating the findings in a clear and effective manner.
5. Evaluation:
Reflecting on the entire research process, evaluating the effectiveness of
the methods used, and assessing the quality of the information gathered.
 Stripling and Pitts Research
Process Model (1988)
• provides a structured approach to guiding students through the creation of a
research paper.
• It emphasizes critical thinking, information literacy, and metacognitive skills.
• The model outlines ten steps, beginning with topic selection and culminating in
the final presentation. It encourages students to move beyond simple recall to
higher-level thinking skills like analysis and evaluation.
• REACTS
• Recalling
• Explaining
• Analyzing
• Challenging
• Transforming
• Synthesizing
 Stripling and Pitts Research Process
Model (1988)
1. Choose a broad topic:
Students begin by selecting a general area of interest.
2. Get an overview of the topic:
This involves initial research to gain a basic understanding of the chosen
area.
3. Narrow the topic:
The broad topic is refined into a more specific and manageable research
focus.
4. Develop a thesis or statement of purpose:
A clear statement outlining the main argument or goal of the research is
formulated.
5. Formulate questions to guide research:
Specific questions are developed to direct the research process and ensure
focused inquiry.
 Stripling and Pitts Research
Process Model (1988)
6. Plan for research and production:
Students create a plan for how they will conduct their research and produce
their final project.
7. Find, evaluate sources:
Students locate and critically evaluate relevant sources of information,
assessing their credibility and relevance.
8. Evaluate evidence, take notes, compile bibliography:
Students analyze the information gathered, take effective notes, and begin
compiling a bibliography or works cited list.
9. Establish conclusion-organize information into an outline:
Students synthesize their findings, draw conclusions, and organize their
information into an outline for their paper.
10. Create and present a final project:
The research paper is written and presented, showcasing the student’s
understanding and findings.
 Information Search Process (ISP)
• a model describing how people seek and use information, encompassing
their thoughts, feelings, and actions throughout the process.
• It's a structured approach that helps understand the user's experience
during information seeking, moving from initial awareness to a final
understanding.
 Information Search Process (ISP)
Task Initiation:
• Recognizing a lack of knowledge or understanding, leading to feelings of uncertainty and
apprehension.
Topic Selection:
• Identifying a general area or topic of interest, often accompanied by a brief sense of
optimism as the search begins
Exploration:
• Encountering inconsistent or conflicting information, which can increase uncertainty,
confusion, and doubt.
• Focus Formulation:
• Developing a more focused perspective or understanding of the topic, leading to a decrease
in uncertainty and increased confidence
• Information collection
• Gathering information relevant to the focused perspective, further reducing uncertainty and
increasing interest.
• Search Closure:
• Concluding the search with a new understanding that can be shared or applied.
 Key aspects of the ISP model:
User-centric:
The ISP focuses on the user's experience, acknowledging the interplay of
thoughts, feelings, and actions during the search process.
Dynamic:
The process is not linear; uncertainty, feelings, and focus can fluctuate
throughout the stages.
Predictable sequence
The model provides a predictable pattern of thoughts, feelings, and actions
that users typically experience.
Practical application
The ISP can be used to understand and improve information seeking in
various contexts, including education, work, and everyday life.
Zones of intervention
The model helps identify points where interventions (like guidance from
librarians) can be most effective during the search process.
 The Pathways to Knowledge
Information Skills Model
- Developed by Marjorie Pappas and Ann Tepe.
- a framework designed to guide students through the process of information
gathering, evaluation, and use
- It emphasizes a holistic and nonlinear approach to learning, encouraging
students to engage with information in a meaningful and thoughtful way.
- The model outlines six key stages:
- Appreciation,
- Pre-search,
- Search,
- Interpretation,
- Communication, and
- Evaluation
 The Pathways to Knowledge
Information Skills Model
- Developed by Marjorie Pappas and Ann Tepe.
- a framework designed to guide students through the process of information
gathering, evaluation, and use
- It emphasizes a holistic and nonlinear approach to learning, encouraging
students to engage with information in a meaningful and thoughtful way.
- The model outlines six key stages:
- Appreciation,
- Pre-search,
- Search,
- Interpretation,
- Communication, and
- Evaluation
 Systematic literature search
• a structured and comprehensive approach to identifying, selecting, and analyzing
relevant research on a specific topic.
• It involves a pre-defined plan, transparent methods, and aims to minimize bias by
replicating and reproducing the search process.
• This method is crucial for systematic reviews, evidence-based practice, and research
synthesis
 Key aspects of Literature search
1. Defining the Scope and Research Question:
• A systematic search starts with a clearly defined research question
• The research question should be specific and focused to avoid
overwhelming results or missing relevant studies
2. Developing a Search Strategy:
• Identify key concepts
• Choose search terms
• Select databases and resources
• Construct search strings
3. Conducting the Search
• Systematic search
• Documenting the process
• Refine the search
 Key aspects of Literature search
4. Managing and Evaluating Results
• Remove duplicates
• Screen articles
• Extract data
5. Reporting the Search
• Transparent reporting
• Replicability
• Justification of decisions
 Why is it important?
Reduces bias
Systematic searches minimize bias by providing a transparent and
structured approach to literature review.
Enhances reliability
The structured approach enhances the reliability of the findings by
allowing for replication of the search.
Improves efficiency
A well-planned search strategy can save time and effort by focusing
on relevant resources.
Contributes to evidence-based practice
Systematic literature searches are a crucial component of evidence-
based practice and systematic reviews, ensuring that decisions are
based on the best available evidence.
 CREATING A SYSTEMATIC SEARCH STRATEGY
1. Determine a clear and focused question
2. Describe the articles that can answer the question
3. Decide which key concepts address the different elements of the question
4. Decide which elements should be used for the best results
5. Choose an appropriate database and interface to start with
6. Document the search process in a text document
7. Identify appropriate index terms
8. Identify synonyms
9. Add variations in search terms
10. Use database-appropriate syntax, Boolean operators, and field codes
11. Optimize the search
12. Evaluate the initial results
13. Check for errors
14. Translate to other databases
15. Test and reiterate
 1. Determine a clear and focused question
• Questions that are too broad or too vague cannot be answered easily in a
systematic way and will generally result in an overwhelming number of
search results.
• On the other hand, a question that is too specific will result into too few or
even zero search results.
• Riva JJ, Malik KM, Burnie SJ, Endicott AR, Busse JW. What is your research
question? an introduction to the PICOT format for clinicians. J Can Chiropr
Assoc. 2012 Sep;56(3):167–71
• Thabane L, Thomas T, Ye C, Paul J. Posing the research question: not so
simple. Can J Anaesth. 2009 Jan;56(1):71–9. doi: 10.1007/s12630-008-
9007-4
 2. Describe the articles that can answer
the question
• Although not all clinical or research questions can be answered in the
literature,
• the next step is to presume that the answer can indeed be found in
published studies.
• A good starting point for a search is hypothesizing what the research that
can answer the question would look like.
• These hypothetical (when possible, combined with known) articles can be
used as guidance for constructing the search strategy.
 3. Decide which key concepts address the
different elements of the question
• Key concepts are the topics or components
• diseases or conditions, actions, substances, settings, domains (e.g., therapy,
diagnosis, etiology), or study types
• Elements in a search strategy do not necessarily follow the patient, intervention,
comparison, outcome (PICO) structure or any other related structure.
• Using the PICO or another similar framework as guidance can be helpful to
consider, especially in the inclusion and exclusion review stage of the SR, but this is
not necessary for good search strategy development
 4. Decide which elements should be used for the
best results
• Not all elements of a research question
should necessarily be used in the search
strategy.
• Adding an element to a search strategy
increases the chance of missing relevant
references.
• the number of elements in a search
strategy should remain as low as possible
to optimize recall.
• An element can also be unimportant
because of expected bias or an overlap
with another element.
 5. Choose an appropriate database and
interface to start with
• medically oriented searches, the coverage and recall of Embase, which
includes the MEDLINE database, are superior to those of MEDLINE.
• Each of these two databases has its own thesaurus with its own unique
definitions and structure.
• Because of the complexity of the Embase thesaurus, Emtree, which
contains much more specific thesaurus terms than the MEDLINE Medical
Subject Headings (MeSH) thesaurus, translation from Emtree to MeSH is
easier than the other way around. Therefore, we recommend starting in
Embase.